Algebra 1

Chapter 1 Groups

1.1 Introduction

Definition
Let 𝑆 be a nonempty set.
A binary operation ∗ on 𝑆 is an operation which sends any two elements of 𝑆 to a unique
element of 𝑆.

Example
+ is a binary operation on the set ℝ.

+ is not a binary operation on the set ℝ ∖ {0}.

∩ is a binary operation on the set of all subsets of {1,2}.

Exercise
Define an operation ∗ on ℚ ∖ {0} by
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
∗ = 𝑏𝑑 for , ∈ ℚ ∖ {0}.
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑
Determine whether ∗ is a binary operation on ℚ ∖ {0}.
Exercise
Which of the following is a binary operation on ℤ?
For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ,
a)
𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑎+𝑏−5

b)
𝑎
𝑎∗𝑏 = +𝑏
2

c)
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = |𝑎|𝑏

d)
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

e)
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = √𝑎2 + √𝑏 2
 Definition
A group (𝐺,∗) is a nonempty set 𝐺 with a binary operation ∗ on 𝐺 which satisfies the
following conditions:
i. For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺,
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
ii. For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺,
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).
iii. There exists 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺,
𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎.
iv. For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

Remark:
The element 𝑒 is called an identity of (𝐺,∗).
The element 𝑏 is called an inverse of 𝑎 in (𝐺,∗).

Example
Additive Groups of Numbers
(ℤ, +), (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +), (ℂ, +)

Multiplicative Groups of Numbers

Let ℚ× = ℚ ∖ {0}, ℝ× = ℝ ∖ {0} and ℂ× = ℂ ∖ {0}.
(ℚ× ,⋅), (ℝ× ,⋅), (ℂ× ,⋅)
Additive Group of Matrices
The set 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 (ℝ) of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 real matrices with usual matrix addition is a group.

Additive Group of Functions

Let ℱ(ℝ, ℝ) be the set of all functions on ℝ.
For 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ ℱ(ℝ, ℝ), define
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
Then (ℱ(ℝ, ℝ), +) is a group.
Exercise
For each of the following, determine whether (𝐺,∗) is a group.
State which, if any, conditions fail to hold.
a) 𝐺 = ℤ,
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

b) 𝐺 = ℝ,
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

c) 𝐺 = ℚ,
𝑎+𝑏
𝑎∗𝑏 = for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
2
The notations commonly used to denote the binary operation ∗ are addition “+” and
multiplication “⋅”. The group (𝐺, +) is an additive group whereas (𝐺,⋅) is a multiplicative
group.

In most instances, only one binary operation is under consideration, and we say simply that
“𝐺 is a group.” If the binary operation is unspecified, we adopt the multiplicative notation
and use the juxtaposition 𝑥𝑦 to indicate the result of combining 𝑥 and 𝑦.

(𝐺,⋅) (𝐺, +)
For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺,
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺,

(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐). (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐).

There exists 1 ∈ 𝐺 such that There exists 0 ∈ 𝐺 such that

𝑎 ⋅ 1 = 𝑎 = 1 ⋅ 𝑎. 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 = 0 + 𝑎.

The element 1 is called an identity element The element 0 is called an identity element
of (𝐺,⋅). (or zero) of (𝐺, +).

For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 1 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 = 𝑏 + 𝑎.

The element 𝑏 is called a multiplicative The element 𝑏 is an additive inverse (or

inverse of 𝑎 in 𝐺 and is denoted by 𝑎−1 . negative) of 𝑎 in 𝐺 and is denoted by −𝑎.
 Definition
A group (𝐺,∗) is called abelian if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺,
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

Example
The following groups are all abelian.
ℤ, ℚ, ℝ, ℂ

ℚ× , ℝ× , ℂ×

𝑀𝑚×𝑛 (ℝ)

ℱ(ℝ, ℝ)

Example
The set 𝐺𝐿𝑛 (ℝ) of all invertible real matrices of order 𝑛 together with usual matrix
multiplication forms a group.
𝐺𝐿𝑛 (ℝ) = {𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛×𝑛 (ℝ) ∶ 𝐴 is invertible}
This group is called the general linear group of degree 𝑛.
The group is nonabelian if and only if 𝑛 ≥ 2.
1.2 Groups of Integers Modulo 𝒏

Definition
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer and 𝑎, 𝑏 be two integers.
Then 𝑎 is congruent to 𝑏 modulo 𝑛 if 𝑛 divides 𝑎 − 𝑏 (i.e., 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑛 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ).
Notation: 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛)

Example
3 ≡ 1 (mod 2)
3 ≡ −2 (mod 5)
−6 ≡ −1 (mod 5)
−1 ≡ 2 (mod 3)

Definition
For each integer 𝑎, define
[𝑎]𝑛 = {𝑧 ∈ ℤ ∶ 𝑧 ≡ 𝑎 (mod 𝑛)}.
The set [𝑎]𝑛 is called the congruence class of 𝑎 modulo 𝑛.

Example
Consider 𝑛 = 3.
[0]3 = {… , −6, −3,0,3,6 … }
[1]3 = {… , −5, −2,1,4,7, … }
[2]3 = {… , −4, −1,2,5,8, … }
 Theorem
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer and 𝑎, 𝑏 be two integers.
Then [𝑎]𝑛 = [𝑏]𝑛 if and only if 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛).

Proof:

(⇒) Suppose that [𝑎]𝑛 = [𝑏]𝑛 .

Since 𝑎 ∈ [𝑎]𝑛 = [𝑏]𝑛 , by definition, it follows that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛).

(⇐) Suppose that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛).

Then 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑛 for some integer 𝑘.

Let 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎]𝑛 . Then 𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ𝑛 for some integer ℎ. We have

𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ𝑛 = 𝑏 + (ℎ + 𝑘)𝑛.
This implies that 𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛) and therefore 𝑥 ∈ [𝑏]𝑛 . Hence, [𝑎]𝑛 ⊆ [𝑏]𝑛 .

Let 𝑦 ∈ [𝑏]𝑛 . Then 𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑙𝑛 for some integer 𝑙. We have

𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑙 − ℎ)𝑛.
This implies that 𝑦 ≡ 𝑎 (mod 𝑛) and therefore 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎]𝑛 . Hence, [𝑏]𝑛 ⊆ [𝑎]𝑛 .

We conclude that [𝑎]𝑛 = [𝑏]𝑛 .

Example
Consider 𝑛 = 3.
⋯ = [−6]3 = [−3]3 = [0]3 = [3]3 = [6]3 = ⋯
⋯ = [−5]3 = [−2]3 = [1]3 = [4]3 = [7]3 = ⋯
⋯ = [−4]3 = [−1]3 = [2]3 = [5]3 = [8]3 = ⋯
 Theorem
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer.
Then
ℤ = [0]𝑛 ∪ [1]𝑛 ∪ … ∪ [𝑛 − 1]𝑛
and
[𝑖]𝑛 ∩ [𝑗]𝑛 = ∅ for 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 − 1.

Example
[0]3 = {… , −6, −3,0,3,6 … }
[1]3 = {… , −5, −2,1,4,7, … }
[2]3 = {… , −4, −1,2,5,8, … }

ℤ = [0]3 ∪ [1]3 ∪ [2]3

[0]3 ∩ [0]3 = ∅
[0]3 ∩ [1]3 = ∅
[1]3 ∩ [2]3 = ∅
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer.
Define the set
ℤ𝑛 = {[0]𝑛 , [1]𝑛 , … , [𝑛 − 1]𝑛 }.
For [𝑎]𝑛 , [𝑏]𝑛 ∈ ℤ𝑛 , define
[𝑎]𝑛 + [𝑏]𝑛 = [𝑎 + 𝑏]𝑛
and
[𝑎]𝑛 [𝑏]𝑛 = [𝑎𝑏]𝑛 .
Then the addition and multiplication are binary operations on ℤ𝑛 .
Notation: For convenience, we write
ℤ𝑛 = {0,1, … , 𝑛 − 1}.
Theorem
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer.
Then (ℤ𝑛 , +) is a group.
This group is called the additive group of integers modulo 𝒏.
 Definition
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be integers.
Then 𝑎 and 𝑏 are said to be relatively prime if the only positive integer that divides both
𝑎 and 𝑏 is 1.

Theorem (Bezout’s Identity)

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be integers.
Then 𝑎 and 𝑏 are relatively prime if and only if there exist integers 𝑟 and 𝑠 such that
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑠𝑏 = 1.

Example
13 and 6 are relatively prime.
Note that
1(13) + (−2)(6) = 1.

Theorem
Let 𝑝 be a prime and 𝑎 be an integer.
Then 𝑎 and 𝑝 are relatively prime if and only if 𝑝 does not divide 𝑎.

Proof:

(⇒) Suppose that 𝑎 and 𝑝 are relatively prime.

If 𝑝 divides 𝑎, then 𝑝 is a positive integer that divides both 𝑝 and 𝑎; a contradiction.
Therefore, 𝑝 does not divide 𝑎.

(⇐) Suppose that 𝑝 does not divide 𝑎.

Let 𝑘 be a positive integer that divides both 𝑎 and 𝑝.
Since 𝑝 is a prime, the only positive integers that divide 𝑝 are 1 and 𝑝.
Therefore, 𝑘 must be 1 or 𝑝.
By the assumption that 𝑝 does not divide 𝑎, 𝑘 cannot be equal to 𝑝.
Hence, 𝑘 = 1 and we conclude that 𝑎 and 𝑝 must be relatively prime.
Theorem
Let 𝑛 ≥ 2 be an integer and let ℤ×𝑛 = ℤ𝑛 ∖ {0}.
×
Then (ℤ𝑛 ,⋅) is a group if and only if 𝑛 is a prime number.
This group is called the multiplicative group of integers modulo 𝒏.
1.3 Dihedral Groups

Let 𝐷6 be the set of all rigid transformations (reflections, rotations, and combinations of
these) that leave the shape and position of an equilateral triangle fixed.

The set 𝐷6 together with composition of rigid transformations forms a group called the
dihedral group of order 𝟔.
(1) 𝑟 3 = 1 and 𝑠 2 = 1.

(2) Every element of 𝐷6 can be written in the form

𝑟 𝑖 𝑠𝑗
where 𝑖 = 0,1,2 and 𝑗 = 0,1.

(3) 𝑠𝑟 = 𝑟 −1 𝑠 and 𝑠𝑟 2 = 𝑟 −2 𝑠

𝐷6 = ⟨𝑟, 𝑠 ∶ 𝑟 3 = 𝑠 2 = 1, 𝑠𝑟 = 𝑟 −1 𝑠⟩ = {1, 𝑟, 𝑟 2 , 𝑠, 𝑟𝑠, 𝑟 2 𝑠}

In general, 𝐷2𝑛 is the group of rigid transformations of a regular polygon with 𝑛 sides.
𝐷2𝑛 = ⟨𝑟, 𝑠 ∶ 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑠 2 = 1, 𝑠𝑟 = 𝑟 −1 𝑠⟩.

Dihedral group of order 𝟖

𝐷8 = ⟨𝑟, 𝑠 ∶ 𝑟 4 = 𝑠 2 = 1, 𝑠𝑟 = 𝑟 −1 𝑠⟩.
1.4 Order of a Group

Definition
The order of a group 𝐺, denoted by |𝐺|, is defined as the number of elements in the set 𝐺.

Definition
A group 𝐺 is said to be
i. finite if |𝐺| is finite.
ii. infinite if |𝐺| is infinite.

Example
i. |ℤ| = ∞
ii. |ℤ𝑛 | = 𝑛
iii. For prime 𝑛, |ℤ×
𝑛| = 𝑛 − 1

iv. |𝐷2𝑛 | = 2𝑛
1.5 Cayley Table (Multiplication Table)

Definition
Let 𝐺 be a finite group.
Then the multiplication between all the elements in 𝐺 can be shown in a table called
Cayley table (multiplication table) of 𝐺.

If 𝐺 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑘 }, then a Cayley table of 𝐺 is

⋅ 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑘
𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎1 𝑎𝑘
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎2 … 𝑎 2 𝑎𝑘
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘 𝑎1 𝑎𝑘 𝑎2 … 𝑎 𝑘 𝑎𝑘

Remark:
A group is abelian if and only if its Cayley table's values are symmetric along its diagonal
axis.

Example
Display a Cayley table of ℤ2 , ℤ×
3 and 𝐷6 .
Exercise
Let 𝐺 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}. Consider the group (𝐺,∗) with Cayley table as follows:

∗ 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑑 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑑 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑 𝑐

Find an identity element of the group and an inverse for each of its elements.

Exercise
Let 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and ∗ be a binary operation on 𝑆 defined in the table below.

∗ 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑏 𝑎
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 𝑐

Is (𝑆,∗) a group?
1.6 Properties of Group Elements

Theorem
Let 𝐺 be a group.
Then the identity of 𝐺 is unique.

Theorem
Let 𝐺 be a group.
Then the inverse of each element in 𝐺 is unique.
 Definition
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer, 𝑛 ≥ 2.
For elements 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 in a group 𝐺, the expression 𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 is defined recursively
by
𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘+1 = (𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 )𝑎𝑘+1
for 𝑘 ≥ 1.

Theorem (Generalized Associative Law)

Let 𝑛 ≥ 2 be a positive integer and let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be elements of a group 𝐺.
For any positive integer 𝑚 such that 1 ≤ 𝑚 < 𝑛,
(𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 )(𝑎𝑚+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 .

Proof:

The case for 𝑛 = 2 is clear.

Suppose that for some 𝑘 ≥ 2,
(𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 )(𝑎𝑚+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 ) = 𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 for any 1 ≤ 𝑚 < 𝑘.
Consider 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 and 1 ≤ 𝑚 < 𝑘 + 1.
Then
(𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 )(𝑎𝑚+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘+1 )
= (𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 )[(𝑎𝑚+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 )𝑎𝑘+1 ]
= [(𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 )(𝑎𝑚+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 )]𝑎𝑘+1
= (𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 )𝑎𝑘+1
= 𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘+1
By induction, the result holds for any 𝑛 ≥ 2.
Theorem
Let 𝐺 be a group. Then for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺,
i.
(𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎.
ii.
(𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 .

Theorem (Cancellation Laws)

Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑔, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺.
i. If 𝑔𝑥 = 𝑔𝑦, then 𝑥 = 𝑦. [Left Cancellation Law]
ii. If 𝑥𝑔 = 𝑦𝑔, then 𝑥 = 𝑦. [Right Cancellation Law]
 Corollary
No row or column in a Cayley table of a group may contain the same element twice.

Example
Let 𝐺 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and the Cayley table of 𝐺 is as follows:
i.
∗ 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

ii.
∗ 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
1.7 Order of Group Elements

Definition
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑔 be an element of 𝐺.
Define
𝑔0 = 1.
For 𝑛 ∈ ℤ with 𝑛 ≥ 0, define
i. 𝑔𝑛+1 = 𝑔𝑛 𝑔.
ii. 𝑔−𝑛 = (𝑔−1 )𝑛 .

Example

Theorem
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑔 be an element of 𝐺.
Then for integers 𝑚, 𝑛,
i. 𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑛 = 𝑔𝑚+𝑛 .
ii. (𝑔𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑔𝑚𝑛 .
 Definition
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑔 be an element of 𝐺.
i. If 𝑔𝑚 = 1 for some nonzero integer 𝑚, then the order of 𝑔 is defined to be the
smallest positive integer 𝑛 such that 𝑔𝑛 = 1.
Notation: |𝑔| = 𝑛

ii. If 𝑔𝑚 ≠ 1 for any nonzero integer 𝑚, then the order of 𝑔 is said to be infinite.
Notation: |𝑔| = ∞

Remarks:
Let 𝑔 be a group element.
i. |𝑔| = 1 if and only if 𝑔 = 1.
ii. |𝑔| = 𝑛 if and only if 𝑔 ≠ 1, 𝑔2 ≠ 1, … , 𝑔𝑛−1 ≠ 1, 𝑔𝑛 = 1.

Example
Let 𝐺 = {1, −1} and ⋅ be the usual multiplication between integers.
Then the Cayley table of 𝐺 is the following:
⋅ 1 −1
1 1 −1
−1 −1 1
What is the order of the element −1?

Exercise
Find the order of each element in the group (𝐺,∗) where 𝐺 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and a Cayley table of 𝐺
is as follows:
∗ 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎

𝑐 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Example
Find the order of each element in the following groups:
i. ℤ4
ii. ℤ× 5
iii. 𝐷6
iv. ℚ×

Example
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑔6 = 1.
Find the possible orders of 𝑔.

Theorem
Let 𝐺 be a group. Then for each 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺,
|𝑔| = |𝑔−1 |.
Theorem (Division Algorithm)
Let 𝑚 and 𝑛 be integers such that 𝑛 is positive.
Then there exist integers 𝑞 and 𝑟 such that
𝑚 = 𝑞𝑛 + 𝑟
where 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑛.

Theorem
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑔 be an element of 𝐺.
i. Suppose |𝑔| = 𝑛. Then 𝑔𝑚 = 1 if and only if 𝑛 divides 𝑚.
ii. Suppose |𝑔| = ∞. Then 𝑔𝑚 = 1 if and only if 𝑚 = 0.
Example
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that |𝑎| = 6 and |𝑏| = ∞.
Then
𝑎𝑚 = 1 ⇔ 𝑚 = 0, ±6, ±12, …
and
𝑏 𝑚 = 1 ⇔ 𝑚 = 0.

Example
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑔6 = 1.
Find the possible orders of 𝑔.
Exercise
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝐺𝐿2 (ℝ) where
0 1 0 −1
𝐴=[ ] and 𝐵 = [ ]
−1 −1 1 0
i. Show that |𝐴| = 3 and |𝐵| = 4.
ii. Show that |𝐴𝐵| = ∞.