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Big Data Analytics
Tools and Technology for Effective Planning
Chapman & Hall/CRC
Big Data Series
SERIES EDITOR
Sanjay Ranka
AIMS AND SCOPE

This series aims to present new research and applications in Big Data, along with the computa-
tional tools and techniques currently in development. The inclusion of concrete examples and
applications is highly encouraged. The scope of the series includes, but is not limited to, titles in the
areas of social networks, sensor networks, data-centric computing, astronomy, genomics, medical
data analytics, large-scale e-commerce, and other relevant topics that may be proposed by poten-
tial contributors.
PUBLISHED TITLES
FRONTIERS IN DATA SCIENCE
Matthias Dehmer and Frank Emmert-Streib
BIG DATA OF COMPLEX NETWORKS
Matthias Dehmer, Frank Emmert-Streib, Stefan Pickl, and Andreas Holzinger
BIG DATA COMPUTING: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY
MANAGERS
Vivek Kale
BIG DATA : ALGORITHMS, ANALYTICS, AND APPLICATIONS
Kuan-Ching Li, Hai Jiang, Laurence T. Yang, and Alfredo Cuzzocrea
BIG DATA MANAGEMENT AND PROCESSING
Kuan-Ching Li, Hai Jiang, and Albert Y. Zomaya
BIG DATA ANALYTICS: TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGY FOR EFFECTIVE
PLANNING
Arun K. Somani and Ganesh Chandra Deka
BIG DATA IN COMPLEX AND SOCIAL NETWORKS
My T. Thai, Weili Wu, and Hui Xiong
HIGH PERFORMANCE COMPUTING FOR BIG DATA
Chao Wang
NETWORKING FOR BIG DATA
Shui Yu, Xiaodong Lin, Jelena Mišić, and Xuemin (Sherman) Shen
Big Data Analytics
Tools and Technology for Effective Planning
Edited by
Arun K. Somani
Ganesh Chandra Deka
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-03239-2 (Hardback)
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Somani, Arun K., author. | Deka, Ganesh Chandra, 1969- author.
Title: Big data analytics : tools and technology for effective planning / [edited by] Arun K. Somani, Ganesh
Chandra Deka.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2018] | Series: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press big data series | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017016514| ISBN 9781138032392 (hardcover : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9781315391250
(ebook) | ISBN 9781315391243 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315391236 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Big data.
Classification: LCC QA76.9.B45 B548 2018 | DDC 005.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017016514
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................. vii
About the Editors............................................................................................................................ix
Contributors.....................................................................................................................................xi
1. Challenges in Big Data........................................................................................................... 1

Pothireddy Venkata Lakshmi Narayana Rao, Pothireddy Siva Abhilash, and PS Pavan Kumar
2. Challenges in Big Data Analytics...................................................................................... 37

Balamurugan Balusamy, Vegesna Tarun Sai Varma, and Sohil Sri Mani Yeshwanth Grandhi
3. Big Data Reference Model................................................................................................... 55

Kevin Berwind, Andrei Voronov, Matthias Schneider, Marco Bornschlegl, Felix Engel,
Michael Kaufmann, and Matthias Hemmje
4. A Survey of Tools for Big Data Analytics......................................................................... 75

K. G. Srinivasa, Zeeshan Ahmad, Nabeel Siddiqui, and Abhishek Kumar
5. Understanding the Data Science behind Business Analytics...................................... 93

Mayank Mishra, Pratik Mishra, and Arun K. Somani
6. Big Data Predictive Modeling and Analytics................................................................ 117

Mydhili K. Nair, Arjun Rao, and Mipsa Patel
7. Deep Learning for Engineering Big Data Analytics.................................................... 151

Kin Gwn Lore, Daniel Stoecklein, Michael Davies, Baskar Ganapathysubramanian,
and Soumik Sarkar
8. A Framework for Minimizing Data Leakage from Nonproduction Systems......... 167

Jacqueline Cope, Leandros A. Maglaras, Francois Siewe, Feng Chen, and Helge Janicke
9. Big Data Acquisition, Preparation, and Analysis Using Apache Software

Foundation Tools................................................................................................................. 195
Gouri Ginde, Rahul Aedula, Snehanshu Saha, Archana Mathur, Sudeepa Roy Dey,
Gambhire Swati Sampatrao, and BS Daya Sagar
10. Storing and Analyzing Streaming Data: A Big Data Challenge............................... 229
Devang Swami, Sampa Sahoo, and Bibhudatta Sahoo
11. Big Data Cluster Analysis: A Study of Existing Techniques and Future
Directions.............................................................................................................................. 247
Piyush Lakhawat and Arun K. Somani
12. Nonlinear Feature Extraction for Big Data Analytics.................................................. 267

Adil Omari, Juan José Choquehuanca Zevallos, and Roberto Díaz Morales
v
vi Contents
13. Enhanced Feature Mining and Classifier Models to Predict Customer Churn
for an e-Retailer................................................................................................................... 293
Karthik B. Subramanya and Arun K. Somani
14. Large-Scale Entity Clustering Based on Structural Similarities

within Knowledge Graphs................................................................................................ 311
Mahmoud Elbattah, Mohamed Roushdy, Mostafa Aref, and Abdel-Badeeh M. Salem
15. Big Data Analytics for Connected Intelligence with the Internet of Things......... 335
Mohammad Samadi Gharajeh
16. Big Data-Driven Value Chains and Digital Platforms: From Value
Co-creation to Monetization............................................................................................. 355
Roberto Moro Visconti, Alberto Larocca, and Michele Marconi
17. Distant and Close Reading of Dutch Drug Debates in Historical

Newspapers: Possibilities and Challenges of Big Data Analysis in Historical
Public Debate Research...................................................................................................... 373
Berrie van der Molen and Toine Pieters
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 391
Preface
Three central questions concerning Big Data are how to classify Big Data, what are the
best methods for managing Big Data, and how to accurately analyze Big Data. Although
various methods exist to answer these questions, no single or globally accepted methodol-
ogy is recognized to perform satisfactorily on all data and can be accepted since Big Data
Analytics tools have to deal with the large variety and large scale of data sets. For example,
some of the use cases of Big Data Analytics tools include real-time intelligence, data dis-
covery, and business reporting. These all present a different challenge.
This edited volume, titled Big Data Analytics: Tools and Technology for Effective Planning,
deliberates upon these various aspects of Big Data Analytics for effective planning. We
start with Big Data challenges and a reference model, and then dwell into data mining,
algorithms, and storage methods. This is followed by various technical facets of Big Data
analytics and some application areas.
Chapter 1 and 2 discuss Big Data challenges. Chapter 3 presents the Big Data reference
model. Chapter 4 covers Big Data analytic tools.
Chapters 5 to 9 focus on the various advanced Big Data mining technologies and
algorithms.
Big Data storage is an important and very interesting topic for researchers. Hence, we
have included a chapter on Big Data storage technology (Chapter 10).
Chapters 11 to 14 consider the various technical facets of Big Data analytics such as non-
linear feature extraction, enhanced feature mining, classifier models to predict customer
churn for an e-retailer, and large-scale entity clustering on knowledge graphs for topic
discovery and exploration.
In the Big Data world, driven by the Internet of Things (IoT), a majority of the data is gen-
erated by IoT devices. Chapter 15 and Chapter 16 discuss two application areas: connected
intelligence and traffic analysis, respectively. Finally, Chapter 17 is about the possibilities
and challenges of Big Data analysis in humanities research.
We are confident that the book will be a valuable addition to the growing knowledge
base, and will be impactful and useful in providing information on Big Data analytics
tools and technology for effective planning. As Big Data becomes more intrusive and per-
vasive, there will be increasing interest in this domain. It is our hope that this book will
not only showcase the current state of art and practice but also set the agenda for future
directions in the Big Data analytics domain.
vii
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About the Editors
Arun K. Somani is currently serving as associate dean for research for the College of
Engineering and Anson Marston Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer
Engineering at Iowa State University. Somani’s research interests are in the areas of
dependable and high-performance system design, algorithms, and architecture; wave-
length-division multiplexing-based optical networking; and image-based navigation tech-
niques. He has published more than 300 technical papers, several book chapters, and one
book, and has supervised more than 70 MS and more than 35 PhD students. His research
has been supported by several projects funded by the industry, the National Science
Foundation (NSF), and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). He
was the lead designer of an antisubmarine warfare system for the Indian navy, a Meshkin
fault-tolerant computer system architecture for the Boeing Company, a Proteus multicom-
puter cluster-based system for the Coastal Navy, and a HIMAP design tool for the Boeing
Commercial Company. He was awarded the Distinguished Engineer member grade of
the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2006, and elected Fellow of IEEE in
1999 for his contributions to “theory and applications of computer networks.” He was also
elected as a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
in 2012.
Ganesh Chandra Deka is currently deputy director of Training at Directorate General

of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, Government of India,
New Delhi, India. His research interests include e-governance, Big Data analytics, NoSQL
databases, and vocational education and training. He has authored two books on cloud
computing published by LAP Lambert (Germany). He has also coauthored four text-
books on computer science, published by Moni Manik Prakashan (India). So far he has
edited seven books (four for IGI Global, three for CRC Press) on Big Data, NoSQL, and
cloud computing, and authored seven book chapters. He has published eight research
papers in various reputed journals (two for IEEE, one for Elsevier). He was also guest
editor of three special issues of reputed indexed international journals. He has published
nearly 50 research papers for various IEEE conferences, and organized 8 IEEE International
Conferences as technical chair in India. He is a member of the editorial board and reviewer
for various journals and international conferences. He is a member of IEEE, the Institution
of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers, India; and associate member of the
Institution of Engineers, India.
ix
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Contributors
Pothireddy Siva Abhilash Jacqueline Cope

Southern New Hampshire University School of Computer Science and
Manchester, New Hampshire Informatics De Montfort University
Leicester, United Kingdom
Rahul Aedula
PESIT Bangalore South Campus Michael Davies
Bangalore, India Department of Computer Science
Iowa State University
Zeeshan Ahmad Ames, Iowa
SAP Labs India Pvt Ltd
Bengaluru, India Sudeepa Roy Dey
PESIT Bangalore South Campus
Mostafa Aref Bangalore, India
Faculty of Computer and Information
Sciences Mahmoud Elbattah
Ain Shams University College of Engineering and Informatics
Cairo, Egypt National University of Ireland
Galway, Ireland
Balamurugan Balusamy
School of Information Technology Felix Engel
Vellore Institute of Technology Faculty of Mathematics and Computer
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India Science
University of Hagen
Kevin Berwind Hagen, Germany
Faculty of Mathematics and Computer
Science Baskar Ganapathysubramanian
University of Hagen Department of Computer Science
Hagen, Germany Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
Marco Bornschlegl
Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Mohammad Samadi Gharajeh
Science Young Researchers and Elite Club
University of Hagen Tabriz Branch
Hagen, Germany Islamic Azad University
Tabriz, Iran
Feng Chen
School of Computer Science and Informatics Gouri Ginde
De Montfort University PESIT Bangalore South Campus
Leicester, United Kingdom Bangalore, India
xi
xii Contributors
Matthias Hemmje Michele Marconi

Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Department of Life and Environmental
Science Sciences
University of Hagen Università Politecnica delle Marche
Hagen, Germany Ancona, Italy
Helge Janicke Archana Mathur

School of Computer Science and PESIT Bangalore South Campus
Informatics Bangalore, India
De Montfort University
Leicester, United Kingdom Mayank Mishra
Department of Electrical and Computer
Michael Kaufmann Engineering
Lucerne University of Applied Sciences Iowa State University
and Arts School of Information Ames, Iowa
Technology
Zug-Rotkreuz, Switzerland Pratik Mishra
Abhishek Kumar Engineering
JP Morgan Iowa State University
Bengaluru, India Ames, Iowa
PS Pavan Kumar Roberto Díaz Morales

Sri Paladugu Parvathidevi Engineering University Carlos III (UC3M)
College and Technology Madrid, Spain
Andhra Pradesh, India
Mydhili K. Nair
Piyush Lakhawat Department of Information Science and
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Engineering M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology
Iowa State University Bangalore, India
Ames, Iowa
Adil Omari
Alberto Larocca Department of Computer Science
Head of R&D Cosmo Ltd. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Accra, Ghana Madrid, Spain
Kin Gwn Lore Mipsa Patel

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Computer Science and
Iowa State University Engineering
Ames, Iowa M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology
Bangalore, India
Leandros A. Maglaras
School of Computer Science and Toine Pieters
Informatics Descartes Centre for the History and
De Montfort University Philosophy of the Sciences and the Arts
Leicester, United Kingdom Freudenthal Institute
Utrecht University
Utrecht, the Netherlands
Contributors xiii
Arjun Rao Soumik Sarkar

Department of Information Science and Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Iowa State University
M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology Ames, Iowa
Bangalore, India
Matthias Schneider
Pothireddy Venkata Lakshmi Narayana Faculty of Mathematics and Computer
Rao Science
Kampala International University University of Hagen
Kampala, Uganda Hagen, Germany
Mohamed Roushdy Francois Siewe

Faculty of Computer and Information School of Computer Science and
Sciences Informatics
Ain Shams University Cairo, Egypt De Montfort University
Leicester, United Kingdom
BS Daya Sagar
Indian Statistical Institute Nabeel Siddiqui
Bangalore, India Sr. Developer SAP LABS INDIA PVT LTD
Bengaluru
Snehanshu Saha
PESIT Bangalore South Campus Arun K. Somani
Bangalore, India Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering
Bibhudatta Sahoo Iowa State University
Department of Computer Science and Ames, Iowa
Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela K. G. Srinivasa
Rourkela, Odisha, India Department of Information Technology
CBP Government Engineering College
Sampa Sahoo New Delhi, India
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering Daniel Stoecklein
National Institute of Technology Rourkela Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rourkela, Odisha, India Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
Abdel-Badeeh M. Salem
Faculty of Computer and Information Karthik B. Subramanya
Sciences
Engineering
Ain Shams University Cairo, Egypt
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
Gambhire Swati Sampatrao
PESIT Bangalore South Campus
Devang Swami
Bangalore, India
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
Rourkela, Odisha, India
xiv Contributors
Berrie van der Molen Andrei Voronov

Descartes Centre for the History and Faculty of Mathematics and Computer
Philosophy of the Sciences and the Arts Science
Freudenthal Institute University of Hagen
Utrecht University Hagen, Germany
Utrecht, the Netherlands
Sohil Sri Mani Yeshwanth Grandhi
Vegesna Tarun Sai Varma School of Information Technology
School of Information Technology Vellore Institute of Technology
Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Juan José Choquehuanca Zevallos
Roberto Moro Visconti University Carlos III (UC3M)
Department of Business Administration Madrid, Spain
Universita Cattolica del Sacro Coure
Milan, Italy
1
Challenges in Big Data
Pothireddy Venkata Lakshmi Narayana Rao,

Pothireddy Siva Abhilash, and PS Pavan Kumar
CONTENTS
Introduction......................................................................................................................................2
Background..................................................................................................................................2
Goals and Challenges of Analyzing Big Data......................................................................... 2
Paradigm Shifts...........................................................................................................................3
Organization of This Paper........................................................................................................4
Algorithms for Big Data Analytics........................................................................................... 4
k-Means.................................................................................................................................... 4
Classification Algorithms: k-NN..........................................................................................5
Application of Big Data: A Case Study.................................................................................... 5
Economics and Finance.........................................................................................................5
Other Applications.................................................................................................................6
Salient Features of Big Data............................................................................................................ 7
Heterogeneity..............................................................................................................................7
Noise Accumulation...................................................................................................................8
Spurious Correlation................................................................................................................... 9
Coincidental Endogeneity........................................................................................................ 11
Impact on Statistical Thinking................................................................................................. 13
Independence Screening.......................................................................................................... 15
Dealing with Incidental Endogeneity.................................................................................... 16
Impact on Computing Infrastructure..................................................................................... 17
Literature Review........................................................................................................................... 19
MapReduce................................................................................................................................ 19
Cloud Computing.....................................................................................................................22
Impact on Computational Methods.......................................................................................22
First-Order Methods for Non-Smooth Optimization........................................................... 23
Dimension Reduction and Random Projection.................................................................... 24
Future Perspectives and Conclusion........................................................................................... 27
Existing Methods....................................................................................................................... 27
Proposed Methods......................................................................................................................... 29
Probabilistic Graphical Modeling........................................................................................... 29
Mining Twitter Data: From Content to Connections........................................................... 29
Late Work: Location-Specific Tweet Detection and Topic Summarization
in Twitter............................................................................................................................... 29
Tending to Big Data Challenges in Genome Sequencing and RNA Interaction
Prediction...................................................................................................................................30
Single-Cell Genome Sequencing........................................................................................ 30
1
2 Big Data Analytics
RNA Structure and RNA–RNA Association Expectation............................................... 30

Identifying Qualitative Changes in Living Systems............................................................ 31
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... 31
References....................................................................................................................................... 31
Additional References for Researchers and Advanced Readers for Further Reading.........34
Key Terminology and Definitions...............................................................................................34
Introduction
Enormous data guarantee new levels of investigative disclosure and financial quality.
What is new about Big Data and how they vary from the conventional little or medium-
scale information? This paper outlines the open doors and difficulties brought by Big Data,
with accentuation on the recognized elements of Big Data and measurable and computa-
tional technique and in addition registering engineering to manage them.
Background
We are entering the time of Big Data, a term that alludes to the blast of data now accessible.
Such a Big Data development is driven by the way that gigantic measures of h igh-dimensional
or unstructured information are consistently delivered and are presented in a much less
“luxurious” format than they used to be. For instance, in genomics we have seen an enor-
mous drop in costs for sequencing of an entire genome [1]. This is likewise valid in many
different scientific areas, for example, online network examination, biomedical imaging,
high-recurrence money transactions, investigation of reconnaissance recordings, and retail
deals. The current pattern for these vast amounts of information to be delivered and stored in
an inexpensive manner is likely to keep up or even quicken in the future [2]. This pattern will
have a profound effect on science, designing, and business. For instance, logical advances are
turning out to be increasingly information driven, and specialists will increasingly consider
themselves customers of information. The monstrous measures of high-dimensional infor-
mation convey both open doors and new difficulties to information examination. Substantial
measurable investigations for Big Data handling are turning out to be progressively essential.
Goals and Challenges of Analyzing Big Data

What are the purposes of violation depressed Big Data? As per Fan and Lu [3], two principal
objectives of high-dimensional information investigation are to create powerful strategies that
can precisely anticipate the future perceptions and in the meantime gain understanding into
the relationship between the elements and reactions for experimental purposes. In addition,
because of the extensive specimen size, Big Data offers an ascent to two more objectives: to
comprehend heterogeneity and shared traits across various subpopulations.
At the end of the day, Big Data gives guarantees for:
1. Investigating the shrouded structures of every subpopulation of the information,

which is generally not possible and may even be dealt with as “exceptions” when
the specimen size is small; and
2. Extricating imperative regular elements across numerous subpopulations not-
withstanding the expansive individual varieties of data.
Challenges in Big Data 3
What are the difficulties of investigating Big Data? Big Data is portrayed by high dimen-
sionality and substantial specimen size. These two elements raise three one-of-a-kind
difficulties:
1. High dimensionality brings clamor gathering, spurious relationships, and coinci-

dental homogeneity;
2. High dimensionality consolidated with vast specimen size brings additional con-
siderations, for example, regarding substantial computational expense and algo-
rithmic flimsiness;
3. The gigantic examples in Big Data are regularly totaled from various sources at
various times, utilizing distinctive advances. This creates issues regarding hetero-
geneity, trial varieties, and factual predispositions and obliges us to employ more
versatile and hardy methodologies.
Paradigm Shifts
To handle the troubles of Big Data, we require new quantifiable derivation and computa-
tional techniques. As an example, various standard systems that perform well for moderate
test sizes don’t scale to enormous amounts of data. Basically, various truthful methodolo-
gies that perform well for low-dimensional data are going up against basic troubles in
separating high-dimensional data. To plot effective, truthful strategies for exploring and
anticipating Big Data, we need to address Big Data issues, for instance, heterogeneity, hul-
labaloo gathering, spurious connections, and fortuitous endogeneity, despite changing the
quantifiable precision and computational profitability.
With respect to exactness, estimation diminishment, and variable determination are crit-
ical parts in exploring high-dimensional data. We will address these disturbing, building
issues. As a case in point, in a high-dimensional portrayal, Fan and Fan [4] and Pittelkow
and Ghosh [5] reported that a standard course of action using all parts plays out no bet-
ter than any subjective guess, due to racket gathering. This induces new regularization
methods [6–10] and without question calls for self-sufficiency screening [11–13]. In addi-
tion, high dimensionality presents spurious connections between responses and arbitrary
covariates, which may incite wrong truthful reasoning and false exploratory conclusions
[14]. High dimensionality also give rise to adventitious endogeneity, a wonder that various
irregular covariates may obviously be connected with the remaining tumults. The endoge-
neity makes true inclinations and causes model determination inconsistency that can lead
to wrong trial exposures [15,16]. In any case, most true techniques rely upon suspicious
exogenous suppositions that can’t be endorsed by data (see our discussion of unplanned
endogeneity region, below) [17]).
New quantifiable frameworks in light of these issues are basically required. As for effi-
ciency, Big Data convinces the headway of new computational base and data stockpiling
procedures. Streamlining is consistently a mechanical assembly, not a target, for Big Data
examination. Such a perspective change has provoked colossal advances on upgrades of
speedy configurations that are versatile to handle huge data amounts with high dimen-
sionality. This fabricates cross-mediations for different fields, including bits of knowledge,
change, and applied mathematics. As a case in point, Donoho and Elad [18] showed that
the nondeterministic polynomial–time hard (NP-hard) best subset backslide can be recast
as an L1-standard rebuffed smallest-squares issue, which can be comprehended within a
point procedure.
Elective figurings to animate this L1-standard rebuffed smallest-squares issues, for

instance, least edge backslide [19], edge incline dive [20], coordinate drop [21,22], and itera-
tive shrinkage-thresholding computations [23,24], are proposed. Other than limitless scale
upgrade counts, Big Data in a like manner stirs the progression of majorization–minimization
computations [25–27], “extensive-scale screening and little-scale streamlining” framework
[28], parallel figuring strategies [29–31], and evaluated estimations that are versatile to tre-
mendous sample sizes.
Organization of This Paper

The next section focuses on analytics to handle the increases in Big Data [32] and outlines
the issue from the perspectives of science, urban planning, and social science. The salient
features of the Big Data portion of this chaper clear up some unique segments of Big Data
and their consequences for quantifiable conclusions. Quantifiable strategies that handle
these Big Data issues are discussed in the section on impact on truthful considering [33].
The impact on enrolling base section gives an outline on a flexible figuring base for Big
Data stockpiling and taking care of it. The section on the impact on computational meth-
ods covers the computational pieces of Big Data and introduces some recent advances.
Finally, we present our conclusions and anticipated future directions.
Algorithms for Big Data Analytics

k-Means
What does it do? k-Means implies k bunches from a group of articles arranged so that the
individuals from a gathering are more comparable. It is a prevalent bunch examination
system for investigating a data set. What is bunch investigation? Bunch investigation is a
group of calculations intended to shape gatherings such that the gathered individual data
are more comparative versus nonbunch individuals. Bunches and gatherings are synony-
mous in the realm of group examination. Is there a case for this? Certainly, assuming we
have a data set of patients. In group examination, these are called perceptions. We know
different things about every patient, like age, heartbeat, pulse, VO2(max), cholesterol, and
so forth [34]. This is a vector speaking to the patient.
You can essentially think about a vector as a rundown of numbers we consider about
the patient. This rundown can likewise be deciphered as directions in multidimensional
space. Heartbeat can be one measurement, pulse another measurement, etc.
You may ponder, given this arrangement of vectors, how would we group together
patients that have comparable age, beat, circulation strains, and so on? We need to know
the best part.
k-implies determines what number of bunches you need. k-implies can deal with the
rest. How does k-implies deal with the rest? k-implies has heaps of varieties to enhance for
specific sorts of information. At an abnormal state, they all accomplish something like this:
1. k-implies picks foci in multidimensional space to speak to each of the k groups.

These are called centroids.
2. Every patient will be nearest to one of these k centroids. They ideally will not all be
nearest to the same one, so they can shape a group around their closest centroid.
3. What we have then are k bunches, and every patient is considered an individual
from a group.
4. k-implies then finds the inside for each of the k groups in light of its bunch indi-
viduals (correct, utilizing the patient vectors).
5. This focus turns into the new centroid for the bunch.
6. Since the centroid is in a better place now, patients may now be nearer to different
centroids. At the end of the day, they may change bunch enrollment.
7. Steps 2 to 6 are rehashed until the centroids change no more and the bunch enroll-
ments balance out. This is called meeting.
Is it safe to say whether this is managed or unsupervised? It depends, yet most would
group the k-implies as unsupervised. Other than determining the quantity of groups,
k-signifies “takes in” the bunches all alone with no data about which group a percep-
tion has a place. k-means can be semidirected. Why use k-implies? I don’t think many
researchers will have an issue with this [35]. The key offering purpose of k-means is its
straightforwardness. Its straightforwardness means it is for the most part quicker and
more proficient than other calculations, particularly over huge data sets. It shows signs of
improvement.
k-means can be utilized to prebunch an enormous data set after a more costly group
investigation on the subgroups. k-means can likewise be utilized to quickly “play” with k
and investigate whether there are disregarded examples or connections in the data set. It’s
not all smooth cruising.
Two key shortcomings of k-means are its vulnerability to anomalies and its vulnerabil-
ity to the underlying decision of centroids. One last thing to remember is that k-means
are intended to work on ceaseless information; one will have to run a few iterations to
motivate it to chip away at discrete information [36]. Where is it utilized? A huge amount
of executions for k-implies grouping are accessible online, through the programs Apache
Mahout, Julia, R, SciPy, Weka, MATLAB, and SAS.
If decision trees and clustering do not impress you, you are going to love the next
algorithm.
Classification Algorithms: k-NN

The k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) classifier is a standout among the most surely under-
stood techniques in information mining, on account of its viability and effortlessness.
Nonetheless, it does not have the versatility to oversee enormous data sets. The funda-
mental issues found for managing vast scales of information are runtimes and memory
utilization.
Application of Big Data: A Case Study

Economics and Finance
Over the previous decade, more undertakings accepted the data-driven approach
to management that was more centered around organizations, decreasing risks and
improving execution. The undertakings are executing specific data examination tasks
to accumulate, store, regulate, and separate tremendous data sets to the extent of
sources to perceive key business bits of learning that can be handled to support better
essential initiatives. As a case in point, available cash-related data sources join stock
costs, coin, and subordinate trades, trade records, high-repeat trades, unstructured
news and compositions, clients’ sureness, and business sentiments secured in Web
system administration and the Web, among others. Separating these immense data
sets helps to measure a firm’s perils and, furthermore, methodical threats. It requires
specialists who are familiar with advanced real frameworks in a portfolio organiza-
tion system, securities heading, prohibitive trading, cash-related directing, and peril
organization [37].
Inspecting a limitless leading body of financial and budgetary data is trying. As a
case in point, a basic contraption in inspecting the joint advancement of the macroeco-
nomics time game plan, the standard vector autoregressive (VAR) consolidates nearly 10
variables, given the way that the amount of parameters creates quadratic partners with
the degree of the model. In any case, nowadays econometricians need to examine multi-
variate time plans with more than numerous variables. Merging all information into the
VAR model will achieve great overfitting and unpleasant conjecture execution. One plan
is to rely on upon sparsity suppositions, under which new quantifiable gadgets have
been made [38,39]. Another important topic is portfolio upgrade and threat organization
[40,41]. Regarding this issue, assessing the covariance and opposite covariance systems
of the benefits of the points of interest in the portfolio are a crucial part, except that we
have 1,000 stocks to be supervised. There are 500 covariance parameters to be surveyed
[42]. Despite the likelihood that we could evaluate each individual parameter definitely,
the cumulated screw up of the whole grid estimation can be broadly under system mea-
sures. This requires new quantifiable procedures. It could not be any more self-evident,
for occurrence [43–49], on evaluating immense covariance systems and their regressive
nature.
Other Applications
Big Data has different diverse applications. Taking casual group data examination for
an exampl, huge measures of social gathering information are being made by Twitter,
Facebook, LinkedIn, and YouTube. These data reveal different individuals’ qualities and
have been mishandled in various fields. In a like manner, Web systems administration
and internet contain a massive measure of information on customer preferences and con-
fidences [50], driving money-related perspectives markers, business cycles, political dis-
positions, and the financial and social states of an overall population. It is predicted that
the casual group data will continue to impact and be abused for some new applications. A
couple of other new applications that are getting the opportunity to be possible in the Big
Data era include the following:
1. Personalized organizations. With more individual data accumulated, business

endeavors can give tweaked organizations information regarding individual
preferences. As a case in point, Target (a retailing association in the United
States) can expect a customer’s needs by looking at that person’s accumulated
trade records.
2. Internet security. Right when a framework-based strike happens, undeniable data
on framework development may allow us to gainfully recognize the source and
centers of the ambush.
3. Personalized medicine. Additional satisfaction-associated limits, for example, indi-
vidual subnuclear qualities, human activities, human affinities, and environmental
components, are as of now available. Using these bits of information, it is possible

to dissect an individual’s disease [51] and select individualized drugs.
4. Digital humanities. Nowadays, various records are being digitized. For example,
Google has checked countless and recognized about every word in every one of all
published books. This produces an enormous amount of data and engages subjects
in the humanities, for instance, mapping the transportation structure in ancient
Rome, envisioning the money-related relationships in Chinese history, a focus on
how typical vernaculars are created after some time, or separating unquestionable
events.
Salient Features of Big Data

Big Data makes segments stand out that are not shared by the routine data sets. These
components stance basic troubles to data examination and goad the progression of new
true systems. Not at all like standard data sets, where the example size is customarily
greater than the estimation, Big Data is depicted by a colossal illustration size and high
dimensionality. To begin with, we discuss here the impact of boundless size on perception
heterogeneity: from one perspective [52], tremendous example size grants us to uncover cov-
ered plans associated with little subpopulations and feeble shared characteristic over the
whole mass of data. Of course, showing the trademark heterogeneity of Big Data requires
more progressed quantifiable strategies. In addition, we discuss a couple of exceptional
miracles associated with high dimensionality, including disturbance accumulation, spu-
rious relationship, and circumstantial endogeneity. These fascinating components make
traditional quantifiable methodologies off base. Shockingly, most high-dimensional quan-
tifiable frameworks address simple fuss-accumulating and spurious association issues,
but not unplanned endogeneity. They rely on upon erogeneity suspicions that consistently
cannot be endorsed by assembled data, due to unplanned endogeneity.
Heterogeneity
Big Data is routinely created through conglomeration from various data sources contrast-
ing with different subpopulations. Each subpopulation may show some wonderful parts
not shared by others [53]. In built-up settings where the example size is small or moder-
ate, data centers from small subpopulations are generally delegated exemptions, and it
is hard to proficiently show them on account of lacking observations. In any case, in the
Big Data time frame, the significant case size engages us to better understand hetero-
geneity, uncovering knowledge toward concentrates, for instance, researching the rela-
tionship between certain covariates (e.g., qualities or single-nucleotide polymorphisms
[SNPs]) and unprecedented results (e.g., unprecedented contaminations or illnesses in
little masses) and understanding why certain medications (e.g., chemotherapy) provide
an advantage to a subpopulation and harm another subpopulation. To better demonstrate
this point, we exhibit this with a mix model for the people:
λ1 p1 ( y ; θ1(x)) +  ⋅ + λm pm ( y ; θm(x))
where λj ≥ 0 addresses the degree of jth subpublic, p j y; θ j (x) is the likelihood movement of
the response of jth submass accepted that the covariates x with θ j (x) as the parameter vec-
tor. Eventually, various subpopulations are every so often viewed, i.e., λj is small. Exactly
when the case size n is moderate, nλj can be small, making it infeasible that it affects the
covariate-subordinate parameters θ j (x) in light of the nonattendance of information. In
any case, in light of the fact that Big Data is portrayed by a considerable illustration size,
n, the example size nλj for the jth subpopulation can be unobtrusively broad, paying little
respect to the likelihood that λj is small [54]. This enables us to more absolutely understand
about the subpopulation parameters θ j (·). Essentially, the purpose of inclination brought
by Big Data is to understand the heterogeneity of subpopulations, for instance, the upsides
of certain modified treatments, which are infeasible when the sample size is small or
moderate.
Big Data also allows us to reveal slight shared qualities across whole masses, due to tre-
mendous illustration sizes. As a case in point, the benefit for the heart of one refreshment
of red wine each night can be difficult to estimate without an incomprehensible case size.
Basically, prosperity risks to presentation of certain normal components must be more con-
vincingly surveyed when the illustration sizes are adequately broad [55]. More than the previ-
ously expressed central focuses, the heterogeneity of Big Data in a like manner brings basic
challenges to quantifiable derivation. Reasoning the mix model in the above equation for
gigantic data sets requires utilization of quantifiable and computational procedures. With
low-power estimations, standard frameworks, for instance, the expectation–maximization
computation for constrained mix models can be associated. In high-power estimations,
nevertheless, we need to purposely regularize the evaluation method to refrain from over-
fitting or upheaval of the total data set and to devise extraordinary computations.
Noise Accumulation
Looking at Big Data obliges us to in the meantime gauge or test various parameters.
Estimation errors accumulate (noise accumulation) when a decision or gauge standard
depends upon innumerable parameters. The effect of such noise is especially genuine in
high-power estimations and may even order the honest-to-goodness signs. It is normally
dealt with by the sparsity suspicion [2]. Take a high-dimensional plan for an event [56]. A poor
gathering is a result of the nearness of various weak segments that do not add to the
diminishing of request errors [4]. For delineation, we consider a gathering issue where the
data are from two classes:
X1, … , Xn ~ Nd (µ1, Id) and Y1, … , Yn ~ Nd (µ 2 , Id)
This groups another recognition Z ∈ Rd into either the first or the modest. To diagram
the impact of commotion conglomeration in this portrayal, we used n = 100 and then d =
1,000. We set μ1 to 0 and μ2 to remain insufficient, i.e., simply the underlying 10 areas of μ2
were nonzero with a value 3 and the dissimilar units were 0. Figure 1.1 plots the underly-
ing two first sections by using the fundamental m = 2, 40, or 200 components and the whole
1,000 components. As shown in these plots, when m = 2, we obtain high discriminative
power. Regardless, the discriminative power ends up being low when m is excessively
broad, in light of noise accumulation. The underlying 10 highlights add to groupings, and
the remaining components do not. In this way, when m is >10, the procedure does not
receive any additional banners, yet the hoard uproars: the greater the m, the more the total
Composed of t samples
Map Reduce
TS Setup()
1 2 … k
1 2 … k 1
1
2 CDreducer
2 …
CD1
TR1 … t
t Initially all distances are+infinitive
Reduce() While maps running
1 2 … k
1 1 2 … k
2 1
CD2
TR2 … 2 CDreducer
TR t …
t
Update
1 2 … k
Cleanup()
1
2 Majority voting
CDM
TRM … Pred1 Pred2 Predt
t
FIGURE 1.1
Flowchart of the proposed MR-kNN algorithm.
tumult increases, which separates the course of action system with dimensionality. For
m = 40, the gathered signs reimburse the assembled tumult, so that the underlying two
fundamental fragments still have awesome discriminative power. At whatever point
m = 200, the amassed confusion surpasses the sign increases. The above examination
rouses the utilization of lacking models and variable decision to beat the effect of noice
accumulating. Case in point, in the game plan model [2], instead of using every one of the
segments, we could pick a subset of components which fulfill the best banner-to-confusion
extent [57]. Such a meager model gives more improved gathering execution. By the day’s
end, variable decision plays a crucial part in overcoming clatter, gathering all together and
backslide conjecture. In any case, variable willpower in tall approximations is trying a
straight result of spurious association, incidental endogeneity, heterogeneity, and estima-
tion botches.
Spurious Correlation
High dimensionality in a like manner brings spurious association, implying the way that
various uncorrelated unpredictable variables may have high example connections in high
estimations. A spurious relationship may achieve false legitimate revelations and wrong
quantifiable inductions [58]. Consider the issue of evaluating the coefficient vector β of an
immediate model:
y = Xβ + Var() = σ 2 Id[x1, … , xn ]T
∈Rn×d addresses the design cross-section, ∈Rn addresses a free self-assertive noise vector,
and Id is the d × d character matrix. To adjust to the tumult gathering issue, when the esti-
mation d is like or greater than the case size n, it is renowned to acknowledge that selective
somewhat number of variables add to the response, i.e., β is a lacking vector. Under this
sparsity assumption, variable decision can be directed to keep up a key separation from
clatter accumulating, improve the execution of figure, and redesign the interpretability of
the model with closefisted demonstration. In high approximations, notwithstanding for a
perfect as clear as (3), variable determination is attempting a result of the proximity of spu-
rious association. In particular, Ref. [11] exhibited that, when the dimensionality is high,
the imperative variables can be especially compared with a couple of spurious variables
which are deductively unimportant [59]. We consider an essential case to demonstrate this
wonder. Let x1,..., xn be without n impression of a d-dimensional Gaussian unpredictable
vector X = (X1,..., Xd)T ∼Nd (0, Id). We again and again copy the data with n = 60 and d =
800 and 6,400 for 1,000 times. Figure 1.2 exhibits the observational transport of the most
compelling incomparable case relationship coefficient between the essential variable with
the staying ones described as follows:
r = max j ≥ 2 Corr X1, X j
Where Corr (X1, Xj) is the example relationship amongst the variables X1 and Xj. We
comprehend that the best aggregate illustration association gets the chance to be higher
as dimensionality additions. Additionally, we can enlist the most compelling aggregate
different relationship amongst X1 and straight mixes of a couple of pointless spurious
variables:
R = max S = 4 max{βj} 4 j = 1 Corr( X1, j ∈S βj X j)
This equation plots the definite scattering of the most great incomparable illustration
association coefficient between X1 and j ∈ SβjXj, where S is any size four subset of {2,..., d}
and βj is the scarcest squares backslide coefficient of Xj while backsliding X1 on {Xj}j ∈ S.
Afresh, we see that in spite of the way that X1 is totally free of X2,..., Xd, the association
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FIGURE 1.2
Data Mining with Big Data.
amongst X1 and the closest direct blend of any four variables of {Xj}j = 1 to X1 can be high.
We imply [14] about more theoretical results on depicting the solicitations of r.
The spurious association has basic impact on variable decision and may provoke false
exploratory exposures. Let XS = (X j) j∈S be the sub-discretionary vector recorded by S
and let S be the picked set that has the higher spurious association with X1. For example,
when n = 60 and d = 6,400, we see that X1 is in every way that really matters unclear
from X S for a set S with |S| = 4. If X1 addresses the expression level of a quality that
is accountable for a disease, we can’t remember it from the other four qualities in S that
have an equivalent judicious power, notwithstanding the way that they are deductively
unimportant.
Other than variable decision, spurious association may in like manner incite wrong
quantifiable finding. We illuminate this by considering again the same straight model as
in (3). Here we might need to assess the standard bumble σ of the remaining, which is
prominently highlighted in quantifiable deductions of backslide coefficients, model deter-
mination, honesty of-fit test and immaterial backslide. Allow S to be an arrangement of
chose flexible and P S be the figure matrix on the segment space of X S. The standard wait-
ing change estimator, in perspective of the picked variables, is
σ2 = yT (In − PS)y n −|S|.
The ideal is right. All things considered, the situation is absolutely particular when the
variables are picked in light of data. In particular, Ref. [14] showed that when there are
various spurious variables, σ2 is really considered little, which drives further to wrong
verifiable inductions including model determination or vitality tests, and false consistent
revelations, for instance, finding inaccurately qualities for nuclear instruments. They also
propose a refitted cross-acknowledgment methodology to contrast the issue.
Coincidental Endogeneity
Coincidental endogeneity is another unpretentious issue raised by high dimensionality. In
a relapse setting Y = dj = 1 βj X j + ε, the term “endogeneity” implies that a few indicators
{Xj} connect with the lingering commotion ε. The ordinary inadequate model expect is
Y = j βj X j + ε , and E (εX j) = 0 for j = 1, … , d,
with a little set S = {j: βj = 0}. The exogenous supposition in (7) that the leftover clamor ε is
uncorrelated with every one of the indicators is essential for legitimacy of most existing
measurable systems, including variable choice consistency. In spite of the fact that this
suspicion looks honest, it is anything but difficult to be damaged in high measurements, as
some of variables {Xj} are of course related to ε, making most high-dimensional strategies
factually invalid. To clarify the endogeneity issue in more detail, assume that obscure to
us, the reaction Y is identified with three covariates as takes after:
Y = X1 + X 2 + X 3 + ε , with Eε X j = 0, for j = 1, 2 , 3.
In the information-gathering stage, we don’t have the foggiest idea about the genuine
model, and in this way gather however many covariates that are conceivably identified
with Y as could be allowed, as we would like to incorporate all individuals in S in (7). By

the way, some of those Xjs (for j = 1, 2, 3) may be associated with the remaining clamor ε.
This negates the exogenous demonstrating suspicion in (7). Indeed, the more covariates
that are gathered or measured, the harder it is to fulfill this suspicion. Dissimilar to spuri-
ous connections, coincidental endogeneity alludes to the honest-to-goodness presence of
relationships between variables inadvertently, both because of high dimensionality.
The previous is practically equivalent to discovering that two persons resemble each; how-
ever, they have no hereditary connection. The latter is like finding an associate, as you both
are effortlessly happening in a major city. All the more by and large, endogeneity happens as
a consequence of choice predispositions, estimation blunders, and excluded variables. These
marvels emerge much of the time in the investigation of Big Data, essentially because of two
reasons: With the advantage of new high-throughput estimation methods, researchers can
and tend to gather whatever amount mechanisms as could be predictable below the condi-
tions. This in like manner expands the likelihood that some of them may be associated with
the lingering clamor, by the way. Big Data is generally amassed from numerous sources with
possibly diverse information-creating plans. This builds the likelihood of determination incli-
nation and estimation mistakes, which additionally cause potential accidental endogeneity.
Whether coincidental endogeneity shows up in genuine datasets and by what method
might we test it by and by? We consider a genomics study in which 148 microarray tests are
downloaded from the GEO database and Array Express. These specimens are made under
the Affymetrix HGU1 [60] a stage for human subjects with prostate malignancy. The acquired
data set contains 22,283 tests, comparing 12,719 qualities. In this case, we are keen on the qual-
ity named discoid in area receptor family, part 1 (abridged as DDR1). DDR1 encodes receptor
tyrosine kinases, which assume an imperative part in the correspondence of cells with their
microenvironment. DDR1 is known not exceedingly with prostate tumors, and we wish to
study its relationship with different qualities in patients with prostate malignancy. We took
the quality articulations of DDR1 as the reaction variable Y and the outflows of all the remain-
ing 12,718 qualities as pointers. The leftward panel of Figure 1.3 shows the investigational
circulation of the connections between the reaction and individual indicators.
m=2 m = 40
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
−2
−2
−4
−2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2
(a) m = 200 (b) m = 1000
5.0
5
2.5
0.0 0
−2.5 −5
−5.0 −10
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 −5 0 5 10
(c) (d)
FIGURE 1.3
Scatter plots for projection of the observed data (n = 100 from each class) on to the first two principal compo-
nents of the best m-dimensional selected feature space. A projected data with the filled circle indicates the first
and the filled triangle indicates the second class.
To show the presence of endogeneity, we fit an L1-punished minimum squares relapse

(Lasso) on the information, and the punishment is naturally chosen by means of 10-fold
cross-acceptance (37 qualities are chosen). Whether refit a standard slightest-squares
relapse on the chose model to ascertain the leftover vector. In the right board of Figure
1.3, we plot the exact conveyance of the relationships between the indicators and the
residuals. We see the remaining commotion is very closely associated with numerous
indicators. To ensure these connections are not absolutely brought about by a spurious
relationship, we present an invalid dispersion of the spurious connections by arbitrarily
permuting the requests of columns in the outline grid, such that the indicators are in
reality free of the lingering commotion. By looking at the two disseminations, we see
that the dispersion of connections among indicators and lingering clamor on the crude
information has a heavier tail than that on the permuted information. This outcome
gives stark confirmation of endogeneity in the information. The above talk demonstrates
that coincidental endogeneity is prone to happen in Big Data. The issue of managing
endogenous variables is not surely new in high-dimensional measurements. What is the
result of this endogeneity? Ref. [16] demonstrated that endogeneity causes irregularity
in model choice. Specifically, they gave intensive investigation to delineate the effect of
endogeneity on high-dimensional factual induction and proposed elective strategies to
lead direct relapse with consistency ensured under weaker conditions. See likewise the
accompanying segment.
Impact on Statistical Thinking

As discussed in the previous section, huge specimen size and high dimensionality bring
heterogeneity, clamor collection, spurious connection, and accidental endogeneity. These
elements of Big Data make customary measurable techniques invalid. In this segment,
we present new factual strategies that can deal with these difficulties. To handle the com-
motion-gathering issue, we accept that the model parameter β as in (3) is meager. The
traditional model determination hypothesis proposes to pick a parameter vector β that
minimizes the negative punished semiprobability:
− QL (β) + λ0
where QL(β) is the semiprobability of β and · 0 speaks to the L0 pseudostandard (i.e., the
quantity of nonzero sections in a vector). Here, λ > 0 is a regularization parameter that
controls the predisposition difference tradeoff. The answer for the streamlining issue in
(8) has decent factual properties. Nonetheless, it is basically combinatorics improvement
and does not scale to expansive scale issues. The estimator in (8) can be stretched out to a
more broad structure
n (β) + d j = 1 P λ , γ (βj)
where the term n (β) processes the heavens of the appropriateness of the perfect with limit
β and dj = 1 P λ , γ (βj)
is a sparsity-actuating punishment that empowers sparsity, in which λ is again the tun-

ing parameter that controls the predisposition difference tradeoff and γ is a conceivable
calibrate parameter which controls the level of concavity of the punishment capacity [8].
Famous decisions of the punishment capacity Pλ, γ (·) incorporate the hard-thresholding
punishment, softthresholding punishment [6], easily cut pardon deviation (SCAD) [8]
and mini-max concavity punishment (MCP) [10]. Figure 1.4 envisions these punishment
capacities for λ = 1. We see that all punishment capacities are collapsed sunken, yet the
softthresholding (L1-) punishment is additionally raised. The parameter γ in SCAD and
MCP controls the level of concavity. From Figure 1.4, we see that a littler estimation of γ
results in more inward punishments. At the point when γ gets to be bigger, SCAD and
MCP focalize to the delicate thresholding punishment. MCP is a speculation of the hard-
thresholding punishment which relates to y = 1.
In what manner might we pick among these punishment capacities? In applications, we
prescribe to utilize either SCAD or MCP thresholding, since they join the benefits of both
hard- and delicate-thresholding administrators. Numerous effective calculations have
been proposed for taking care of the enhancement issue in (9) with the above four pun-
ishments (see the section on “Effect on processing infrastructure”). The punished semi-
probability estimator (9) is somewhat strange. A firmly related technique is the sparsest
arrangement in the high certainty set, presented in the late book section in Ref. [17], which
has a much better measurable instinct. It is for the most part a material rule that isolates
the information, data, and the sparsity supposition. Assume that the information data are
abridged by the capacity n (β) in (9). This can be a probability, semiprobability, or misfor-
tune capacity. The underlying parameter vector β0 more often than not fulfills (β0) = 0,
where (·) is the angle vector of the normal misfortune capacity (β) = E n (β). In this manner,
a characteristic certainty set for β0 is
Cn = {β ∈ Rd: n (β) ∞ ≤ γn },
Dimension Dimension
d = 800 d = 800
d = 6400 d = 6400
10 10
Density
Density
5 5
0 0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Maximum absolute correlation Maximum absolute correlation
FIGURE 1.4
Illustration of spurious correlation. (Left) Distribution of the Maximum absolute sample correlation coefficients
between X1 and {Xi}j ≠ 1. (Right) Distribution of the maximum absolute sample correlation between X1 and
the closest linear projections of any four members of {Xj}i ≠ 1 to X1. Here the dimension d is 800 and 6400, the
sample size n is 60. The result is based on 1,000 situations.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
child.” He was allowed to leave the depot and go
unmolested. He went into hiding until the scare was over.
Hirschberg was sent by a court-martial at Camp Lee to the
Atlanta prison for twenty years.
“Pittsburgh had some amusing incidents,” says the Chief who has
been so freely quoted, and he has included several of them in his
report:
There was little bootlegging as liquor dealers endeavored
to comply with the law forbidding the sale of intoxicants to
soldiers in uniform or within restricted areas adjacent to
army camps. One negro was suspected, and upon being
approached by an operative, readily agreed to sell a quart
of “cold tea” for $9.00. The operative bought—and then
arrested the negro. When the “cold tea” was tested, it was
found to be just what the negro said it was—cold tea!
An alien enemy refused to register and was taken to the
League headquarters for intensive examination. The
operative was called to the telephone on an urgent
message just as he entered headquarters. He hastened to
the telephone, leaving his prisoner where he could not
escape. When he had finished, he discovered his prisoner
missing. It transpired that another operative had come
into headquarters, and the prisoner had asked him where
aliens registered. The operative asked “Why?” and when
he was informed that the man wished to register, he
obligingly agreed to accompany him to the United States
Marshal’s office. He was chagrined to find that he had
deprived his fellow operative of a case.
A peculiar case came under the notice of the League. A
Russian of draft age, whose father and brothers and
sisters were naturalized, claimed exemption on the ground
that the father had not taken out his citizenship papers
until after he, the subject, had passed his majority, and he
had never lost his Russian citizenship. The objector was
sent to jail, but the decision was rendered that his point
was well taken and he was released.
The League did a wonderful work in reconstructing
families, returning wayward sons to sorrowing mothers,
and in rehabilitating young men whose patriotism and
fidelity to duty were lukewarm. In correcting and
preventing trouble the American Protective League
performed a splendid service to the Government.
CHAPTER VI
THE STORY OF BOSTON
Massachusetts Somewhat Mixed in Safety Measures—Early

Embarrassment of Riches—Brief History of A. P. L.—
Organization and Its Success—Stories of the Trail.
After A. P. L. began to reach out into a wide development by reason
of the hard work of the National Directors at Washington, D. J. in
that town began to cry for more. It sent out to all its special agents
and local offices a circular explaining the great assistance which the
League was capable of rendering the Government, and asked the
assignment of a special agent as an A. P. L. detail in each bureau
locality. This circular went out on February 6, 1918, and Boston
received a copy duly, as well as the request of the Provost Marshal
General to the Governor of Massachusetts for aid in selective service
matters. At that time there was no division of A. P. L. organized in
Boston. A few days later the Massachusetts Committee of Public
Safety, which had been organized and active ever since the
beginning of the war, was asked to interest itself to the extent of
having some good man start a Boston division of A. P. L. The latter
matter was slow in development because of the extent and
thoroughness of the earlier state organization. The latter had been
taking care of the food, fuel and other administrative work in
assistance to the Government. The feeling was that it might be
better to enlarge the Committee of Public Safety than to start any
new body which might be a source of misunderstanding and friction.
The Department of Justice work in Boston during the early days of
the war had not been satisfactory. Boston, so far from being all
Puritan, has in reality one of the most mixed populations in the
country. There was some feeling against the Department of Justice
in Boston, and some feeling also against any new body which
proposed to link up closely with that arm of the Government. D. J.
had been handling for itself the alien enemy, anti-military and
propaganda work. Yet very early in the game D. J. was overworked
in Boston, as it had been in every other great city in America, and it
really needed help. There were a great many thinking men who
believed that it could be much relieved by the well-organized
support of the banking, real estate, industrial and commercial
activities of the city, as had been the case all over the United States
where A. P. L. divisions had been created.
Still another embarrassment, however, slowed up the early activities
of A. P. L. in Boston. That city having in its population many French
Canadians, Irish, and so forth, of the Catholic faith, had developed a
sort of Church problem, and there had become somewhat active the
organization known as the “A. P. A.”—whose initials are somewhat
close to those of A. P. L. Many thought that confusion between the
two organizations would result. There had been, moreover, in this
state of independent thought, a great many other “Leagues” of this,
that and the other sort; so that many felt that Boston had about
enough leagues as matters then stood.
At about this time Mr. W. Rodman Peabody of the Committee of
Public Safety pointed out to Washington the efficient manner in
which Mr. Endicott had organized that committee throughout the
State. There was a local committee of safety in every town, and also
a state-wide machine organizing the banking, real estate and other
important business activities. He suggested that instead of a division
of A. P. L., there ought to be a sub-organization “organized by the
Committee of Public Safety at the request of the Department of
Justice.” It was understood that this minor organization should have
the general features of A. P. L. and should act as the Massachusetts
branch of A. P. L. A list of good names was suggested of persons
suitable for the organization as thus outlined.
Mr. Elting of the National Directors, however, made the point that an
arrangement of this kind would have a tendency to discredit or to
disintegrate the League in other cities. The Attorney-General also
was opposed to any organization which did not show the exact
status of a purely volunteer body, as had been done in all other
parts of the United States.
Mr. Peabody still wanted the Committee of Public Safety to appear as
the parent or controlling body, and a lot of valuable time was wasted
over this tweedle-dee argument. A compromise was effected, and on
April 15, 1918, the National Directors had advice that the
Massachusetts organization was hiring offices, and assumed that the
work had begun and that Boston would copy as nearly as possible
the form of letterhead used by A. P. L., putting the names of the
National Directors on the left-hand side and substituting the words
“Protective League.” Underneath that was to appear the legend:
“Organized by the Massachusetts Public Safety Committee under the
Direction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of
Investigation.” Boston expressed the belief that Washington would
not be able to tell the difference between this organization and any
other so far as loyalty and efficiency were concerned, although
sensible of the Washington feeling that Massachusetts was starting a
year late and might be suspected of lack in coöperation.
All concerned having thus been satisfied, Massachusetts began
A. P. L. work a trifle late in the game, but none the less proceeded to
show that it could produce as effective an organization as any other
in the country. Assistant Chief H. E. Trumbull makes his report on
the regulation A. P. L. blanks and letterheads, and adds the following
data as to the later organization of A. P. L.:
Mr. Samuel Wolcott was appointed Chief, and we took two
offices at 45 Milk Street, in the same building with the
Department of Justice. Mr. Trumbull, then a volunteer
operative with the Department proper, consented to help
with the new organization, and Mr. John B. Hanrahan was
appointed by the Department of Justice as a special agent
to oversee the work of the new organization.
A few weeks later we found that the work was too great
to handle in such small quarters, and about the first of
May contracted for half of the eighth floor of the building,
the Department of Justice taking the other half. At this
time Mr. Trumbull was appointed Assistant Chief.
As a nucleus of the state organization, we took the names
of the men who had been doing volunteer work for the
United States Attorney’s office, and we proceeded to send
out to these men the work that came in their territory, and
as they proved satisfactory, appointed them as inspectors
of a certain district and gave them directions whereby
they organized.
About July first, the League took over from the
Department the handling of all draft matters, the
Department loaning to the League two special agents to
supervise and the League furnishing all the men for the
actual work.
We think the strongest recommendation we can give of
our loyalty and interest is the approximate number of
cases handled from April 11, 1918, to February 1, 1919,
which number amounts to about 5,000, with about 4,000
draft cases under the Selective Service Act.
On or about October first, Mr. Wolcott resigned for the
purpose of taking up active duties with the Army, and Mr.
John W. Hannigan was appointed Chief in his place.
The relations of the League with the Department have
been of the closest, and there has never been any friction.
Special Agent Kelleher has stated that if it had not been
for the activities of the League, it would have been
absolutely impossible for his office to handle the great
volume of work.
Once in its swing, Boston Division proceeded to do as Boston always
does, and to work in thorough and efficient fashion. A detailed
statement of the work for Department of Justice covers 525 cases of
alien enemy activities, 292 cases under the Espionage act, one case
of treason, seven of sabotage, eleven of interference with the draft,
128 cases of propaganda, twenty cases of radicals and socialists,
seven naturalization cases, and other investigations amounting to
484.
For reasons above outlined, the division did little in food and fuel,
and there was not much to do for the Navy. There were seventy-
seven cases of character and loyalty investigations, 331 passport
cases, and 262 cases that had to do with war insurance and like
matters.
A. P. L. was, as usual, of great use to the War Department. The
division conducted 514 investigations for local boards, examined
4,000 slacker raid cases, as well as fifteen gentlemen who did not
know whether to work or fight. There were 1,908 applicants for
overseas service who were investigated, as well as 510 applicants
for commissions. The division deserves compliments for its steady
and intelligent administration of the whole range of the complicated
problems that rose out of the war situation.
There were all sorts of curious cases which came up in Boston as in
other cities, which show alien artlessness or slacker subterfuges
much as they appear elsewhere, as well as a certain occasional
informality in regard to the observance of the ordinary civil laws. For
instance, one does not recall the name of Edward Burkhart as one of
the occupants of the Mayflower on its arrival; neither does Mr.
Burkhart seem to have been fully possessed of Puritan principles, for
it was alleged that he had been dishonorably discharged from the U.
S. Navy, was dishonorably living with a woman who was not his wife,
and had dishonorably failed to register for the draft. As Mr. Burkhart
was hiding out somewhere, an A. P. L. operative was put on his trail.
He went to the house where Burkhart was living and told the woman
in the case that she was doing wrong in covering up the
whereabouts of Burkhart. He added that he believed the man was in
the house or would come back to the house, in spite of all she had
said. That was at three o’clock in the afternoon, and the operative
concluded to sit in the house and wait to see what would happen, all
exits being guarded by other operatives. Nothing did happen until
9:15 that night, although the house was searched. At last, up in the
attic, a small blind space was found where the electric light wires
went up to the roof. A flash light here illuminated the dark interior—
and disclosed Mr. Burkhart resting rather uncomfortably on the cross
beams, where he had been since early that afternoon—something of
a Spartan, if not much of a Puritan. It was found that he was
twenty-five years of age and not thirty-seven. It was also found that
he had the classification card belonging to another man, whereupon
he was accused of failure to file his questionnaire. On December 30,
he was brought before the Grand Jury, found guilty and sentenced to
East Cambridge jail.
Another gentleman, Mr. Ralph E——, when he filled out his
questionnaire, swore that he was a married man and had a wife and
child dependent upon him. It was discovered that the woman was
not his wife. The man consulted the partner of the A. P. L. inspector
—the two being members of the same law firm—in professional
capacity. Here, therefore, was a question of ethics involving the
privilege of a confession made to an attorney and also the oath
taken to the A. P. L. The two law partners called in Mr. E—— and
gave him good advice about the crime of perjury. As the man did
what he could to square up matters, it was decided to let that part
of his case drop. He was not sent to prison.
Mr. Herbert C—— had an ambition to go across as a member of the
American Red Cross and had good recommendations. A. P. L.,
however, discovered that he was an alleged dope fiend. He did not
go with the Red Cross.
Peter R——, of a town near Boston, while arguing with two men
about the war, made a few such casual statements as “To hell with
Liberty Bonds,” “To hell with Thrift Stamps,” “The Government is no
good,” “I will not fight for this country,” “I will not register,” “I am
going back to my own country, Russia,” and “The whole United
States Government be damned.” This man was brought before the
Assistant United States District Attorney from the police court, but
the attorney declined to prosecute and said that Peter was only
playful. He did not think that a private trial could be used in a
Federal prosecution. Most excellent! Obviously, it is the spirit that
killeth, and the letter that giveth life!
A Mr. C—— swore he had a wife and child dependent on him, and so
he ought not to be asked to fight. A. P. L. found out that he had
spent ten thousand dollars the year before, that his father gave him
all he wished, that he was a Boston clubman, that he was not
engaged in any productive industry. Held to the grand jury in five
thousand dollars bail.
A man by the name of J—— was reported on November 14 to have
made disloyal and pro-German remarks. Two days later, three
affidavits were before the Assistant District Attorney. In this case the
attorney ruled that although the men had a clean cut case against
him, there was no need to prosecute him if he had been warned.
Indeed, why annoy an alien?
Boston is well known in the matter of tea parties. An A. P. L. officer
was taking tea with a navy officer on board ship in Boston harbor,
and the latter complained that his men were getting too much cold
tea on their shore leave. A. P. L. took it up with the Naval
Intelligence, and within a week a man was taken in custody for
selling such beverages to men in uniform.
Mr. Charles D. Milkowicz, or some such name, was alleged to dance
in happiness at the report of any German victory. It was his custom
to fire any employe in the factory where he was foreman, if the
employe showed any pro-American tendencies. Once he said
regarding the U. S. flag, “Get that damned flag out of the way.” He
used to wear an iron cross stick pin up to April 6, 1917. He was a
member of the German Club, and used to buy silver nails for the
Hindenburg statue which they maintained at that club, such nails
retailing for a dollar a throw, all for the good of the Kaiser. A. P. L.
started an investigation which showed that this man seemed to be
uncertain whether he came from Russia or Germany and was equally
indefinite as to his age. He was not registered as an alien enemy,
and was charged with falsifying his questionnaire as well as violating
Section 3 of the Espionage Act. The Assistant U. S. Attorney
handling alien enemy matters in Massachusetts refused to act in this
case. So far as known, the attorney is still in office, and Mr.
Milkowicz is still in Boston.
Mr. Hans D——, a German waiter in Boston, belonged to a German
club where considerable advance news of German operations
circulated. Mr. D—— said he sent money to Germany; said that
Germany would win the war; drank to the health of the Kaiser on
hearing that an American ship had been torpedoed. In short, Mr. D
—— ran quite true to form in all ways. A photograph was found
which looked like him in a German uniform—he must have been a
German officer, because they found in his possession a half dozen
spoons which he had stolen in New England, in default of better
opportunity in Belgium. At least he was prosecuted for larceny and
was fined $15.00. Later his reputation was found to be so bad as a
propagandist that he was interned on a presidential warrant.
It occurred to the fertile brain of Mr. Julius Bongraber that a varied
spelling of his name might prove useful to him in times of draft.
Sometimes he wrote his name as Graber, sometimes as Van Graber,
and sometimes as Julius V. Gaber. His classification card named him
as G. V. Gaber. When interrogated as to all these matters, he
admitted that the initial “G” ought to have been “Y,” because that
was the way Yulius was pronounced, anyhow, in his country. At the
same time he left a card over his door signed J. V. Gaber. He
declared that he was a German, also an Austrian, also a neutral, but
had sympathies with Russia. To others he said that his name was
Von Gaber; that he was an alien, but would go where he liked. He
had taken out first citizenship papers, but had registered for return
with the Austria-Hungarian Consul. A. P. L. got this multifold party on
the carpet, but on his statement that he intended to go to New York,
the prosecution seems to have been dropped, although the dossier
was forwarded to New York after him.
There was a draft evader in Boston by the name of R——, who did
not file his questionnaire. He was found at his home by an agent of
A. P. L. and agreed to accompany the latter. It was the intention of
the operative to turn over his man to a policeman, but policemen
seemed to be rare in Boston, for in two miles not one was sighted.
The draft evader then evaded yet more, and was not found for
several days thereafter. The man’s mother, however, when found,
averred she had not seen her son for two months. A plain patriotic
talk was made to her with the result that after a while, she found
the said son and turned him over to the authorities for service in the
army.
Boston Division in one case revoked the credentials which it had
issued to an operative. The man’s name was Oscar F——, and the
position seemed to go to his head. He took to borrowing money
right and left, once getting as high as fifty dollars on a touch of one
of the special agents. He admitted that he was probably the best
secret service agent in the country, and told people he was getting
$3,000 a year and expenses. After that he usually touched his
listener for $5.00. Oscar was doing well until they let him out. His
name ended in “ski.”
Boston, being near the Northern seaboard, heard of a good many
cases of mysterious light signals. One operative in the Lynn district
was sure he had seen dots and dashes coming across the bay at
night in the approved fashion of mysterious night signals. They put a
telegrapher on the case but he could not make out the message. At
one o ’clock in the morning four tried men and true of the A. P. L.
rowed out with muffled oars to an anchored yacht which seemed to
be the place from which the light signals appeared. They found five
pairs of feet pointing to the zenith. Calling upon the feet to
surrender, they boarded the yacht and explanations followed. It
appeared that the five yachtsmen had had a hard day’s sail and had
decided to remain on board ship over night. The flashes of light
which had so aroused the A. P. L. men were nothing more nor less
than the reflection of a shore light on the glass of a porthole as the
boat rolled and swayed in the ripples of the bay.
Next to mysterious signal lights, wireless stations have produced as
many flivvers for the A. P. L. as anything else. Inspector T——
insisted that there was a house in his district which ought to be
searched, because he was satisfied it had a wireless plant. As he had
no proof, he could not obtain a search warrant. Mr. Endicott, at the
office of the Food Administration, gave him a sugar warrant, stating
that that would let him into the house, and that he might get some
information. Inspector T—— went to the house with a club in one
hand and the warrant in the other; searched the house from garret
to basement, but found no wireless. While poking around in one of
the corners, however, he did discover eighty pounds of sugar, which,
being overweight, he promptly confiscated.
Soon after the forming of the A. P. L. in Boston, a man came in with
a carrier pigeon which he was sure was a mysterious messenger of
some sort. It was a beautiful white bird that had dark dots and
dashes all over the inside of both wings. The chief was all wrought
up about this and regretted that he had not been taught the Morse
code in early life. He therefore took the man and the bird over to the
office of Military Intelligence, where they unravel, decipher and
decode all sorts of things. The Major in command was very cordial,
and he also examined the bird carefully. In his belief the dots and
dashes on the wings were of importance, but he could not quite
read them all. He sent for the code expert of the Signal Corps. Who
shall say that A. P. L. cannot run down any sort of clew? The code
expert of the Signal Corps also examined the bird carefully, but at
first could not make it out. Then he touched one of the dots with the
point of his pencil. It turned out to be a perfectly good cootie, which
still possessed powers of locomotion.
Throughout the war, New England was, always, one of the nerve
centers of the United States. A great many munition factories were
at work there day and night. The atmosphere was tense all the time;
war was in the eyes and ears of the people. But let no man believe
New England anything but American. Whatever her population to-
day, her leadership is American and only American and always will
be such. Boston and her environs, the entire state of Massachusetts,
the entire section of New England, went into the war from the first
word. No part of America is saner or safer; no part was better
guided and guarded by local agencies of defense. A. P. L. was
accepted as one of these, certainly not to the regret of any man
concerned.
CHAPTER VII
THE STORY OF CLEVELAND
Astonishing Figures of A. P. L. Activities in a Great

Manufacturing City—Sabotage, Bolshevism and Treason—
I. W. W. and Kindred Radical Propaganda—The Saving of a
City.
Once more we find occasion to revise the popular estimate of a
supposedly well-known American community. No one would think of
staid, steady, even-going Cleveland as anything but a place of
prosperity and peace. At a rough estimate, before the Cleveland
report came in, one would have said that possibly that city might
report a total of ten or fifteen thousand cases of A. P. L.
investigations. As a matter of fact, the Cleveland total is over sixty
thousand! And yet, the Cleveland Chief in his report calls attention to
the large amount of war supplies manufactured in his district, and
says: “We were a hot-bed of Socialism and pro-Germanism, but not
one dollar’s worth of material was lost.”
Cleveland Division was organized in May, 1917, with a personnel of
1,008—Mr. Arch C. Klunph, Chief, six Assistant Chiefs, seven
Departmental Inspectors, an office staff and eighteen companies.
There were also one women’s company and about five hundred
unattached operatives; a total personnel of 1,551.
As the type of A. P. L. service varied in different cities, it may be
interesting to other cities to note the character of work the Cleveland
division was called upon to do. The list of investigations covers many
heads: Failure to register, failure to entrain, and deserters from
service, 5,356; failure to submit questionnaire, 2,100; failure to
report for physical examination, 3,100; claims for exemption, 2,500;
seditious literature, 50; seditious and treasonable utterances or pro-
German cases, 7,113; loyalty investigations for Army, Navy, Red
Cross, Y. M. C. A., etc., 1,746; wireless outfits, 40; enemy agents or
spies, 363; I. W. W., Socialist, W. I. I. U. and Bolsheviki, 1,529;
industrial sabotage, 318; Liberty Bond slackers, 500. Total number of
men apprehended and examined on slacker raids, estimated,
36,000. Total—60,715.
In addition to the foregoing, the Cleveland division has rendered a
large amount of service in investigating cases of violations of food,
fuel, electric light and gasless Sunday regulations; cases for the
National Council of Defense; registration of male and female enemy
aliens (approximately 5,000); work of U. S. Marshal’s office; work of
Naturalization Bureau by secret investigations of applicants for
citizenship; Red Cross overseas work; Socialist cases; details for War
Work plants. There also were regular weekly details of volunteer
workers with automobiles to assist the Police Department.
As to definite preventive measures, the Chief points out several
instances: the stopping of manufacture of a fountain pen which
would explode on being opened; the choking off of the
establishment of a high-power wireless plant on the shore of Lake
Erie; the discharge of countless German workmen in factories
producing food for the Army; the confiscation of models and plans of
American battleships and submarines, and literature found in the
hands of German propagandists.
In May, 1918, an express company notified Cleveland A. P. L. that
they were called upon to issue money orders to an unusual number
of Germans, who claimed that they were returning to their homes in
Russia. The League captured twenty-three men, all claiming to live
in Russia, although plainly German in appearance, and speaking that
language in talking with one another. Three men left for Chicago, but
were apprehended by wire at the railroad terminal in Chicago. This
was a concerted movement to get as many Germans as possible
back into Russia.
Cleveland, being one of the largest cities of the United States, and
having also one of the largest percentages of foreign population,
naturally indeed was a hot-bed for Socialism, I. W. W. work and
Bolshevism, although such had not been the general reputation of
the city. These organizations held regular meetings, often with
speeches of the most dangerous character. At most of them, there
was an A. P. L. operative noting all that was done and said.
Cleveland Division covered a population of over a million, and that in
one of the four largest war working centers in the nation. It is a very
proud claim to say that not one dollar was lost to the nation. The
Chief points out that this statement is the more astonishing because
there were made in Cleveland a long list of military supplies: Air-
planes, wings and parts; ammunitions, clothing, trucks, and the
hundred other materials for use in the Army and Navy. There were
three hundred and eighty-six plants in Cuyahoga County engaged in
ordnance work, and there were employed in these plants 1,218
workmen. These ordnance plants had contracts amounting to
$175,000,000. Motor transportation plants, making trucks, trailers,
axles, forms, etc., had a series of contracts totaling $88,000,000.
There were fifty plants engaged in air-craft production, and twenty
making clothing, not to mention three large shipyards, all busy
practically day and night. That means work! Figures like this are
serious. It is no cheap flattery to say to the men who are responsible
for the safety of these vast industrial concerns that their record is a
more than marvelous one. It is no wonder that there is the best of
feeling between Cleveland Division and the Department of Justice,
Police Department and all the allied administrations of the law. It is
not necessary to print the letters of appreciation from any of these.
The Chief says that the most of the active work covered a period of
about fifteen months. The cases handled monthly approximated four
thousand. Obviously it is impossible to report sixty thousand, or four
thousand, or one thousand cases, but some of the Cleveland
specials are too interesting to leave aside. It is regrettable that they
must be abbreviated.
On December 1, 1917, Dorothy A——, a nice Cleveland girl, was
selling Liberty Bonds for the Y. W. C. A. on a partial payment basis,
which did not seem quite right. Dorothy was hard to find, but she
admitted, when found, that she was selling these bonds because she
needed the money herself. The mortgage on the old home was
about to be foreclosed, and she had taken this method of getting
what money she could. It was in truth the case of a young girl
driven desperate by circumstances. The A. P. L. first got her a good
position; second, advanced the money to pay off the mortgage on
the home, she to pay them back in monthly installments; and third,
found the people to whom she had sold the bonds, and returned the
money of which she had fraudulently deprived them. This girl
remained clean and straight, and as a culmination of the case she
married a young soldier, whom she met through the A. P. L., who
later did his bit in France. We do not know of a prettier bit in the
history of the A. P. L. than this.
On March 2, 1918, A. P. L. ran down another one of those cruel
rumors against the Red Cross which have been started by pro-
German women for the most part. This rumor was first circulated by
a young woman, and is of a nature which can not be put into print.
The girl, when found, confessed that she was guilty. She also
confessed that she was hitting the high spots in the city, having left
a country home to get acquainted with the bright lights. The A. P. L.
did not kick this woman down and out, either, but gave her a hand-
up. Two weeks later she came to the Division Office with tears in her
eyes, apologized for the false rumors which she had set going, and
implored that she might be allowed to do something for the office of
the division.
A war plant making aeroplane parts kept turning out defective work.
The A. P. L. put a woman operative in the factory. She chanced to be
a young woman of a wealthy family, accustomed to the luxury of a
beautiful home, but she took to the overalls and dirty work as a duck
does to water. She was in the factory three weeks, located the
trouble, and it was adjusted.
A telephone call reported that a house was being burglarized. An
A. P. L. man at the phone remembered that a deserter had been
sought for at that number. In thirty minutes the house was
surrounded. They did not catch the deserter, but they did get the
burglar.
A dangerous type of service was the raiding of I. W. W.
headquarters. Sometimes these were boarding houses where thirty
or forty of these people would be gathered together. When such a
place was surrounded, the suspects would pour out of the windows
into the arms of the operatives. This meant occasional fights, and
there was danger in the work, but there was no case where loss of
life was experienced.
An interesting fact of Cleveland war work was that developed by
examination of the draughting rooms in the large plants. In some of
these plants the entire draughting force was not only German by
descent but pro-German in sentiment. It has often been said that
part of German propaganda was to get men in factories where they
could get blue-prints of all of our machinery. In November, 1917, the
League was advised that a draughtsman of a ship-building company
was very pro-German, and it was said that the foreman in charge
would hire only Germans. Constant surveillance was ordered, but it
was as late as June, 1918, before this man was found making
derogatory remarks about our Army. He was found to have been an
officer in the German Reserves. He was jailed. Many letters were
found on him sufficient to warrant his internment.
As though I. W. W.’s were not sufficiently dangerous, operatives
were once asked to arrest a colored slacker who worked for a lion-
tamer. The latter, a woman, gave the operatives a tip that her
assistant ought to be looked into. He was finally caught at the time
when he was transferring the lions from the performing ring to their
traveling cages, but that did not stop the operatives. After he got the
doors locked he was taken to the Federal Building and inducted into
the Service, where his courage will be put to good service.
Here are some familiar pro-German statements, this time uttered by
one A. C——, who was running an advertising agency. At one time
he said that “the war would be ended by January 1, because
German training was better than ours—that we should not believe
the lies about Germans killing babies—everyone knows that America
is going to lose the war—that this is no war for Democracy—that
there is no Democracy in America.” Indicted. Guilty. Interned. A. P. L.
Cleveland had its own troubles with evaders and slackers, and it took
many cleverly laid plans to catch some of them. These are some of
the methods. After locating where a suspect lived who was hard to
find, a man would appear next day as one of the solicitors of the
City Directory whose business it was to get the name of every man
in each house. The solicitor was usually a very old looking man. This
usually worked. If it did not, a messenger boy would show up with a
message saying that it must be delivered at once. If this failed, there
would come a letter from some prominent institution, sent in an
unsealed envelope, addressed to the man offering him a job at an
unusually high wage. One or the other of these devices would
usually establish touch with the man wanted. It was like changing
baits in a trap.
An interesting case was that of Harry W——, who was brother of
another Mr. W—— sentenced to the workhouse for violation of the
Espionage Act. Harry did not register, but was picked up in the City
Council Chamber. He desperately tried to convince the A. P. L. men
that he was too old, but the operatives got his birth record and
proved that he had wilfully evaded registration. Indicted and
sentenced to one year in the workhouse.
A deserter from Camp Sherman, in December, 1917, was located
wearing civilian clothes as late as September, 1918. He was hidden
by a certain woman, who had secreted his uniform and who had
supplied him with liquor repeatedly. We learned that this was an
illicit relation. The woman had furnished the man with money from
time to time. The A. P. L. took her case up with the District Attorney.
The woman is awaiting indictment of a charge of furnishing liquor to
a soldier and harboring a deserter. Her lover is back in camp.
The division had a good case on certain German sympathizers
believed to be sending certain information to the enemy. A
dictaphone was installed in a hotel room which they occupied, and
the place was watched day and night for a week. Just at the time
when it seemed that some information was going to be reported, a
parrot which the people had in the room started to chatter and beat
them into the dictaphone. Nothing was discovered at that time and
the Chief reports, “I regret we cannot print what came over the
dictaphone by the parrot.”
Adolph R——, a German of the Germans, was within the draft, but
resisted in every possible way, and said he would kill any members
of the League who came after him. He even called up individual
members and told them he was going to shoot them. When an order
came he told the A. P. L. man that he would pay no attention. A
detail was sent after him and he was escorted like a little lamb to the
barracks. He has been a good German ever since.
The League found that it had in its ranks as an operative a resident
of the city of Cleveland, who had been there all his life but was a
German alien and not registered. This fellow was arrested and
interned for a short period, though soon paroled.
The Cleveland division of A. P. L. took a very prominent part in the
Debs case, and furnished abundant men and machines on the
Sunday that Debs was arrested in Cleveland. It also helped to
assemble the evidence on which Debs was indicted.
Washington was on the hunt for a dangerous enemy alien by the
name of Henry H——. Information came that he was working for a
photographic concern in Cleveland, but he could not be located. Four
months later a complaint of pro-Germanism came in against a man
of the same name working for a city directory company. He had
changed his occupation but not his nature, and hence was arrested.
The printed page was another form of propaganda in Cleveland. An
alien enemy editor of a German paper was allowed at large with
restrictions. He abused his privilege and was interned at Fort
Oglethorpe. Indictments and convictions were found against
members of the staff of a German daily. Yet another editor refused
to print articles on food conservation, and he also was indicted and
convicted. Sabotage was threatened and planned in many cases. In
one instance a tip got out that a big war plant was to be blown up
on one of two given nights. The League got on the job and found
the plant to be insufficiently guarded. The guard was increased and
no damage was done.
Gottlieb K——, an alien enemy, was caught out of his zone without
his permit. Operatives went to his home and found two Mauser
rifles, a peck of shells, a dagger, a blackjack and several maps of
Canada, the United States and Mexico. Gottlieb was thought to be
more fit for Fort Oglethorpe than Cleveland.
Mr. A. L. H——, a member of the Cleveland Board of Education, had
his own idea about education. In the home of a socialist he
remarked that the Liberty Bonds would never be paid, and that the
working class for generations would have to work to support these
bonds. He stated that the Russian Committee, headed by Elihu Root,
who went to Russia to investigate the conditions there, had their
report written and signed before they left America. He frequently
said that the bonds of the United States were not worth the paper
they were written on. Affidavits resulted in the indictment of Mr. H
——, and he was sentenced to ten years in the Atlanta Penitentiary,
the conviction automatically removing him from the Board of
Education.
A mail carrier in Cleveland fell heir to $60,000, but being a socialist,
would not subscribe to Liberty Bonds. He was called to the
headquarters of the A. P. L. and reasoned with. The next day his son
came into headquarters literally running over with Liberty Bonds. He
had $10,000 worth, all in $100 denominations! They sent him home
with a guard.
The A. P. L. was responsible for obtaining the evidence that secured
the conviction of the State Secretary of the Socialist Party and two
others. All of these men publicly made speeches against the draft,
and were actually instrumental in preventing certain men from
complying with the Selective Service Act. All sentenced to one year
of peace in the Canton workhouse by the Federal Court.
A gentleman by the name of Joseph Freiheit—Freiheit means
“freedom” in German—said that if sent to the army he would not
shoot at the Germans. He advised his friends to do the same. He
was brought to headquarters and reprimanded. The next day he
committed suicide. Case closed.
A man who owned a garage was reported hostile to Liberty Bonds
and Thrift Stamps. A certain operative went to talk over with him the
question of Thrift Stamps. The question was asked, “How many do
you want me to buy?” The solicitor said he thought about a
thousand dollars worth. He bought a thousand dollars worth in cash,
then and there. Almost persuaded.
A very elusive draft dodger was Geo. F——, who was chased from
pillar to post, but not come up with. He was discovered to have an
intrigue with a waitress, Jennie M——, who also would change her
name once in a while, leave her place of employment and be gone a
day or two. The question was, where did she go? The operatives on
the case took Jennie down to the Federal Building, where she told so
many conflicting stories that she was locked up. Meantime, the Post
Office Department advised that certain letters were sent back from
Elyria, Ohio, addressed to “F. J. P——.” The return card brought the
trail around to one of the original dwelling-places of the suspect. The
operative now went to this address and found the owner of the
home and threatened to arrest him for abetting a deserter from the
United States Army. These letters were opened and it was
discovered that the man desired was getting mail at the post office
at Monroe, Michigan. So the operative went to Jennie in jail and
said, “Well, we have got George over in Michigan.” “Is that so?” said
the girl; “how did you get him?” The operative declined to tell, and
said the only thing he wondered about was what name George was
going under in Monroe. The girl finally admitted that his name there
was “F. J. P——.” It took patience and shrewdness to follow the trail
in Monroe. However, a name was found written in two places in a
register of a workingmen’s hotel there. The initials were the same as
for F. J. P——, one of the many alias names. The landlady was
found, and a picture of Jennie was shown her. She said it was the
same picture that “F. J. P——” had in the back of his watch. The rest
was rather simple. The operator hired a taxicab and started out in
search of his man, who then was engaged as night watchman on
some road work. A steam roller was found in the middle of the road,
displaying a red lantern, with a man fast asleep on top. The
operative awakened him, and identified him as the much wanted
Geo. F——, alias Ed. D——, alias Geo. W——, alias F. J. P——, alias
F. J. P——. The man was handcuffed and the party started back for
Monroe. In due time, the suspect was taken to the Department of
Justice, and on December 14 the long trail ended for him. The
details of this pursuit are among the most interesting of those which
have been turned in for any case on the Cleveland records.
One operative had what he took to be a regular Conan Doyle novel,
all spread out before him. It involved what was known as “The
House of Mystery,” where all kinds of mysterious goings and comings
and every sort of dark, secret midnight interview took place. After a
long, long time the house of mystery was closed. The inspector was
able from other information to tell the operatives what was the
matter with his case—which is not reported in full. The inspector
said: “Your elderly woman there is the mother of the younger
woman, who is married to a worthless scamp, from whom she is
seeking a divorce. They have a beautiful home in the mountains of
the West, and that is where they go on the mysterious trips you
have been noticing so long. Their trunks are filled with valuable
papers, and when they finished discussing these, they put them
back in the trunks. The little child is the son of the young woman.
The reason they rented this isolated house and made a prisoner out
of the child was because the father has been trying to kidnap the
child. The mysterious chauffeur is the secretary of the ladies. When
he enlisted for the war they found cause to weep on that account.”
The operative had been working on an ordinary society detective
story instead of a plot against the United States.
Perhaps these very few random cases may serve to show the variety
of the sixty thousand handled in Cleveland. What did it all mean for
the safety and security of the United States? Who can measure it?
That is a thing impossible. But that the good citizens of Cleveland
appreciated what the A. P. L. has done may be seen from abundant
local evidence. Under date of December 24 the Cleveland
newspapers came out in open condemnation of the wave of crime
then threatening the city. The Plain Dealer said very plainly:
The amazing boldness of bandits, burglars and
miscellaneous plug-uglies in Cleveland has finally stirred
the city to an insistent demand that something
approaching war methods be adopted in dealing with
them. It is peculiarly irritating to know that most, if not
all, of the criminals are young men of military age. While
better men have been giving their lives to free the world
of the terror of Germanism, these stealthy enemies have
been staging a reign of terror of their own in a modern
American community. The American Protective League has
wisely placed its services at the disposal of the police. All
public spirited citizens should coöperate in every possible
way. The police are shooting to kill, and the more
frequently their aim proves true the better it will be for
Cleveland. It is not time for leniency or compromise. The
thug of to-day, who has so serious a misapprehension of
the privilege of being an American, deserves nothing
beyond a snug grave. There have been other epidemics of
outlawry in Cleveland, and perhaps the present “crime
wave” is no more menacing than some that have gone
before. But coming just at this time, when so great a price
has been paid to make America and all the world safe and
decent, the impudence of the gunman is peculiarly
infuriating.
The Cleveland Press headed one of its editorials: “Chief, call out the
A. P. L.!” In answer, the Chief of the Cleveland Police did call on the
A. P. L. once more, although this was six weeks after hostilities had
ceased. All of the following Saturday night and Sunday there were
A. P. L. men patrolling the streets of Cleveland in motor cars in
company with the police.
The disbanding of the A. P. L. was openly deplored in Cleveland.
What is going to be the future condition of the United States in
these days following the war? One thing is sure, the thinking men of
the country are uneasy. There is reason to feel concern, in a city like
Cleveland, over bolshevism and labor troubles. There do not lack
those who predict for all America the wave of disregard for property
and life which quite often ensues at the close of a great war—and
this war was the greatest upheaval of human institutions and human
values the world has ever seen. But matters in Cleveland might have
been worse—much worse.
CHAPTER VIII
THE STORY OF CINCINNATI
Data from a Supposed Citadel of Pro-Germanism—

Gratifying Reports from the City Which Boasts a Rhine of
its Own—Alien Enemies and How They Were Handled—
Americanization of America.
That Cincinnati had a vast population of German descent and of pro-
German sympathies was known throughout the United States. It
would be folly to say otherwise. Had open riots or armed resistance
to the draft, or to the war itself, arisen in Cincinnati, there were
many who would not have been surprised. Those, however, did not
really know the inherently solid quality of the city on the Ohio River.
They may find that from the study of the able report of the
Cincinnati Division.
Perhaps a very considerable amount of the quiet on the Rhine at
Cincinnati was due to the fact that there was such an organization
within its gates as the American Protective League. The members of
the League were on the watch all the time for anything dangerous in
the way of pro-enemy activity. That the division had a certain
amount of work to do may be seen from the summaries.
There were 2,972 investigations for disloyalty and sedition; 4,232
selective service investigations; 3,004 suspects taken in slacker
raids. Of propaganda by word of mouth, there were 7,000
examinations. Three hundred and seventy civilian applicants for
overseas service were examined. There were eighty-one
examinations made into the character of persons identified with the
I. W. W., the People’s Council, and other pacifist or radical bodies.
The Secret Service had fifty examinations made for it and the Post
Office three. There were fourteen thousand visits made at homes
and places of business of alien enemies, and twenty-eight alien
enemies were required to report to the supervisor every week.
Heatless Mondays required three hundred investigations and gasless
Sundays one thousand, five hundred and seventeen. In 250
instances the A. P. L. rendered automobile service to various
Government departments. These figures show that something was
doing in Cincinnati. As to the exact nature of the activities, it is much
better to give the sober and just estimate of the local chief, as
gratifying as it is admirable:
From its inception the Cincinnati Division of the American
Protective League was vibrant with possibilities. Cincinnati
was known from coast to coast as a city settled by
Germans. It was presumed, of course, to be very largely
pro-German as a result of this reputation. “Over-the-
Rhine” meant Cincinnati to many who lived outside of its
confines. The reputation of the city was at stake. Those
who knew Cincinnati, however, felt that this reputation
which came to us from abroad was unjustified, and that
although there was no gainsaying that German blood
flowed in the veins of a very large number of its people, it
was still ninety-nine per cent loyal; and the record of the
war has demonstrated the truth of this statement.
Under the direction and supervision of Calvin S. Weakley,
Special Agent in charge of the Department of Justice,
work was carried on with quietness and despatch. He
approached every matter with an open mind, and it is to
his excellent judgment and his avoidance of brass-band
methods that the record of the Cincinnati office of the
Bureau of Investigation and its auxiliary, the Cincinnati
Division of the American Protective League, has been
clean of criticism. In the burglar-proof steel cabinets,
however, repose documents and reports which would
create a sensation in the community, and perhaps the day
of reckoning is not far. While the fact that many of these
acts occurred before the United States became an active
participant in the world war may mean legal immunity, yet
the record is made, and in many cases public opinion has
been the sternest prosecutor of those individuals (many of
whom enjoy the rights of American citizenship), whose
sympathies as well as activities will always brand them as
having been unfit for the privileges which they still
continue to enjoy. It has brought to many of those
individuals social isolation—a punishment incomparable
with anything that can be meted out by judge or jury—
and they cannot help but feel the ignominy of their
unpatriotic actions. Loyalty to the country and a fine
patriotism for the cause was the keynote which seemed to
animate the membership.
Hardly had the ink dried upon the President’s signature to
the document which made operative the original Selective
Service Act, when word filtered through to the office of
the Cincinnati Division American Protective League that
there was an undercurrent of opposition developing which
would culminate on Registration Day, June 5th, 1917. So-
called Socialists, who were in fact German propagandists,
were the most active in their criticism. Venomous advice
was being offered to young men, who, upon that historic
day, would enter their names upon the rolls of the
prospective great National Army.
The preliminary information which was gathered left no
doubt in the mind of Special Agent Weakley, at Cincinnati,
that unless an example was made of these so-called
pacifists, there was danger of an incomplete registration,
and it became very apparent from the preliminary
investigations made that the opposition to registration
centered in a local unit of a Socialist organization known
as the Eleventh Ward.
Out of four operatives who entered into this particular
case, three were dropped, and one became a member of
the inner circle. The open meetings of the club divulged
nothing, but the secret sessions of the inner circle
developed the plan which would make as ineffective as
possible registration in Cincinnati and which undoubtedly
would have succeeded. Circulars and posters were secretly
printed, and on the night of June 1 they were to be
distributed broadcast throughout the northwestern section
of Cincinnati. This literature not only was seditious in
character, but in the opinion of the District Attorney,
treasonable.
The League plan was so carefully and thoroughly
developed that not a guilty man escaped. There was quite
a scene at several police stations when operatives of the
League, detailed with local police detectives, brought in
their men, each with his pile of circulars. A. P. L. had
direct evidence of where these circulars had been placed
—in letter boxes, on door-steps, or handed to individuals
on the street—and thus made each case complete in
itself; and when, the next day, the newspapers told in
detail the story of how this plan had been nipped in the
bud, anti-conscriptionists became enthusiastic registrants.
Even men who were arrested asked for the privilege of
registration. Cincinnati not only gave the quota estimated
for it, but a percentage so much higher as to elicit
surprise.
After the investigation had developed the real culprits, the
printing shop also was located, the form from which the
circulars had been printed confiscated, and the complete
chain of evidence was sufficient to bring a unanimous
report from the Grand Jury, charging everyone involved
with conspiracy against the Government.
This was the first real big work successfully undertaken by
Cincinnati Division of the American Protective League. It
was carried out with thoroughness and dispatch, and
nothing was left undone that was necessary to make the
cases complete. It was wonderful training for the men
who had come from their business to the work of the
League, and it developed some of Cincinnati Division’s
best operatives, who from that time on approached every
assignment with enthusiasm and understanding.
Cincinnati Division supervised the parole of enemy aliens
from Fort Oglethorpe and the Federal jail in this district.
These paroled men, being released from prison, were
ordered to report at the office of Cincinnati Division once
each week. The day selected for them to report was
Saturday morning. Failure on the part of a paroled man to
report on the date set resulted in a prompt investigation.
So thorough was this supervision that Cincinnati Division
could at any time put its hands on these paroled men,
whose ranks included actors, draughtsmen, electrical
engineers, art glass designers, chefs, waiters, barbers,
bakers, auto experts, laborers, machinists, farmers, and
merchants.
Only one man refused to mend his ways and live up to the
regulations. He is now at Fort Oglethorpe. When he first
was released, he tried to induce the Federal authorities to
give him permission to talk pro-German so he could “find
others who were against this country,” as he put it. He
was informed by the Special Agent in charge of the
Cincinnati office, Department of Justice, that he could do
better work by telling all his former associates how foolish
they were, trying to work for the Kaiser in this country. He
had claimed that his prison term had changed his opinion
and that now he was “for the United States.” He was
instructed to tell this to his friends as he would thereby be
doing more good. His term of freedom did not last long,
for he was soon at his old tricks again. He was interned
for the “duration of the war.”
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Big Data Analytics Tools and Technology for Effective

Emerging Technologies in Computer Engineering

Emerging Technology and Architecture for Big data

Cognitive Computing for Big Data Systems Over IoT

Proceedings of First International Conference on Smart

Big Data Analytics for Intelligent Healthcare Management

From Big Data to Big Profits Success with Data and

Big Data Analytics for Cloud IoT and Cognitive Computing

AIMS AND SCOPE

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-03239-2 (Hardback)

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

1. Challenges in Big Data........................................................................................................... 1

2. Challenges in Big Data Analytics...................................................................................... 37

3. Big Data Reference Model................................................................................................... 55

4. A Survey of Tools for Big Data Analytics......................................................................... 75

5. Understanding the Data Science behind Business Analytics...................................... 93

6. Big Data Predictive Modeling and Analytics................................................................ 117

7. Deep Learning for Engineering Big Data Analytics.................................................... 151

8. A Framework for Minimizing Data Leakage from Nonproduction Systems......... 167

9. Big Data Acquisition, Preparation, and Analysis Using Apache Software

12. Nonlinear Feature Extraction for Big Data Analytics.................................................. 267

14. Large-Scale Entity Clustering Based on Structural Similarities

17. Distant and Close Reading of Dutch Drug Debates in Historical

Ganesh Chandra Deka is currently deputy director of Training at Directorate General

Pothireddy Siva Abhilash Jacqueline Cope

Matthias Hemmje Michele Marconi

Helge Janicke Archana Mathur

PS Pavan Kumar Roberto Díaz Morales

Kin Gwn Lore Mipsa Patel

Arjun Rao Soumik Sarkar

Mohamed Roushdy Francois Siewe

Berrie van der Molen Andrei Voronov

Pothireddy Venkata Lakshmi Narayana Rao,

RNA Structure and RNA–RNA Association Expectation............................................... 30

Goals and Challenges of Analyzing Big Data

1. Investigating the shrouded structures of every subpopulation of the information,

1. High dimensionality brings clamor gathering, spurious relationships, and coinci-

Elective figurings to animate this L1-standard rebuffed smallest-squares issues, for

Organization of This Paper

Algorithms for Big Data Analytics

1. k-implies picks foci in multidimensional space to speak to each of the k groups.

Classification Algorithms: k-NN

Application of Big Data: A Case Study

1. Personalized organizations. With more individual data accumulated, business

components, are as of now available. Using these bits of information, it is possible

Salient Features of Big Data

X1, … , Xn ~ Nd (µ1, Id) and Y1, … , Yn ~ Nd (µ 2 , Id)

r = max j ≥ 2 Corr X1, X j

R = max S = 4 max{βj} 4 j = 1 Corr( X1, j ∈S βj X j)

Use case diagram:

σ2 = yT (In − PS)y n −|S|.

Y = j βj X j + ε , and E (εX j) = 0 for j = 1, … , d,