UNIT-IV

Computer Network Architecture

Network Architecture: Network architecture generally refers to the design of a

computer network or communications network. “Network architecture” means
the rules, tools, and software that help people in the company stay connected
without any problems. It simply describes the allocation task between all of
the computers in the network. It is defined as the physical and logical design of
software, hardware, protocols, and media of data transmission. In this article,
we are going to discuss Network Architecture in detail along with its type, the
skills required to become a network architect, and many more.

A computer network architect is responsible for designing and building

communication networks for organizations. Their main tasks include:
 Designing, Modeling, Testing, and Troubleshooting Networks: This involves
creating plans for networks, testing them out, and solving any problems that
arise.
 Testing and Inspecting Existing Networks: You’ll need to examine current
networks to ensure they’re working correctly and identify any issues that need
fixing.
 Upgrading Networks (Hardware and Software): Keeping networks up-to-date
by improving both the physical equipment and the software they run on.
 Analyzing and Fixing Security Weaknesses: Identifying and resolving any
vulnerabilities in networks to keep them safe from cyber threats.
 Developing Technical Documentation: Creating detailed guides and
instructions for building and maintaining networks.
 Installing and Maintaining Hardware Components: Setting up and looking
after the physical parts of networks, like routers, cables, and adapters.

Types of Network Architecture:

Computer networks can be classified based on architecture into two primary
types:

 Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 Client/Server Architecture
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture:
In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, “peers” generally represent computer
system. These peers are connected to each other with help of Internet. Files
might be shared directly without requirement of central server among these
systems on the network. It can be said that each of computers on P2P network
usually becomes file server even as client also. In this architecture, system is
generally decomposed into various computational nodes that contain the same
and equivalent capabilities, abilities, and responsibilities. In this network, tasks
are allocated at each and every device available on network. This network is
very essential and important for small environments, usually up to at least
10 computers. There is also no separate division as clients and servers. Each
and every computer in this network are treated same and equally and might
send even receive message directly. This P2P network is generally useful in
various fields such as business, education, military, etc.

Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture

 P2P network is less costly and cheaper. It is affordable.
 P2P is very simple and not complex. This is because all computers that are
connected in network communication in an efficient and well-mannered with
each other.
 It is very easy and simple to set up and manage as installation and setup is less
painless and computer manages itself. This is because of built-in support in
modern operating systems.
 Security is one of major issues in this type of network.
 If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing of resources
might become major problem.
 Performance, security, and access can also become major problem with an
increase in number of computers on this network.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 It is more difficult to manage security policies consistently.
 Each peer demands individual care and control.
 As the network expands in size, it may become inefficient.

Client/Server Architecture:
CSN (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one of
centralized and powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to
which many of personal computers that are less powerful or workstations
(commonly known as clients) are connected. It is type of system where clients
are connected to server to just share or use resources. These servers are
generally considered as heart of system. This type of network is more stable
and scalable as compared to P2P network. In this architecture, system is
generally decomposed into client and server processor or processes.
 Advantages of Client/Server Architecture
 A special Network Operating System (NOS) is provided by server to provide
resources to many users that request them.
 It is also very easy and simple to set up and manage data updates. This is
because data is generally stored in centralized manner on server.
 The server usually controls resources and data security.
 This network also boosts speed of sharing resources.
 If anyhow server goes down or crashes, entire will be affected by this.
 It is very expensive as compared to P2P. This is due to need for server with
more memory as well as need for many networking devices such as
hubs, routers, switches, etc.
 Cost of NOS being provided is very high.
Disadvantages of Client/Server Architecture
 If the server fails, clients may lose access to services.
 Setting up servers requires a higher investment in hardware and software.
 Managing servers requires skilled personnel.

Components of Computer Network

The components of a computer network include hardware devices and media
that enable connectivity and data exchange between devices. The server,
client, peer, transmission media, and connecting devices make up the
hardware components. A computer network is made up of several computers
connected so that resources and data can be shared.

Types of Physical Components

A computer network consists of several physical components. In other words,
two or more devices are connected via a computer network to exchange an
almost infinite amount of data and services. Here Below are some physical
components of computer Networks:
1. NIC(Network Interface Card)
NIC or Network Interface Card is a network adapter used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It
has a unique ID that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect
the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the
 router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device, which means it works on the
network model’s physical and data link layers.
Types of NIC
 Wired NIC: Cables and Connectors use Wired NIC to transfer data.
 Wireless NIC: These connect to a wireless network such as Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.

2. HUB
A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through hub remains one. Hub does not have any routing table to store the
data of ports and map destination addresses., the routing table is used to
send/broadcast information across all the ports.

Types of HUB
 Active HUB: Active HUB regenerates and amplifies the electric signal before
sending them to all connected device. This hub is suitable to transmit data for
long distance connections over the network.
 Passive HUB: As the name suggests it does not amplify or regenerate electric
signal, it is the simplest types of Hub among all and it is not suitable for long-
distnace connections.
 Switching HUB: This is also known as intelligent HUB, they provide some
additional functionality over active and passive hubs. They analyze data
packets and make decisions based on MAC address and they are operated on
DLL(Data Link Layer).
3. Router
A Router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally
connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based
on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides
the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

4. Modem
A Modem is a short form of Modulator/Demodulator. The Modem is a
hardware component/device that can connect computers and other devices
such as routers and switches to the internet. Modems convert or modulate the
analog signals coming from telephone wire into a digital form that is in the
form of 0s and 1s.
 5. Switch
A Switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports implies less traffic) and performance. A
switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before
forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets
that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.

6. Nodes
Node is a term used to refer to any computing devices such as computers that
send and receive network packets across the network.
Types of nodes
 End Nodes: These types of nodes are going to be the starting point or the end
point of communication. E.g., computers, security cameras, network printers,
etc.
 Intermediary Nodes: These nodes are going to be in between the starting
point or end point of the end nodes. E.g., Switches, Bridges, Routers, cell
towers, etc.
 7. Media
It is also known as Link which is going to carry data from one side to another
side. This link can be Wired Medium (Guided Medium) and Wireless Medium
(Unguided Medium). It is of two types:
7.1 Wired Medium
 Ethernet: Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology, which is defined
under IEEE standards 802.3. There are two types of Ethernet:
 Fibre Optic Cable: In fibre optic cable data is transferred in the form of light
waves.

 Coaxial Cable: Coaxial Cable is mainly used for audio and video
communications.
 USB Cable: USB Stands for Universal Serial Bus it is mainly used to connect PCs
and smartphones.

 Infrared (E.g. short-range communication – TV remote control).

 Radio (E.g. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi).
 Microwaves (E.g. Cellular system).
 Satellite (E.g. Long range communications – GPS).
8. Repeater
Repeater is an important component of computer networks as it is used to
regenerate and amplify signal in the computer networks. Repeaters are used
to improve the quality of the networks and they are operated on the Physical
Layer of the OSI Model.

9. Server
A server is a computer program that provides various functionality to another
computer program. The server plays a vital role in facilitating communication,
data storage, etc. Servers have more data storage as compared to normal
computers. They are designed for the specific purpose of handling multiple
requests from clients.

Connection-Oriented Service:
Connection-Oriented Service is basically a technique that is typically used to
transport and send data at session layer. The data streams or packets are
transferred or delivered to receiver in a similar order in which they have seen
transferred by sender. It is actually a data transfer method among two devices
or computers in a different network, that is designed and developed after
telephone system. Whenever a network implements this service, it sends or
transfers data or message from sender or source to receiver or destination in
correct order and manner.
This connection service is generally provided by protocols of both network
layer (signifies different path for various data packets that belongs to same
message) as well as transport layer (use to exhibits independence among
packets rather than different paths that various packets belong to same
message will follow).
 Operations :
There is a sequence of operations that are needed to b followed by users.
These operations are given below :
1. Establishing Connection –
It generally requires a session connection to be established just before any
data is transported or sent with a direct physical connection among sessions.
2. Transferring Data or Message –
When this session connection is established, then we transfer or send message
or data.
3. Releasing the Connection –
After sending or transferring data, we release connection.
Different Ways :
There are two ways in which connection-oriented services can be done. These
ways are given below :
1. Circuit-Switched Connection –
Circuit-switching networks or connections are generally known as connection-
oriented networks. In this connection, a dedicated route is being established
among sender and receiver, and whole data or message is sent through it. A
dedicated physical route or a path or a circuit is established among all
communication nodes, and after that, data stream or message is sent or
transferred.
2. Virtual Circuit-Switched Connection –
Virtual Circuit-Switched Connection or Virtual Circuit Switching is also known
as Connection-Oriented Switching. In this connection, a preplanned route or
path is established before data or messages are transferred or sent. The
message Is transferred over this network is such a way that it seems to user
that there is a dedicated route or path from source or sender to destination or
receiver.
Types of Connection-Oriented Service :
Service Example

Reliable Message Stream Sequence of pages, etc.

Reliable Byte Stream Song Download, etc.

 Unreliable Connection VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)

Advantages :
 It kindly support for quality of service is an easy way.
 This connection is more reliable than connectionless service.
 Long and large messages can be divided into various smaller messages so that
it can fit inside packets.
 Problems or issues that are related to duplicate data packets are made less
severe.
Disadvantages :
 In this connection, cost is fixed no matter how traffic is.
 It is necessary to have resource allocation before communication.
 If any route or path failures or network congestions arise, there is no alternative
way available to continue communication.

Connectionless Service:
A Connectionless Service is technique that is used in data communications to
send or transfer data or message at 4 Layer i.e., Transport Layer of Open
System Interconnection model. This service does not require session
connection among sender or source and receiver or destination. Sender starts
transferring or sending data or messages to destination.
In other words, we can say that connectionless service simply means that node
can transfer or send data packets or messages to its receiver even without
session connection to receiver. Message is sent or transferred without prior
arrangement. This usually works due to error handling protocols that allow and
give permission for correction of errors just like requesting retransmission.
In this service, network sends each packet of data to sender one at a time,
independently of other packets. But network does not have any state
information to determine or identify whether packet is part of stream of other
packets. Even the network doesn’t have any knowledge and information about
amount of traffic that will be transferred by user. In this, each of data packets
has source or destination address and is routed independently from source to
destination.
 Therefore, data packets or messages might follow different paths to reach
destination. Data packets are also called datagrams. It is also similar to that of
postal services, as it also carries full address of destination where message is to
send. Data is also sent in one direction from source to destination without
checking that destination is still present there or not or if receiver or
destination is prepared to accept message.
Connectionless Protocols :
These protocols simply allow data to be transferred without any link among
processes. Some Of data packets may also be lost during transmission. Some of
protocols for connectionless services are given below:
 Internet Protocol (IP) –
This protocol is connectionless. In this protocol, all packets in IP network are
routed independently. They might not go through same route.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) –

This protocol does not establish any connection before transferring data. It just
sends data that’s why UDP is known as connectionless.

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) –

ICMP is called connectionless simply because it does not need any hosts to
handshake before establishing any connection.

 Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) –

IPX is called connectionless as it doesn’t need any consistent connection that is
required to be maintained while data packets or messages are being
transferred from one system to another.

Types of Connectionless Services :

Service Example

Unreliable
Electronic Junk Mail, etc.
Datagram
 Acknowledged Registered mail, text messages along
Datagram with delivery report, etc.

Request Reply Queries from remote databases, etc.

Advantages :
 It is very fast and also allows for multicast and broadcast operations in which
similar data are transferred to various recipients in a single transmission.
 The effect of any error occurred can be reduced by implementing error-
correcting within an application protocol.
 This service is very easy and simple and is also low overhead.
 At the network layer, host software is very much simpler.
 No authentication is required in this service.
 Some of the application doesn’t even require sequential delivery of packets or
data. Examples include packet voice, etc.
Disadvantages :
 This service is less reliable as compared to connection-oriented service.
 It does not guarantee that there will be no loss, or error occurrence,
misdelivery, duplication, or out-of-sequence delivery of the packet.
 They are more prone towards network congestions.

Frame Relay:
Frame Relay is a packet-switching network protocol that is designed to work at
the data link layer of the network. It is used to connect Local Area Networks
(LANs) and transmit data across Wide Area Networks (WANs). It is a better
alternative to a point-to-point network for connecting multiple nodes that
require separate dedicated links to be established between each pair of nodes.
It allows transmission of different size packets and dynamic bandwidth
allocation. Also, it provides a congestion control mechanism to reduce the
network overheads due to congestion. It does not have an error control and
 flow management mechanism.

Working:
Frame relay switches set up virtual circuits to connect multiple LANs to build a
WAN. Frame relay transfers data between LANs across WAN by dividing the
data in packets known as frames and transmitting these packets across the
network. It supports communication with multiple LANs over the shared
physical links or private lines.
Frame relay network is established between Local Area Networks (LANs)
border devices such as routers and service provider network that connects all
the LAN networks. Each LAN has an access link that connects routers of LAN to
the service provider network terminated by the frame relay switch. The access
link is the private physical link used for communication with other LAN
networks over WAN. The frame relay switch is responsible for terminating the
access link and providing frame relay services.
For data transmission, LAN’s router (or other border device linked with access
link) sends the data packets over the access link. The packet sent by LAN is
examined by a frame relay switch to get the Data Link Connection Identifier
(DLCI) which indicates the destination of the packet. Frame relay switch
already has the information about addresses of the LANs connected to the
network hence it identifies the destination LAN by looking at DLCI of the data
packet. DLCI basically identifies the virtual circuit (i.e. logical path between
nodes that doesn’t really exist) between source and destination network. It
configures and transmits the packet to frame relay switch of destination LAN
which in turn transfers the data packet to destination LAN by sending it over its
 respective access link. Hence, in this way, a LAN is connected with multiple
other LANs by sharing a single physical link for data transmission.
Frame relay also deals with congestion within a network. Following methods
are used to identify congestion within a network:
1. Forward Explicit Congestion Network (FECN) –
FECN is a part of the frame header that is used to notify the destination about
the congestion in the network. Whenever a frame experiences congestion
while transmission, the frame relay switch of the destination network sets the
FECN bit of the packet that allows the destination to identify that packet has
experienced some congestion while transmission.
2. Backward Explicit Congestion Network (BECN) –
BECN is a part of the frame header that is used to notify the source about the
congestion in the network. Whenever a frame experiences congestion while
transmission, the destination sends a frame back to the source with a set BECN
bit that allows the source to identify that packet that was transmitted had
experienced some congestion while reaching out to the destination. Once,
source identifies congestion in the virtual circuit, it slows down to transmission
to avoid network overhead.
3. Discard Eligibility (DE) –
DE is a part of the frame header that is used to indicate the priority for
discarding the packets. If the source is generating a huge amount of traffic on
the certain virtual network then it can set DE bits of less significant packets to
indicate the high priority for discarding the packets in case of network
overhead. Packets with set DE bits are discarded before the packets with unset
DE bits in case of congestion within a network.

Types:

1. Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) –

These are the permanent connections between frame relay nodes that exist
for long durations. They are always available for communication even if they
are not in use. These connections are static and do not change with time.
2. Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC) –
These are the temporary connections between frame relay nodes that exist for
the duration for which nodes are communicating with each other and are
 closed/ discarded after the communication. These connections are dynamically
established as per the requirements.

Advantages:

1. High speed
2. Scalable
3. Reduced network congestion
4. Cost-efficient
5. Secured connection

Disadvantages:

1. Lacks error control mechanism

2. Delay in packet transfer
3. Less reliable

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Service:

A peer-to-peer network is a simple network of computers. It first came into
existence in the late 1970s. Here each computer acts as a node for file sharing
within the formed network. Here each node acts as a server and thus there is
no central server in the network. This allows the sharing of a huge amount of
data. The tasks are equally divided amongst the nodes. Each node connected in
the network shares an equal workload. For the network to stop working, all the
nodes need to individually stop working. This is because each node works
independently.

History of P2P Networks

Before the development of P2P, USENET came into existence in 1979. The
network enabled the users to read and post messages. Unlike the forums we
use today, it did not have a central server. It is used to copy the new messages
to all the servers of the node.
 In the 1980s the first use of P2P networks occurred after personal computers
were introduced.
 In August 1988, the internet relay chat was the first P2P network built to share
text and chat.
 In June 1999, Napster was developed which was a file-sharing P2P software. It
could be used to share audio files as well. This software was shut down due to
the illegal sharing of files. But the concept of network sharing i.e P2P became
popular.
 In June 2000, Gnutella was the first decentralized P2P file sharing network.
This allowed users to access files on other users’ computers via a designated
folder.

Types of P2P Networks:

 Unstructured P2P Networks: In this type of P2P network, each device is able to
make an equal contribution. This network is easy to build as devices can be
connected randomly in the network. But being unstructured, it becomes
difficult to find content. For example, Napster, Gnutella, etc.
 Structured P2P Networks: It is designed using software that creates a virtual
layer in order to put the nodes in a specific structure. These are not easy to set
up but can give easy access to users to the content. For example, P-Grid,
Kademlia, etc.
 Hybrid P2P Networks: It combines the features of both P2P networks
and client-server architecture. An example of such a network is to find a node
using the central server.

Features of P2P Network:

 These networks do not involve a large number of nodes, usually less than 12.
All the computers in the network store their own data but this data is
accessible by the group.
 Unlike client-server networks, P2P uses resources and also provides them. This
results in additional resources if the number of nodes increases. It requires
specialized software. It allows resource sharing among the network.
 Since the nodes act as clients and servers, there is a constant threat of attack.
 Almost all OS today support P2P networks.
P2P Network Architecture
In the P2P network architecture, the computers connect with each other in a
workgroup to share files, and access to internet and printers.
 Each computer in the network has the same set of responsibilities and
capabilities.
 Each device in the network serves as both a client and server.
 The architecture is useful in residential areas, small offices, or small companies
where each computer act as an independent workstation and stores the data
on its hard drive.
 Each computer in the network has the ability to share data with other
computers in the network.
 The architecture is usually composed of workgroups of 12 or more computers.

Examples of P2P Networks

P2P networks can be basically categorized into three levels.
 The first level is the basic level which uses a USB to create a P2P network
between two systems.
 The second is the intermediate level which involves the usage of copper wires
in order to connect more than two systems.
 The third is the advanced level which uses software to establish protocols in
order to manage numerous devices across the internet.
Some of the popular P2P networks are Gnutella, BitTorrent, eDonkey, Kazaa,
Napster, and Skype.

Advantages of P2P Network

 Easy to Maintain: The network is easy to maintain because each node is
independent of the other.
 Less Costly: Since each node acts as a server, therefore the cost of the central
server is saved. Thus, there is no need to buy an expensive server.
 No Network Manager: In a P2P network since each node manages his or her
own computer, thus there is no need for a network manager.
 Adding Nodes is Easy: Adding, deleting, and repairing nodes in this network is
easy.
 Less Network Traffic: In a P2P network, there is less network traffic than in a
client/ server network.
Disadvantages of P2P Network
 Data is Vulnerable: Because of no central server, data is always vulnerable to
getting lost because of no backup.
 Less Secure: It becomes difficult to secure the complete network because each
node is independent.
 Slow Performance: In a P2P network, each computer is accessed by other
computers in the network which slows down the performance of the user.
 Files Hard to Locate: In a P2P network, the files are not centrally stored, rather
they are stored on individual computers which makes it difficult to locate the
files.

X.25 Structure:
X.25 is generally a protocol that was developed by Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) of International Telecommunication Union. It
usually allows various logical channels to make use of same physical line. It
basically defines a series of documents particularly issued by ITU. These
documents are also known as X.25 Recommendations. X.25 also supports
various conversations by multiplexing packets and also with the help of virtual
communication channels. X.25 basically encompasses or suits to the lower three
layers of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model for
networking. These three protocol layers are:
1. Physical Layer
2. Frame Layer
3. Packet Layer
1. Physical Layer : This layer is basically concerned with electrical or signalling. The
physical layer interface of X.25 also known as X.21 bis was basically derived from
RS-232 interface for serial transmission. This layer provides various
communication lines that transmit or transfer some electrical signals. X.21
implementer is usually required for linking.
2. Data Link Layer : Data link layer is also known as Frame Layer. This layer is an
implementation or development of ISO High-Level Data Link Layer
(HDLC) standard which is known as LAPB (Link Access Procedure Balanced). It
also provides a communication link and transmission that is error-free among
any two physically connected nodes or X.25 nodes. LAPB also allows DTE (Data
Terminal Equipment) or DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment) simply to
start or end a communication session or start data transmission. This layer is
one of the most important and essential parts of X.25 Protocol. This layer also
provides a mechanism for checking in each hop during the transmission. This
service also ensures a bit-oriented, error-free, and also sequenced and ordered
delivery of data frames or packets. There are many protocols that can be used in
frame-level as given below :
 Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) – It is specified by ITU-T
Recommendation X usually derived from HDLC. It is the most commonly used
protocol that allows establishing a logical connection.
 Link Access Protocol (LAP) – This protocol is very rarely used. This is usually
used for framing and transferring data packets across point-to-point links.
 Link Access Procedure D-channel (LAPD) – It is used to convey or transfer data
over D-channel. It also enables and allows transmission of data among DTEs
through D channel especially among a DTE and an ISDN node.
 Logical Link Control (LLC) – It is used to manage and ensure the integrity of
transmissions of data. It also allows transmission of X.25 data packets or frames
through a LAN (Local Area Network) channel.
3. Packet Layer : Packet layer is also known as Network Layer protocol of X.25. This
layer generally governs the end-to-end communications among various DTE
devices. It also defines how to address and deliver X.25 packets among end
nodes and switches on a network with the help of PVCs (Permanent Virtual
Circuits) or SVCs (Switched Virtual Circuits). This layer also governs and manages
set-up and teardown and also flow control among DTE devices as well as various
routing functions along with multiplexing multiple logical or virtual connections.
This layer also defines and explains the format of data packets and also the
procedures for control and transmission of data frames. This layer is also
responsible for establishing a connection, transmitting data frames or packets,
ending or terminating a connection, error and flow control, transmitting data
packets over external virtual circuits.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM):
It is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications
Standards Section (ITU-T) efficient for call relay and it transmits all information
including multiple service types such as data, video, or voice which is conveyed
in small fixed-size packets called cells. Cells are transmitted asynchronously
and the network is connection-oriented.
ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband
ISDN in the 1970s and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of packet
switching. Each cell is 53 bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.
Making an ATM call requires first sending a message to set up a connection.
Subsequently, all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle
both constant rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple
types of traffic with end-to-end quality of service. ATM is independent of a
transmission medium, they may be sent on a wire or fiber by themselves or
they may also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier systems. ATM
networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. Its design helps
in the implementation of high-performance multimedia networking.
ATM Cell Format –
As information is transmitted in ATM in the form of fixed-size units called cells.
As known already each cell is 53 bytes long which consists of a 5 bytes header
and 48 bytes payload.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode can be of two format types which are as follows:
1. UNI Header: This is used within private networks of ATMs for communication
between ATM endpoints and ATM switches. It includes the Generic Flow
Control (GFC) field.

2. NNI Header: is used for communication between ATM switches, and it does
not include the Generic Flow Control(GFC) instead it includes a Virtual Path
Identifier (VPI) which occupies the first 12 bits.

Working of ATM:
ATM standard uses two types of connections. i.e., Virtual path connections
(VPCs) which consist of Virtual channel connections (VCCs) bundled together
which is a basic unit carrying a single stream of cells from user to user. A virtual
path can be created end-to-end across an ATM network, as it does not rout the
cells to a particular virtual circuit. In case of major failure, all cells belonging to
a particular virtual path are routed the same way through the ATM network,
thus helping in faster recovery.
Switches connected to subscribers use both VPIs and VCIs to switch the cells
which are Virtual Path and Virtual Connection switches that can have different
virtual channel connections between them, serving the purpose of creating
a virtual trunk between the switches which can be handled as a single entity.
Its basic operation is straightforward by looking up the connection value in the
local translation table determining the outgoing port of the connection and the
new VPI/VCI value of connection on that link.
 ATM vs DATA Networks (Internet) –
 ATM is a “virtual circuit” based: the path is reserved before transmission.
While Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless and end-to-end resource
reservations are not possible. RSVP is a new signaling protocol on the internet.

 ATM Cells: Fixed or small size and Tradeoff is between voice or data. While IP
packets are of variable size.

 Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-bit
locally assigned labels in cells. While IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all
packets.

ATM Layers:

1. ATM Adaption Layer (AAL) –

It is meant for isolating higher-layer protocols from details of ATM processes
 and prepares for conversion of user data into cells and segments it into 48-
byte cell payloads. AAL protocol excepts transmission from upper-layer
services and helps them in mapping applications, e.g., voice, data to ATM
cells.

2. Physical Layer –
It manages the medium-dependent transmission and is divided into two parts
physical medium-dependent sublayer and transmission convergence sublayer.
The main functions are as follows:
 It converts cells into a bitstream.
 It controls the transmission and receipt of bits in the physical medium.
 It can track the ATM cell boundaries.
 Look for the packaging of cells into the appropriate type of frames.

3. ATM Layer –
It handles transmission, switching, congestion control, cell header processing,
sequential delivery, etc., and is responsible for simultaneously sharing the
virtual circuits over the physical link known as cell multiplexing and passing
cells through an ATM network known as cell relay making use of the VPI and
VCI information in the cell header.

ATM Applications:

1. ATM WANs –
It can be used as a WAN to send cells over long distances, a router serving as
an end-point between ATM network and other networks, which has two stacks
of the protocol.

2. Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services –

It helps in managing ATM, LAN, voice, and video services and is capable of full-
service virtual private networking, which includes integrated access to
multimedia.

3. Frame relay backbone –

Frame relay services are used as a networking infrastructure for a range of
 data services and enabling frame-relay ATM service to Internetworking
services.

4. Residential broadband networks –

ATM is by choice provides the networking infrastructure for the establishment
of residential broadband services in the search of highly scalable solutions.

5. Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks –

To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures by building the
ATM infrastructure for carrying the telephonic and private-line traffic.

Ethernet:
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE
standards 802.3. The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to
understand, implement, and maintain, and allows low-cost network
implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies that
are allowed. Ethernet generally uses a bus topology. Ethernet operates in two
layers of the OSI model, the physical layer and the data link layer. For Ethernet,
the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal with DLLs. In order to
handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
Although Ethernet has been largely replaced by wireless networks. A wired
networking still uses Ethernet more frequently. Wi-Fi eliminates the need for
cables by enabling users to connect their smartphones or laptops to a network
wirelessly. The 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard offers faster maximum data transfer
rates when compared to Gigabit Ethernet. However, wired connections are
more secure and less susceptible to interference than wireless networks.

History of Ethernet
Robert Metcalfe’s invention of Ethernet in 1973 completely changed computer
networking. With Ethernet Version 2’s support for 10 Mbps and an initial data
rate of 2.94 Mbps, it first gained popularity in 1982. Ethernet’s adoption was
accelerated by the IEEE 802.3 standardization in 1983. Local area networks
(LANs) and the internet were able to expand quickly because of the rapid
evolution and advancement of Ethernet, which over time reached speeds of
 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps, and higher. It evolved into the standard
technology for wired network connections, enabling dependable and quick
data transmission for private residences, commercial buildings, and data
centres all over the world.
There are different types of Ethernet networks that are used to connect
devices and transfer data.

1. Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network uses cables called twisted pair or
CAT5. It can transfer data at a speed of around 100 Mbps (megabits per
second). Fast Ethernet uses both fiber optic and twisted pair cables to enable
communication. There are three categories of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX,
100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-T4.
2. Gigabit Ethernet: This is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet and is more common
nowadays. It can transfer data at a speed of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps (gigabit per
second). Gigabit Ethernet also uses fiber optic and twisted pair cables for
communication. It often uses advanced cables like CAT5e, which can transfer
data at a speed of 10 Gbps.
3. 10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an advanced and high-speed network that can
transmit data at a speed of 10 gigabits per second. It uses special cables like
CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-pair cables and fiber optic cables. With the help of fiber
optic cables, this network can cover longer distances, up to around 10,000
meters.
4. Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves using switches or hubs to
improve network performance. Each workstation in this network has its own
dedicated connection, which improves the speed and efficiency of data
transfer. Switch Ethernet supports a wide range of speeds, from 10 Mbps to 10
Gbps, depending on the version of Ethernet being used.
In summary, Fast Ethernet is the basic version with a speed of 100 Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet is faster with a speed of 1 Gbps, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is even
faster with a speed of 10 Gbps, and Switch Ethernet uses switches or hubs to
enhance network performance.The Manchester Encoding Technique is used in
Ethernet. Using Manchester encoding, data can be transmitted over a physical
medium in communication systems. It is a type of line coding where the signal
transitions, as opposed to the absolute voltage levels, serve as the data
representation.
 Each bit of information is split into two equal time periods, or “halves,”
in Manchester encoding. If the signal level is higher during the first half of the
bit period than it is during the second, the result is a logic high (typically 1), or
vice versa.

Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet, therefore, 0 is

expressed by a high-to-low transition, a 1 by the low-to-high transition. In both
Manchester Encoding and Differential Manchester, the Encoding Baud rate is
double of bit rate.
Key Features of Ethernet-
1. Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with current
Ethernet standards supporting speeds of up to 100 Gbps.
2. Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a wide range
of devices and operating systems. It can also be easily scaled to accommodate
a growing number of users and devices.
3. Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-correction
techniques to ensure that data is transmitted accurately and efficiently.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is widely
available and easy to implement. It is also relatively low-maintenance,
requiring minimal ongoing support.
5. Interoperability: Ethernet is an interoperable technology that allows devices
from different manufacturers to communicate with each other seamlessly.
6. Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including encryption and
authentication, to protect data from unauthorized access.
7. Manageability: Ethernet networks are easily managed, with various tools
available to help network administrators monitor and control network traffic.
8. Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other networking
technologies, making it easy to integrate with other systems and devices.
9. Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be used in
almost any setting, from homes and small offices to large data centers and
enterprise-level networks.
10. Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to understand and
use. It does not require specialized knowledge or expertise to set up and
configure, making it accessible to a wide range of users.
11. Standardization: Ethernet is a standardized technology, which means that
all Ethernet devices and systems are designed to work together seamlessly.
This makes it easier for network administrators to manage and troubleshoot
Ethernet networks.
12. Scalability: Ethernet is highly scalable, which means it can easily
accommodate the addition of new devices, users, and applications without
sacrificing performance or reliability.
13. Broad compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of protocols
and technologies, including TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and others. This makes it a
versatile technology that can be used in a variety of settings and applications.
14. Ease of integration: Ethernet can be easily integrated with other
networking technologies, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, to create a seamless
and integrated network environment.
15. Ease of troubleshooting: Ethernet networks are easy to troubleshoot and
diagnose, thanks to a range of built-in diagnostic and monitoring tools. This
makes it easier for network administrators to identify and resolve issues
quickly and efficiently.
16. Support for multimedia: Ethernet supports multimedia applications, such
as video and audio streaming, making it ideal for use in settings where
multimedia content is a key part of the user experience.Ethernet is a reliable,
cost-effective, and widely used LAN technology that offers high-speed
connectivity and easy manageability for local networks.
Advantages of Ethernet:

Speed: When compared to a wireless connection, Ethernet provides

significantly more speed. Because Ethernet is a one-to-one connection, this is
the case. As a result, speeds of up to 10 Gigabits per second (Gbps) or even
100 Gigabits per second (Gbps) are possible.
Efficiency: An Ethernet cable, such as Cat6, consumes less electricity, even less
than a wifi connection. As a result, these ethernet cables are thought to be the
most energy-efficient.
Good data transfer quality: Because it is resistant to noise, the information
transferred is of high quality.
Disadvantages of Ethernet
Distance limitations: Ethernet has distance limitations, with the maximum
cable length for a standard Ethernet network being 100 meters. This means
that it may not be suitable for larger networks that require longer distances.
Bandwidth sharing: Ethernet networks share bandwidth among all connected
devices, which can result in reduced network speeds as the number of devices
increases.
Security vulnerabilities: Although Ethernet includes built-in security features,
it is still vulnerable to security breaches, including unauthorized access and
data interception.
Complexity: Ethernet networks can be complex to set up and maintain,
requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
Compatibility issues: While Ethernet is generally interoperable with other
networking technologies, compatibility issues can arise when integrating with
older or legacy systems.
Cable installation: Ethernet networks require the installation of physical
cables, which can be time-consuming and expensive to install.
Physical limitations: Ethernet networks require physical connections between
devices, which can limit mobility and flexibility in network design.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):

The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication
protocols that enable the simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video,
data, and other network services over traditional Public Switched Telephone
 Network(PSTN) connections. ISDN aims to enable end-to-end digital
connectivity to serve a diverse set of services.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides
access to packet-switched networks that allow digital transmission of voice and
data. This results in potentially better voice or data quality than an analog
phone can provide. It provides a packet-switched connection for data in
increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in
both upstream and downstream directions. A greater data rate was achieved
through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six
to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.

History of ISDN:
Before the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system
was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some special services available for
data. The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on the
same lines, which were not available in the classic telephone system. In the
context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network in data-link and
physical layers but commonly ISDN is often limited to usage to Q.931 and
related protocols. These protocols introduced in 1986 are a set of signaling
protocols establishing and breaking circuit-switched connections and for
advanced calling features for the user. ISDN provides simultaneous voice,
video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing
systems and group video conferencing systems.
Types of ISDN Interfaces
 Basic Rate Interface (BRI) : There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels)
and one signaling channel (‘D’ channel) in BRI to initiate connections. The B
channels operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D channel operates at a
maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are independent of each other. For
example, one channel is used as a TCP/IP connection to a location while the
other channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In iSeries ISDN
supports a basic rate interface (BRl). The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a
digital pipe consisting of two B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of
16 Kbps. This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition, the BRl service itself
requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore a digital pipe of 192
Kbps is required.
 Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D
channel and either 23 or 30 B channels depending on the country you are in.
PRI is not supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B channels and one
64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary Rate Interface (PRI). Twenty-
three B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536
Mbps. The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI requires a
digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.
 Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN): Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate
over the current communications infrastructure, which is heavily dependent
on the copper cable however B-ISDN relies mainly on the evolution of fiber
optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as ‘a service requiring
transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater than the primary
rate.
ISDN Services:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall into
3 categories- bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary services.
 Bearer Services: Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between
users without the network manipulating the content of that information is
provided by the bearer network. There is no need for the network to process
the information and therefore does not change the content. Bearer services
belong to the first three layers of the OSI model. They are well defined in the
ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched, packet-switched,
frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.
 Teleservices: In this, the network may change or process the contents of the
data. These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices
rely on the facilities of the bearer services and are designed to accommodate
complex user needs. The user need not be aware of the details of the process.
Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex, and
teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these services by name yet they
have not yet become standards.
 Supplementary Service: Additional functionality to the bearer services and
teleservices are provided by supplementary services. Reverse charging, call
waiting, and message handling are examples of supplementary services which
are all familiar with today’s telephone company services.
 Working of ISDN
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly CCITT).
The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates standards
for telecommunications on behalf of the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) and is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The various principles of ISDN
as per ITU-T recommendation are:
 To support switched and non-switched applications
 To support voice and non-voice applications
 Reliance on 64-kbps connections
 Intelligence in the network
 Layered protocol architecture
 Variety of configurations
Advantages of ISDN
 ISDN channels have a reliable connection.
 ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
 It has faster data transfer rate.
 Efficient use of bandwidth
 Improved call quality
 It provides Greater flexibility
 Integrated services
Disadvantages of ISDN
 ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.
 It requires specialized digital devices.
 It is less flexible.
 Limited coverage
 High installation and maintenance costs
 Limited features

VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal):

VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. VSAT is of importance,
especially in remote areas such as the hilly mountain regions, where Internet
connectivity cannot be directly provided. There is no option left in such places
through which the Internet can be accessed anyway. These places could be the
Ocean region and the Sea region, where the citizens have a lack of utilities. In
such cases, VSAT is one of the technologies that make Internet Connectivity
 possible so that people can access it. All the work is carried out in a
workstation group where the sending and receiving of signals takes place. The
data such as audio, video, etc, can be sent and received. Therefore, VSAT is
considered to be a private Earth Station. This Earth Station is designed in a way
such that the signals are transmitted and received with the help of satellites.
The term ‘Very Small’ in VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal ) refers to the
antenna size that is very small.

Characteristics of VSAT:

 VSAT is a two-way communication earth satellite station that has an antenna

of less than 3 meters.
 The size of the VSAT antenna may vary from 75 cm to 1.2 meters.
 The data ranges between 4 kilobytes per second to 16 megabytes per second
in VSAT.

Working for VSAT:

 The end user of the set requires a box that acts as an interface between the
user and its system.
 The box consists of an antenna and a transceiver.
 The work of this transceiver is to send and receive signals to and from the
transponder located in space.
 Every workstation works like a hub. The satellite sends or receives a signal
from it.
 Each user is connected to each of the interconnected hub stations and
operates in the form of a Star Topology (There is a server in between and all
the nodes are connected to it, forming a star-like figure).
 With this medium, we can transmit data, voice, and video signals.

Advantages of VSAT:

 VSAT Terminals and its Hardware can be installed in vehicles such as Trucks or
Vans and can also be used in situations where mobility is a need.
 Audio, Video, and data signals can be transmitted and received efficiently.
 Internet Access: A VSAT Network also serves to provide internet access in
addition to pointing to a WAN link.
 It is set in the consumer broadband industry to make it the leading major
wave. VSAT network provides an “Always on” broadband Internet Service.
 Information from remote locations can be accessed using satellites.
 It is more used for connectivity in rural areas, ships, and coastal regions.
 Mobile access is another conventional strength of satellite networks. For
example, we can do online surfing, watch TV, use applications, and much
more.
 VSAT Networks are not affected by earthquakes, Cyclones, and other natural
calamities.
 VSAT Networks, with a low-cost architecture and extra powerful systems,
share digital information.

Disadvantages of VSAT:

 Delay: VSAT Technology uses satellites in Geosynchronous orbit. This type of

data transmission has an approximate delay of about 500 milliseconds for each
round trip. It introduces a problem with the application that requires a
consistent transmission.
 Environmental conditions: Like other satellite systems, the VSAT network may
also get affected by the weather and other environmental conditions. The
signal strength may be weak at times, although it depends upon the size of the
antenna, frequency band, and the power of the transmitters.
 Clear view: Since VSAT requires an external antenna, therefore to contact the
satellite, the location must have a clear view of the southern sky.