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Chapter 3 (5.7.2024)

Matlab assignment answers

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11 views16 pages

Chapter 3 (5.7.2024)

Matlab assignment answers

Uploaded by

John Denver
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Department of Electrical Power Engineering

Yangon Technological University

Fundamental Electrical Measurements

EP - 22015
Chapter – II
Experiments And Statistical Analysis
Experiments And Statistical Analysis
➢ The term "experiment" is quite broad.
➢ Measurements combine both art and science; a knowledge of scientific
principles is not enough, for skill in perfecting the techniques is essential for
producing results of high quality.
➢ Measurements involve the use of instruments of one sort or another.
➢ The first step in a measurement problem is the choice of the method to be
used. This choice, made in consideration of available equipment, must take into
account the required accuracy and also conditions such as speed and convenience.
➢ Speed is of minor concern in precise measurements, but is essential if large
numbers of routine tests are to be made.
➢ Not only must the general method be considered, but also the details of
procedure must be carefully planned.
The Record of Experimental Work
➢ The record made in the course of experimental work is extremely important.
It must be written and must be complete, since human memory is notoriously
unreliable.
➢ The only safe way is to make a complete record of circuit, equipment, and
data. The data record should include, in addition to the title and purpose of
the experiment, the following items:
(1) A clear and complete circuit diagram, identifying all equipment and showing
the connections between parts exactly as in the actual circuit.
(2) A list of all calibrated equipment by type and serial number (or laboratory
number).
(3) A neat tabulation of data
(4) The method of making computations should be indicated on the data sheet or
on an accompanying sheet.
The Report
➢ The purpose of the report is to tell somebody what was done and why,
what information was obtained, and the significance of the results.
➢ Finally, the most important part of the report is the discussion of the results
and the presentation of the conclusions drawn as a result of the experiment.
➢ To this end, it should give a formal statement of the objective and the
method used in obtaining the desired information.
➢ Diagrams and descriptions of the equipment will usually be needed, plus a
tabulation of at least the principal data and calculations made from the data.
➢ Graphs are useful in many cases, sometimes for purposes of calculation, and
generally for illustrating the trend or relationships disclosed by the measurements
and calculations.
Accuracy and Precision

The terms “accuracy" and 'precision" are met in everyday usage.


Precise - Sharply or clearly defined
Accurate - Conforming to truth

➢ This micrometer is as precise as ever, as we can take readings to a


thousandth of an inch, and the readings are consistent and "clearly defined."
The readings of dimensions taken with this micrometer, however, are not
accurate, since they do not conform to truth.
➢ Accuracy is a matter of careful measurement in terms of an accurately
known standard.
Indications Of Precision-significant Figures

➢ The number of significant figures in a quantity is one measure of


precision, though not as definite as a percentage statement.. Significant figures
are those that convey actual information regarding the magnitude of a quantity.
➢ Thus, if we specify a resistance as 105 ohms, we express our belief that
the value is closer to 105 ohms than it is to 104 or 106, and we have three
significant figures. If we write 105.0 ohms, we have four significant figures.
➢ A resistance of 105 ohms might also be written as 0.000105 megohm.
➢ 52,300 means that the true value lies between 52,299 and 52,301, which
is five significant figures.
➢ 101 ohms covers values between 100.5 and 101.5, which is ±0.5%, or a
total range of doubt of 1%.
Classification of Errors
➢ Measurements cannot be called good or bad merely on the basis of the
degree of accuracy, but rather on their adequacy under the given conditions.
➢ Errors may originate in a variety of ways, but we may group them under
three main headings, as shown below.
I. Gross errors.
II. Systematic errors.
A. Instrumental errors.
(1) Due to shortcomings of the instrument.
(2) Due to misuse, or loading effects, of the instrument.
B. Environmental errors ("errors due to external conditions").
C. Observational errors.’
III. Random errors
The Place of Statistics in Experimental Work

➢ No measurement is made with complete accuracy. There is always some


error, which changes from one determination to another.
➢ Statistical study is concerned primarily with the precision of measurement.
➢ The simplest application of statistics is in finding the average and a measure
of precision of a simple set of measurements.
As an example, fifty readings on one resistor.
Description of Dispersed Data
(1) Measure of central or typical value
The most commonly used measure of central value in statistical work is the
arithmetic mean, or average.
Mean = xത

(2) Measure of dispersion from central value


The deviation of a reading is the amount by which it differs from the
mean.
Deviation of x1 = x1 − xത
Deviation of x2 = x2 − xത
The most commonly used value is the root-mean-square deviation
(sometimes called the root-mean-square error), or standard deviation (S.D).
The variance is the mean-square deviation, which is the same as the S.D,
except that the square root is not extracted. That is,
Variance = Mean-square deviation = (Standard Deviation)2
2 ഥ )2
σ(x −x
Variance =s =
n−1
Standard deviation =s = v
s
Standard deviation of mean = sn =
n
(3) Measures of skewness
Skewness is a term for a lack of symmetry in the distribution.
Example
Five determinations of the resistance of a resistor gave the values 24.2, 24.3, 24.9,
24.6 and 24.1. Compute: (a) the arithmetic mean, (b) the standard deviation of
the readings, (c) the standard deviation of the mean of the readings.
Solution

x x - xത (x − xത )2
24.2 - 0.02 0.0004
24.3 0.08 0.0064
24.9 0.32 0.1024
24.6 0.38 0.1444
24.1 - 0.12 0.0144
121.1 0.2680
121.1
Mean = xത = = 24.22
5
2 ഥ ) 2 0.2680
σ(x − x
Variance = V = s = = = 0.067
n−1 4
Standard deviation = s = v = 0.061 = 0.259
s 0.259
Standard deviation of mean = sn = = = 0.115
n 5

Example
Five observations of a quantity are, 4.56, 4.43, 4.61, 4,58, and 4.47. Compute:
(a) the arithmetic mean, (b) the standard deviation of the readings, (c) the
standard deviation of the mean of the readings.
Guarantee Errors (Limiting Errors)
➢ Makers of measuring equipment give a statement and a guarantee of the
degree of reliability of their product.
➢ If a 1000 ohm resistor is guaranteed to have an error no greater than 0.1
per cent, it may be specified in the catalog as 1000 ohms ± 0.1 per cent,
or, 1000 ohms ± 1 ohm.

Example: Suppose that power to a resistor is being determined by, P = I2 R and


both I and, R have certain guaranteed, limits to their specified values. Within
what limits can we guarantee the computed value of power?
I = 4.00 amperes ± 0.5% = 4.00 ± 0.02 amp
R = 100.0 ohms ± 0.2% = 100.0 ± 0.2 ohm
Solution
The component errors in power,
∂P
∆PI = ∆I = 2 ×I × R × ∆I = 2 × 4 × 100 × (± 0.02) = ± 16 watts
∂I
∂P
∆PR = ∆R = I2 × ∆R = 16 × (± 0.2) = ± 3.2 watts
∂R
The indicated power is
P = 4 2 × 100 = 1600 watts
On the guarantee basis,
P = 1600 ± 16 ± 3.2 watts
= 1600 ± 19.2 watts
= 1600 watts ± 1.2%
Problems
1. Ten determinations of the resistance of a resistor gave the values 101.2, 101.7,
101.3, 101.0, 101.5, 101.3, 101.2, 101.4, 101.3, and 101.1. Assume that only
random errors are present. Compute: (a) the arithmetic mean, (b) the standard
deviation of the readings, (c) the standard deviation of the mean of the readings.
2. Six determinations of a quantity, as entered on a data sheet, and presented to
you for analysis, are the following: 12.35, 12.71, 12.48, 10.24, 12.63, 12.58.
Examine the data, and on the basis of your conclusions compute the arithmetic
mean, the standard deviation of the readings, and the standard deviation of the
mean of the readings.
3. State the number of significant figures in each of the following numbers:
(a) 302 (b) 302.10 (c) 0.00030 (d) 0.00003 (e) 5.01 ×10 4 (f) 50100

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