(MDE-214) APPLIED

THERMODYNAMICS
Introduction and Basic Concepts
(Chapter One)

Course Instructor: Dr. Muddassir Ali

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 CONTENTS
 1.1 Thermodynamics and Energy
 1.2 Importance of Dimensions and Units
 1.3 Systems and Control Volumes
 1.4 Properties of a System
 1.5 Density and Specific Gravity
 1.6 State and Equilibrium
 1.7 Processes and Cycles
 1.8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 1.9 Pressure
 1.10 Pressure Measurement Devices
 1.11 Problem-Solving Technique
 1.12 Problems

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 OBJECTIVES
 Identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics through the
precise definition of basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.

 Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.

 Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as system, state, state

postulate, equilibrium, process, and cycle.

 Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales, pressure, and absolute and

gage pressure.

 Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving technique.

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 1.1 THERMODYNAMICS AND
ENERGY
 Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.

 Energy: The ability to cause changes.

 The name thermodynamics stems

from the Greek words therme (heat)
and dynamis (power).

 Conservation of energy principle:

During an interaction, energy can
change from one form to another but
the total amount of energy remains
constant.

 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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 1.1 THERMODYNAMICS AND
ENERGY
 The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of
energy principle.

 The first law asserts that energy is a

thermodynamic property.

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 1.1 THERMODYNAMICS AND
ENERGY
 The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.

 Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual
particles.

 It provides a direct and easy way to the

solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.

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 1.1 THERMODYNAMICS AND
ENERGY
 Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.

 It is used in this text only in the

supporting role.

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 1.1 THERMODYNAMICS AND
ENERGY
 Application Areas of Thermodynamics

All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter;
thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in
some manner. Department of Energy Engineering
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 1.1 THERMODYNAMICS AND
ENERGY
 Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.

 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.

 Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity
V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and
are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.

 Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship

between the various units.

 English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather arbitrarily.

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Some SI and English Units

Work = Force × Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Some SI and English Units

W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Some SI and English Units

Specific weight γ: The weight of

a unit volume of a substance.

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Dimensional Homogeneity
 All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
Unity Conversion Ratios
 All non-primary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of primary
units.
 Force units, for example, can be expressed as

 They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios as

 Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unit less, and thus such
ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Unity Conversion Ratios

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 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Unity Conversion Ratios

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 1.3 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
VOLUMES
 System: A quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study.
 Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
 Boundary: The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system from
its surroundings.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed
or movable.
 Systems may be considered to be
closed or open.
 Closed system (Control mass): A
fixed amount of mass, and no mass can
cross its boundary.

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 1.3 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
VOLUMES
Unity Conversion Ratios

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 1.3 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
VOLUMES
 Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space.
 It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle.
 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
 Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or imaginary.
A control volume can involve fixed,
moving, real, and imaginary
boundaries.

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 1.4 PROPERTIES OF A
SYSTEM
 Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
 Some familiar properties are pressure
P, temperature T, volume V, and mass
m.
 Properties are considered to be either
intensive or extensive.
 Intensive properties: Those that are
independent of the mass of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and
density.
 Extensive properties: Those whose
values depend on the size—or extent—
of the system.
 Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass.

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 1.4 PROPERTIES OF A
SYSTEM
Continuum
 Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is
very convenient to disregard the atomic
nature of a substance and view it as a
continuous, homogeneous matter with
no holes, that is, a continuum.
 The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and
to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
 This idealization is valid as long as the
size of the system we deal with is large
relative to the space between the
molecules.

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 1.4 PROPERTIES OF A
SYSTEM
Continuum
 This is the case in practically all
problems.
 In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances that can be
modeled as a continuum.

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 1.5 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
Density

Specific gravity
 The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance
at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C).
Density is
mass per unit
Specific volume volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
Specific weight
 The weight of a unit volume of a substance.

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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 Consider a system not undergoing any
change.

 At this point, all the properties can be

measured or calculated throughout the
entire system, which gives us a set of
properties that completely describes the
condition, or the state, of the system.

 At a given state, all the properties of a

system have fixed values.

 If the value of even one property

changes, the state will change to a
different one.

 In Fig. 1–26 a system is shown at two

different states.
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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.

 The word equilibrium implies a state of

balance.

 In an equilibrium state there are no

unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.

 A system in equilibrium experiences no

changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings.

 There are many types of equilibrium,

and a system is not in thermodynamic
equilibrium unless the conditions of all
the relevant types of equilibrium are
satisfied.
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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 For example, a system is in thermal
equilibrium if the temperature is the
same throughout the entire system, as
shown in Fig. 1–27.

 That is, the system involves no

temperature differential, which is the
driving force for heat flow.

 Mechanical equilibrium is related to

pressure, and a system is in
mechanical equilibrium if there is no
change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.

 However, the pressure may vary within

the system with elevation as a result of
gravitational effects.

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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 If a system involves two phases, it is in
phase equilibrium when the mass of
each phase reaches an equilibrium
level and stays there.

 Finally, a system is in chemical

equilibrium if its chemical composition
does not change with time, that is, no
chemical reactions occur.

 A system will not be in equilibrium

unless all the relevant equilibrium
criteria are satisfied.

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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The State Postulate
 As noted earlier, the state of a system
is described by its properties.

 But we know from experience that we

do not need to specify all the properties
in order to fix a state.

 Once a sufficient number of properties

are specified, the rest of the properties
assume certain values automatically.

 That is, specifying a certain number of

properties is sufficient to fix a state.

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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The State Postulate
 The number of properties required to fix
the state of a system is given by the
state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible
system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.

 A system is called a simple

compressible system in the absence
of electrical, magnetic, gravitational,
motion, and surface tension effects.

 These effects are due to external force

fields and are negligible for most
engineering problems.

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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The State Postulate
 Otherwise, an additional property needs
to be specified for each effect that is
significant.

 If the gravitational effects are to be

considered, for example, the elevation z
needs to be specified in addition to the
two properties necessary to fix the
state.

 The state postulate requires that the

two properties specified be independent
to fix the state.

 Two properties are independent if one

property can be varied while the other
one is held constant.

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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The State Postulate
 Temperature and specific volume, for
example, are always independent
properties, and together they can fix the
state of a simple compressible system
(Fig. 1–28).

 Temperature and pressure, however,

are independent properties for single-
phase systems, but are dependent
properties for multiphase systems.

 At sea level (P = 1 atm), water boils at

100°C, but on a mountaintop where the
pressure is lower, water boils at a lower
temperature.

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 1.6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The State Postulate
 That is, T = f(P) during a phase-change
process; thus, temperature and
pressure are not sufficient to fix the
state of a two-phase system.

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 Any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another is
called a process, and the series of
states through which a system passes
during a process is called the path of
the process (Fig. 1–29).

 To describe a process completely, one

should specify the initial and final states
of the process, as well as the path it
follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.

 When a process proceeds in such a

manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times, it is called a quasi-
static, or quasi-equilibrium, process.

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 A quasi-equilibrium process can be
viewed as a sufficiently slow process
that allows the system to adjust itself
internally so that properties in one part
of the system do not change any faster
than those at other parts.

 This is illustrated in Fig. 1–30. When a

gas in a piston-cylinder device is
compressed suddenly, the molecules
near the face of the piston will not have
enough time to escape and they will
have to pile up in a small region in front
of the piston, thus creating a high-
pressure region there.

 Because of this pressure difference, the

system can no longer be said to be in
equilibrium, and this makes the entire
process non quasi-equilibrium.
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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 However, if the piston is moved slowly,
the molecules will have sufficient time
to redistribute and there will not be a
molecule pileup in front of the piston.

 As a result, the pressure inside the

cylinder will always be nearly uniform
and will rise at the same rate at all
locations.

 Since equilibrium is maintained at all

times, this is a quasi-equilibrium
process.

 It should be pointed out that a quasi-

equilibrium process is an idealized
process and is not a true representation
of an actual process.

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 But many actual processes closely
approximate it, and they can be
modeled as quasi-equilibrium with
negligible error.

 Engineers are interested in quasi-

equilibrium processes for two reasons.
(a) First, they are easy to analyze; (b)
second, work-producing devices deliver
the most work when they operate on
quasi-equilibrium processes.

 Therefore, quasi-equilibrium processes

serve as standards to which actual
processes can be compared.

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 Process diagrams plotted by employing
thermodynamic properties as
coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.

 Some common properties that are used

as coordinates are temperature T,
pressure P, and volume V (or specific
volume v).

 Figure 1–31 shows the P-V diagram of

a compression process of a gas.

 Note that the process path indicates a

series of equilibrium states through
which the system passes during a
process and has significance for quasi-
equilibrium processes only.

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 For non quasi-equilibrium processes,
we are not able to characterize the
entire system by a single state, and
thus we cannot speak of a process path
for a system as a whole.

 A non quasi-equilibrium process is

denoted by a dashed line between the
initial and final states instead of a solid
line.

 The prefix iso- is often used to

designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 An isothermal process, for example,
is a process during which the
temperature T remains constant; an
isobaric process is a process during
which the pressure P remains constant;
and an isochoric (or isometric)
process is a process during which the
specific volume v remains constant.

 A system is said to have undergone a

cycle if it returns to its initial state at the
end of the process.

 That is, for a cycle the initial and final

states are identical.

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
The Steady-Flow Process
 The terms steady and uniform are
used frequently in engineering, and
thus it is important to have a clear
understanding of their meanings.

 The term steady implies no change

with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.

 The term uniform, however, implies no

change with location over a specified
region.

 These meanings are consistent with

their everyday use (steady girlfriend,
uniform properties, etc.).

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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
The Steady-Flow Process
 A large number of engineering devices
operate for long periods of time under
the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.

 Processes involving such devices can

be represented reasonably well by a
somewhat idealized process, called the
steady-flow process, which can be
defined as a process during which a
fluid flows through a control volume
steadily (Fig. 1–32).

 That is, the fluid properties can change

from point to point within the control
volume, but at any fixed point they
remain the same during the entire
process.
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1.7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
The Steady-Flow Process
 Therefore, the volume V, the mass m,
and the total energy content E of the
control volume remain constant during
a steady flow process (Fig. 1–33).

 Steady-flow conditions can be closely

approximated by devices that are
intended for continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat exchangers or
power plants or refrigeration systems.

 Some cyclic devices, such as

reciprocating engines or compressors,
do not satisfy any of the conditions
stated above since the flow at the inlets
and the exits will be pulsating and not
steady.
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 1.8 THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
 Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of “hotness” or
“coldness,” it is not easy to give an exact definition for it.

 Fortunately, several properties of materials change with temperature in a

repeatable and predictable way, and this forms the basis for accurate temperature
measurement.

 The commonly used mercury-in-glass thermometer, for example, is based on the

expansion of mercury with temperature.

 Temperature is also measured by using several other temperature-dependent

properties.

 It is a common experience that a cup of hot coffee left on the table eventually
cools off and a cold drink eventually warms up.

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 1.8 THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
 That is, when a body is brought into
contact with another body that is at a
different temperature, heat is
transferred from the body at higher
temperature to the one at lower
temperature until both bodies attain the
same temperature (Fig. 1–34).

 At that point, the heat transfer stops,

and the two bodies are said to have
reached thermal equilibrium.

 The equality of temperature is the only

requirement for thermal equilibrium.

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 1.8 THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics
states that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
 However, it cannot be concluded from
the other laws of thermodynamics, and
it serves as a basis for the validity of
temperature measurement.
 By replacing the third body with a
thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same The zeroth law was first formulated and
temperature reading even if they are labeled by R. H. Fowler in 1931.
not in contact.

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 1.8 TEMPERATURE
Temperature Scales
 Temperature scales enable us to use a common basis for temperature
measurements, and several have been introduced throughout history.

 All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the
freezing and boiling points of water, which are also called the ice point and the
steam point, respectively.

 A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1
atm pressure is said to be at the ice point.

 A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm
pressure is said to be at the steam point.

 The temperature scales used in the SI and in the English system today are the
Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit scale, respectively.

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 1.8 TEMPERATURE
Temperature Scales
 On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were originally assigned the values
of 0 and 100°C, respectively.

 The corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and 212°F.

 These are often referred to as two-point scales since temperature values are
assigned at two different points.

 In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is

independent of the properties of any substance or substances.

 Such a temperature scale is called a thermodynamic temperature scale, which

is developed later in conjunction with the second law of thermodynamics.

 The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale.

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 1.8 TEMPERATURE
Temperature Scales
 The temperature unit on this scale is the kelvin, which is designated by K.

 The thermodynamic temperature scale in the English system is the Rankine

scale.

 The temperature unit on this scale is the rankine, which is designated by R.

 A temperature scale that turns out to be nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the
ideal-gas temperature scale.

 The temperatures on this scale are measured using a constant-volume gas

thermometer, which is basically a rigid vessel filled with a gas, usually hydrogen
or helium, at low pressure.

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 1.8 TEMPERATURE
 The Kelvin scale is related to the
Celsius scale by

 The Rankine scale is related to the

Fahrenheit scale by

 It is common practice to round the

constant in above equations to 273 and
460, respectively.
 The temperature scales in the two unit
systems are related by

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 1.8 TEMPERATURE
 The reference temperature chosen in
the original Kelvin scale was 273.15 K
(or 0°C), which is the temperature at
which water freezes (or ice melts) and
water exists as a solid–liquid mixture in
equilibrium under standard atmospheric
pressure (the ice point).

 The reference point was changed to a

much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the
state at which all three phases of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is
assigned the value 273.16 K.

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 1.8 TEMPERATURE
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
 The International Temperature Scale of 1990 supersedes the International
Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68), 1948 (ITPS-48), and 1927 (ITS-
27).
 The ITS-90 is similar to its predecessors except that it is more refined with
updated values of fixed temperatures, has an extended range, and conforms
more closely to the thermodynamic temperature scale.
 On this scale, the unit of thermodynamic temperature T is again the kelvin (K),
defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water, which is sole defining fixed point of both the ITS-90 and the Kelvin
scale and is the most important thermometric fixed point used in the calibration of
thermometers to ITS-90. The unit of Celsius temperature is the degree Celsius
(°C).

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 1.8 TEMPERATURE
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
 The ice point remains the same at 0°C (273.15 K) in both ITS-90 and ITPS-68, but
the steam point is 99.975°C in ITS-90 whereas it was 100.000°C in IPTS-68.
 The change is due to precise measurements made by gas thermometry by paying
particular attention to the effect of sorption (the impurities in a gas absorbed by
the walls of the bulb at the reference temperature being desorbed at higher
temperatures, causing the measured gas pressure to increase).

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 1.9 PRESSURE
 Pressure is defined as a normal force
exerted by a fluid per unit area.

 Normally, we speak of pressure when

we deal with a gas or a liquid.

 Since pressure is defined as force per

unit area, it has the unit of newton per
square meter (N/m2), which is called a
Pascal (Pa). That is,

 The pressure unit Pascal is too small

for most pressures encountered in
practice.

 Therefore, its multiples kilopascal and

megapascal are commonly used.

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 1.9 PRESSURE
 Three other pressure units commonly
used in practice, especially in Europe,
are bar, standard atmosphere, and
kilogram-force per square centimeter:

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 1.9 PRESSURE
 The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure
is called the gage pressure. Pgage can be positive or negative.
 Pressures below atmospheric pressure are sometimes called vacuum pressures
and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Throughout this text, the
pressure P will denote
absolute pressure
unless specified
otherwise

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 It will come as no surprise to you that
pressure in a fluid at rest does not
change in the horizontal direction.
 This can be shown easily by
considering a thin horizontal layer of
fluid and doing a force balance in any
horizontal direction.
 However, this is not the case in the
vertical direction in a gravity field.
 Pressure in a fluid increases with depth
because more fluid rests on deeper
layers, and the effect of this “extra
weight” on a deeper layer is balanced
by an increase in pressure (Fig. 1–42).

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 To obtain a relation for the variation of
pressure with depth, consider a
rectangular fluid element of height Δz,
length Δx, and unit depth (Δy = 1 into
the page) in equilibrium, as shown in
Fig. 1–43.

 Assuming the density of the fluid ρ to

be constant, a force balance in the
vertical z-direction gives
� 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 = 0:

𝑃𝑃1 ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝑃𝑃2 ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑦𝑦∆𝑧𝑧 = 0

where W = mg = ρg Δx Δy Δz is the weight of
the fluid element and Δz = z2 – z1.

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 Dividing by Δx Δy and rearranging gives

∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 = −𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌∆𝑧𝑧 = −𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑧𝑧 (A)

where 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 is the specific weight of the fluid.
 Thus, we conclude that the pressure
difference between two points in a
constant density fluid is proportional to
the vertical distance Δz between the
points and the density ρ of the fluid.

 Noting the negative sign, pressure in a

static fluid increases linearly with depth.

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 An easier equation to remember and
apply between any two points in the
same fluid under hydrostatic conditions
is
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ∆𝑧𝑧
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑧𝑧 (𝐵𝐵)

where “below” refers to the point at lower

elevation (deeper in the fluid) and “above” refers
to the point at higher elevation.

 For a given fluid, the vertical distance Δz is

sometimes used as a measure of pressure,
and it is called the pressure head.

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 We also conclude from Eq. A that for
small to moderate distances, the
variation of pressure with height is
negligible for gases because of their
low density.
 The pressure in a tank containing a
gas, for example, can be considered to
be uniform since the weight of the gas
is too small to make a significant
difference.
 Also, the pressure in a room filled with
air can be approximated as a constant
(Fig. 1–44).

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 If we take the “above” point to be at the
free surface of a liquid open to the
atmosphere (Fig. 1–45), where the
pressure is the atmospheric pressure
Patm, then from Eq. B the pressure at a
depth h below the free surface
becomes
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 When you apply pressure to a confined
fluid (like pushing down on it), the
pressure increase is transmitted equally
throughout the fluid in all directions.
 This is called Pascal’s law.
 Pascal also knew that the force applied
by a fluid is proportional to the surface
area.
 He realized that two hydraulic cylinders
of different areas could be connected,
and the larger could be used to exert a
proportionally greater force than that
applied to the smaller.

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 “Pascal’s machine” has been the
source of many inventions that are a
part of our daily lives such as hydraulic
brakes and lifts.
 This is what enables us to lift a car
easily by one arm, as shown in Fig.
 Noting that P1=P2 since both pistons are
at the same level (the effect of small
height differences is negligible,
especially at high pressures), the ratio
of output force to input force is
determined to be

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 1.9 PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal
mechanical advantage of the hydraulic
lift.
 Using a hydraulic car jack with a piston
area ratio of A2/A1 = 100, for example, a
person can lift a 1000-kg car by
applying a force of just10 kgf (=90.8 N).

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 1.10 PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Barometer
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a
device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred
to as the barometric pressure.
 It is well known that the atmospheric
pressure can be measured by inverting
a mercury-filled tube into a mercury
container that is open to the
atmosphere, as shown in Fig.
 The pressure at point B is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, and the pressure
at point C can be taken to be zero since
there is only mercury vapor above point
C and the pressure is very low relative
to Patm and can be neglected to an
excellent approximation.
67 Department of Energy Engineering
 1.10 PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Barometer

where 𝜌𝜌 is the density of mercury, g is

the local gravitational acceleration, and
h is the height of the mercury column
above the free surface.
 A frequently used pressure unit is the
standard atmosphere, which is
defined as the pressure produced by a
column of mercury 760 mm in height at
0°C (ρHg = 13,595 kg/m3) under
standard gravitational acceleration (g =
9.807 m/s2).

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 1.10 PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Barometer
 Note that the length and the cross-
sectional area of the tube have no
effect on the height of the fluid column
of a barometer (Fig. 1–49).

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 1.10 PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Manometer
 It is commonly used to measure small
and moderate pressure differences.
 A manometer contains one or more
fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol,
or oil.

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 1.10 PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Manometer

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 1.10 PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Other Pressure Measurement
Devices
 Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow
metal tube bent like a hook whose end
is closed and connected to a dial
indicator needle.
 Pressure transducers: Use various
techniques to convert the pressure
effect to an electrical effect such as a
change in voltage, resistance, or
capacitance.
 Pressure transducers are smaller and
faster, and they can be more sensitive,
reliable, and precise than their
mechanical counterparts.

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 1.10 PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Other Pressure Measurement
Devices
 Strain-gage pressure transducers:
Work by having a diaphragm deflect
between two chambers open to the
pressure inputs.
 Piezoelectric transducers: Also called
solid-state pressure transducers, work
on the principle that an electric potential
is generated in a crystalline substance
when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure.

 Another type of mechanical pressure

gage called a deadweight tester is
used primarily for calibration and can
measure extremely high pressures.

73 Department of Energy Engineering

 1.11 PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUE
 Step 1: Problem Statement
In your own words, briefly state the
problem, the key information given, and
the quantities to be found. This is to
make sure that you understand the
problem and the objectives before you
attempt to solve the problem.
 Step 2: Schematic
Draw a realistic sketch of the physical
system involved, and list the relevant
information on the figure.

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 1.11 PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUE
 Step 3: Assumptions and
Approximations
State any appropriate assumptions and
approximations made to simplify the
problem to make it possible to obtain a
solution. Justify the questionable
assumptions. Assume reasonable
values for missing quantities that are
necessary.
 Step 4: Physical Laws
Apply all the relevant basic physical
laws and principles (such as the
conservation of mass), and reduce
them to their simplest form by utilizing
the assumptions made.

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 1.11 PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUE
 Step 5: Properties
Determine the unknown properties at
known states necessary to solve the
problem from property relations or
tables. List the properties separately,
and indicate their source, if applicable.
 Step 6: Calculations
Substitute the known quantities into the
simplified relations and perform the
calculations to determine the
unknowns. Pay particular attention to
the units and unit cancellations, and
remember that a dimensional quantity
without a unit is meaningless.
 Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion

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 1.11 PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUE
 Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion
Check to make sure that the results
obtained are reasonable and intuitive,
and verify the validity of the
questionable assumptions. Repeat the
calculations that resulted in
unreasonable values. For example,
insulating a water heater that uses $80
worth of natural gas a year cannot
result in savings of $200 a year (Fig. 1–
64).

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 1.11 PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUE

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 1.11 PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUE
 Engineering Software Packages
After all, almost all such problems we
are likely to encounter in practice can
be solved using one of several
sophisticated software packages
readily available in the market today.
 Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
EES is a program that solves systems
of linear or nonlinear algebraic or
differential equations numerically.
 A Remark on Significant Digits
In engineering calculations, the
information given is not known to more
than a certain number of significant
digits, usually three digits.

79 Department of Energy Engineering

 1.12 PROBLEMS
Problem No. 1: During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10
°C. Express this rise in temperature in K, °F, and R.

Solution:-

 Given Data:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ∆𝑇𝑇 ℃ = 10 ℃
 As we know:
∆𝑇𝑇 𝐾𝐾 = ∆𝑇𝑇 ℃
∆𝑇𝑇 𝐾𝐾 = 10 𝐾𝐾

 Now:
∆𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅 = 1.8∆𝑇𝑇 𝐾𝐾
∆𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅 = 1.8 10
∆𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅 = 18 𝑅𝑅

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 1.12 PROBLEMS
Problem No. 1 (Cont.):

 Similarly:
∆𝑇𝑇 ℉ = ∆𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅
∆𝑇𝑇 ℉ = 18 ℉

 Discussion: Note that the units ℃ and K are interchangeable when dealing with
temperature differences.

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 1.12 PROBLEMS
Problem No. 2: Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the
barometric reading is 740 mmHg and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.805 m/s2.
Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10 °C, at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3.

Solution:-

 Given Data:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ℎ = 740 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.740 𝑚𝑚
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑔𝑔 = 9.805 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇 = 10 ℃
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌 = 13,570 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3
 As we know:
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔
1 𝑁𝑁 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 13,570 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 9.805 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 0.740 𝑚𝑚
1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2 1000 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐴 = 98.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

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 1.12 PROBLEMS
Problem No. 3: Intravenous infusions usually are driven by gravity by hanging the
fluid bottle at sufficient height to counteract the blood pressure in the vein and to
force the fluid into the body (Fig.). The higher the bottle is raised, the higher the flow
rate of the fluid will be. (a) If it is observed that the fluid and the blood pressures
balance each other when the bottle is 1.2 m above the arm level, determine the gage
pressure of the blood. (b) If the gage pressure of the fluid at the arm level needs to be
20 kPa for sufficient flow rate, determine how high the bottle must be placed. Take the
density of the fluid to be 1020 kg/m3.

Solution:-

 Given Data:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ℎ = 1.2 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌 = 1,020 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3
 (a) Gage pressure of the blood
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

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 1.12 PROBLEMS
Problem No. 3 (Cont.):
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
1 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1,020 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 9.81 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 1.2 𝑚𝑚
1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2 1 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 12.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 (b) If the gage pressure of the fluid at the arm level needs to be 20 kPa for
sufficient flow rate, height of the bottle
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔
20 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
1,020 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 9.81 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

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 1.12 PROBLEMS
Problem No. 3 (Cont.):
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 2.00 𝑚𝑚

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 1.12 PROBLEMS
Homework:
Examples:
i. Example 1–8
ii. Example 1–10

Problems (Exercise):
i. Problem 1–102
ii. Problem 1–104
iii. Problem 1–110

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 THE END

THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION..!!
ANY QUESTIONS ?

87 Department of Energy Engineering