Energy - Watthour Meter

• Energy is measured by watthour meters, many of which are

electromechanical devices that incorporate a small electric motor
whose speed is proportional to power to the load.
Since the angle through which the dials
rotate depends on the speed of rotation
(i.e., power consumed ) and the length of
time that this power flows, the dial position
indicates energy used. Note however, that
electromechanical devices are starting to give
way to electronic meters, which perform this
function electronically and display the result
on digital readouts.
04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 1
 Efficiency
• Poor efficiency results in wasted energy and
higher costs. For example, an inefficient motor
costs more to run than an efficient one for the
same output.
• Efficiency can be expressed in terms of either
energy or power. Power is generally easier to
measure, so we usually use power.
• The efficiency of a device or system is defined
as the ratio of power output Pout to power input Pin,
and it is usually expressed in percent and denoted
by the Greek letter η (eta).
04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 2
 Efficiency

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 3

 Efficiency

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 4

 Efficiency
• For systems with subsystems or components in cascade
overall efficiency is the product of the efficiencies of each
individual part, where efficiencies are expressed in decimal
form.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 5

 Efficiency

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 6

 Efficiency

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 7

 Nonlinear and Dynamic Resistances
• All resistors considered so far have constant values that do
not change with voltage or current. Such resistors are
termed linear or ohmic since their current-voltage (I-V )
plot is a straight line. However, the resistance of some
materials changes with voltage or current. These materials
are termed nonlinear because their I-V plot is curved

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 8

 Nonlinear and Dynamic Resistances
• Since the resistance of all materials
changes with temperature, all resistors
are to some extent nonlinear, since
they all produce heat and this heat
changes their resistance. For most
resistors, however, this effect is small
over their normal operating range, and
such resistors are considered to be
linear.
04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 9
 Nonlinear and Dynamic Resistances

• where ΔV/ΔI is the inverse of the slope of the line. if you

select ΔV to be 20 V, you find that the corresponding ΔI is
40 mA. Thus, R = ΔV/ΔI 20 V/40 mA = 500 Ω as before.
Resistance calculated as in Figure is called ac or dynamic
resistance. For linear resistors, Rac = Rdc.
04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 10
 Nonlinear and Dynamic Resistances

• Now consider the nonlinear resistance plot At

V =20 V, I = 20 mA, and Rdc = 20 V/20 mA =1.0 kΩ.
V = 120 V, I = 60 mA, and Rdc =120 V/60 mA = 2.0 kΩ.
• This resistance therefore increases with applied voltage.
However, for small variations about a fixed point on the
curve, the ac resistance will be constant.
04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 11
 Circuit Ground
• Perhaps one of the most misunderstood concepts in
electronics is that of ground. This misunderstanding leads
to many problems when circuits are designed and
analyzed.
• The standard symbol for circuit ground

• In its most simple definition, ground is simply an

“arbitrary electrical point of reference” or “common
point” in a circuit.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 12

 Circuit Ground

• The circuits shown in Figure 5–25 are exactly equivalent

circuits even though the circuits of Figure 5–25(a) and 5– 25(c)
use different points of reference.
• Such a connection is referred to as a chassis ground and is
usually designated as shown in Figure 5–24(b).

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 13

 Circuit Ground
• In order to help prevent electrocution, the chassis ground is
usually further connected to the earth ground through a
connection provided at the electrical outlet box. In the
event of a failure within the circuit, the chassis would
redirect current to ground (tripping a breaker or fuse),
rather than presenting a hazard to an unsuspecting
operator.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 14

 Voltage Subscripts - Double Subscripts

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 15

 Voltage Subscripts - Double Subscripts

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 16

 Voltage Subscripts - Double Subscripts

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 17

 Voltage Subscripts - Single Subscripts

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 18

 Voltage Subscripts - Single Subscripts

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 19

 Voltage Subscripts - Single Subscripts

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 20

 Internal Resistance of Voltage Sources
• All voltage sources contain some internal resistance
which will reduce the efficiency of the voltage source. We
may symbolize any voltage source schematically as an
ideal voltage source in series with an internal resistance

• The voltage which appears between the positive and

negative terminals is called the terminal voltage.
04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 21
 Voltmeter Design
• The typical voltmeter consists of a meter movement in
series with a current-limiting resistance. The meter may be
either a permanent-magnet moving coil (PMMC) as
shown in Figure or a digital panel meter (DPM).
The PMMC consists of an
Electromagnet mounted on
a spring. When an external
Voltage is applied to the
terminals of the voltmeter,
a small current will occur
in the voltmeter.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 22

 Voltmeter Design
• As charge flows through the coils of the electromagnet, a
magnetic field is developed. Since this movable coil is
located inside a permanent magnet, the magnets will
interact causing the coil to deflect proportional to the
current within the movement.
• The amount of current which causes the movement to
deflect to its maximum position is referred to as the full-
scale deflection current and is usually abbreviated as Ifsd
• The Ifsd of an analog meter can be determined from the
sensitivity of the meter, S, which is generally printed on
the meter face and is given in volts per ohm. The
sensitivity is defined to be

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 23

 Voltmeter Design
• Due to the extreme length of very fine wire in the
electromagnet, the PMMC usually has a resistance on the
order of several thousand ohms. This resistance, called the
meter resistance, is abbreviated as Rm. The schematic
representation of a typical PMMC movement is shown in
Figure

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 24

 Voltmeter Design
• By combining the PMMC movement with a single series
resistor ,it is possible to build a simple circuit capable of
measuring external voltages.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 25

 Voltmeter Design

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 26

 Voltmeter Design
• By adding a selector switch, it is possible to design a
multi-range voltmeter, which is able to select various
ranges.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 27

 Voltmeter Design

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 28

 Voltmeter Design

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 29

 Voltmeter Design

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 30

 Ohmmeter Design
• Unlike the voltmeter, which uses an external voltage to
provide the necessary current to cause a deflection within
the PMMC movement, an ohmmeter must have an internal
voltage source (usually a battery) to provide the required
sensing current.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 31

 Ohmmeter Design
• No current will be present until an unknown resistance,
Rx, is connected across the open terminals of the
ohmmeter. The ohmmeter is designed so that maximum
current will pass through the meter movement when the
resistance connected across the terminals is equal to zero
(i.e., a short circuit Rx = 0). The scaling of the meter face
plate is determined according to the movement deflection
for various values of unknown resistance.

• Now, since we want maximum deflection when the

terminals are shorted, the value of Rs is calculated in a
manner similar to the way the voltmeter was designed,
namely

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 32

 Ohmmeter Design
• It is now apparent that when the resistance being measured
is a minimum (R = 0), current will be maximum.
Conversely, when resistance is maximum (R = ∞ ),
current will be minimum, namely zero.

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 33

 Ohmmeter Design

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 34

 Ohmmeter Design

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 35

 Ohmmeter Design

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 36

 Ammeter Loading Effects
• In order to use an ammeter, the circuit must be
disconnected and the ammeter placed in series with the
branch for which the current is to be determined. Since an
ammeter uses the current in the circuit to provide a
reading, it will affect the circuit under measurement. This
effect is referred to as meter loading.
• All instruments, regardless of type, will load the circuit
to some degree. The amount of loading is dependent upon
both the instrument and the circuit being measured. For
any meter, We define the loading effect as follows:

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 37

 Ammeter Loading Effects

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 38

 Ammeter Loading Effects

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 39

 Ammeter Loading Effects

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 40

 Ammeter Loading Effects

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 41

 The structure of “traditional”
Measuring system

04/11/2024 Dr. Gamal Tharwat 42