TOPIC 1

System fundamentals

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1.1.1 Identify the context for which a new system is
planned.
• What is the problem that the new system is going to
solve?
• Alternative solutions
• Staffing: numbers, training
• Cost
• Time
• Compatibility with existing systems
• Infrastructure requirements, eg existing network
• Bespoke (custom-made) software versus off-the-shelf

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Software: Bespoke vs Off-the-shelf
Bespoke Off-the-shelf

• Made just for you so • Made for a general

tailored to your specific audience so won't have
needs ✓ everything you need ✗
• Very expensive ✗ • Cheap ✓
• May require special • Skilled workers readily
training ✗ available ✓

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1.1.2 Describe the need for change management.

• Communication of the need for and benefits of change

• Users may require training
• Recruitment may be necessary to bring in suitable
skillsets
• Stakeholder support
• Planning, milestones, completion date
• Dependencies between project stages/components
• Compatibility between old system and new system
• Testing

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1.1.3 Outline compatibility issues resulting from situations
including legacy systems or business mergers.
• Legacy system: an old technology or computer system, often
one that is inherited by one company when another company
is bought out
• When two businesses merge, their computer systems may be
incompatible with each other eg in terms of
• Operating systems
• Data formats
• Hardware
• Legacy systems are not always immediately replaced for a
number of possible reasons:
• They might still work well
• It might be too costly to develop a new system
• Perhaps users are comfortable and retraining would be too much of an
upheaval
• Perhaps nobody understands how it works!

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 Software-as-a-service is the idea that your software
needs are provided by a remotely hosted system,
1.1.4 Compare the that is managed by an ASP (Application Service
Provider), rather than having your own hardware
implementation of systems using and technical staff. Most organisations have some
mix of in-house and outsourced systems.
a client’s hardware with hosting
systems remotely.
• This point is about whether you should buy hardware for your system
and manage it yourself (in-house), or rent the hardware and have
someone else host and manage it (outsourced)

In-house Outsourced
✗ High initial cost (have to buy ✓ Low initial cost (hosting company
hardware) owns hardware)
✗ Technical skill required meaning ✓ No technical skill required (hosting
recruitment costs and possibly high company has its own skilled staff)
salary costs
✓ Low ongoing cost (no rental or ✗ High ongoing cost (rental of
management fee) hardware or management services)
✓ Full control ✗ Loss of full control
✓ All data kept within the organisation ✗ Potentially security/confidentiality
risk
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 SaaS: Software as a Service
Features Advantages
Remote hosting of data Don't have to purchase expensive equipment; so
A database is hosted and managed on the service cheaper due to low set-up costs.
provider's site, which may be in a different country from Don't have to recruit technical employees to run the
the customer. system; cheaper due to lower salary bill.
Remote processing
Applications actually run on the computers at the service Disadvantages
provider's site, rather than on the customer's computers. Ongoing subscription costs
Local UI Data is stored and managed remotely; there is a
The user interface on the customer's machine sends security risk since the data can be accessed by people
input across the network/internet to the running process outside the company.
on the service provider's servers. Data has to be sent across the network/internet; there is
Thin client a security risk since the data could be intercepted in
The customer's computers don't do any processing or transit.
store any data; they just send input to and receive The company may feel it has lost control over its data;
output from the service provider's servers. for instance, it may want to take back-ups more often
but be unable to.
The customer becomes dependent on the service
provider; this is risky because if the service provider
goes out of business then the customer will need to
move all their data to a new provider, which could be
costly.

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 1.1.5 Evaluate alternative installation processes.
Parallel running Pilot running
Old system and new system at the same time. New system used by a some limited group, perhaps
• Very low risk because even if new system one office, rather than the whole company.
doesn’t work the old system is still there to cope • Again low risk because old system is still
with problems. running.
• May need extra employees to work both • Cheaper than parallel running in terms of extra
systems at the same time. More work and higher staff and extra work required.
salary costs. • Risk that new system problems won't be
detected because number of users and amount
of data is unrepresentative.

Phased conversion Direct changeover

Going from old system to new system in steps. "Big bang" or "flicking the switch". Going from old
• Longer period of time in which employees can system to new system overnight.
learn to use the new system. • Lowest cost if all goes well.
• Low risk of large problems because each phase • Substantial risk from problems with the new
implies only a small change. system because old system is no longer there to
• Not always possible. Some systems are all or rely on.
nothing and cannot be introduced in stages.

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1.1.6 Discuss problems that may arise as a part of data
migration.
• Data migration is the process of moving data from one
system to another, usually an older system to a newer
one.
• Issues that can arise (according to the guide) are:
• Incompatible file formats, data structures, validation rules
• Incomplete data transfer
• International conventions on dates, currencies and character sets
• Data often has to undergo a conversion process before it
can be loaded into the new system.

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 How important is testing? Implementation of a buggy
system can lead to loss of productivity, customer
dissatisfaction and can mean that users don't want
to use the system. This last problem can be very
1.1.7 Suggest various types difficult to undo.

of testing. Consider how important testing is for each of the

implementation strategies in 1.1.5.

These are not mutually exclusive alternatives. There is some crossover

between them:
• Debugging: Ongoing. Happens during development
• Alpha testing: The first stage of testing, done by the programmers
themselves
• Beta testing: Later testing, done by future users when the system is almost
finalised
• White-box testing: Testing the system from the point of view of the
programmer, with full knowledge of how it does what it does
• Black-box testing: Testing what the system is supposed to do, from the point
of view of the user, with no knowledge of how the program does what it does
• Unit testing: Testing the modules or components of the system separately
• System testing: Testing the system as a whole
• Acceptance testing: The last testing phase once the system is delivered to
the user and just before sign-off
• Automated testing: Using software to test software
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Adv and Disadv of Testing Types
The problem with white-box testing The advantage with unit testing is
is that because the testers know how that testers can make sure that every
the program works, they might component is tested and nothing is
subconsciously only give it input that overlooked. With system testing, it's
they know will be valid. Since real less easy to make sure all
users do black-box testing, their components are tested.
input is considered more genuine and
realistic. On the other hand, unit testing
On the other hand, white-box testers doesn't test whether all components
will be able to design their tests to work together, even they work well
cover all of the possible functions of separately. System testing is needed
the software, because they know how to make sure that there are no
it works. Black-box testers may only compatibility problems between
test a small range of the software's components.
function because they don't know
what it can do.

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1.1.8 Describe the importance of user documentation.

• Non-technical (as opposed to system documentation,

which is aimed at IT professionals)
• Contains friendly advice about installation, operation,
troubleshooting
• Graphical information like sample data and screens
• One of the biggest difficulties with a new system is a
userbase that is unwilling or unable to adopt the new
system (old habits die hard)
• Good user documentation can go a long way to making
a new system successful by easing the transition

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1.1.9 Evaluate different methods of providing user
documentation.
• Paper manuals:
• Don't need to be near a computer
• Need multiple copies
• Online manuals:
• Can make use of rich media
• Can search
• Always available
• Interactive tutorials:
• Makes the learning process more interesting
• Dedicated support teams:
• Can give accurate, focused assistance
• Increases salary bill

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1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering user
training.
● Company must provide time for ● Self-study from printed material may be slow, boring,
training and have a training plan inauthentic and requires users to be highly motivated.
● Basic computer skills – what ● Learning in groups and classes can help users to feel more
does the system assume you secure and involved, but it takes time out of the working
already know? day and users might be unwilling to attend classes in their
● Different training for different free time.
roles, eg administrator, ● Online/remote training or assistance can reduce travel
superuser, end-user costs but there can be problems with time zones
● Online interactive training ● Interactive programs make learning fun and don't need to
programs be managed by a person. However, they may provide less
● A support department focused training and be unable to respond to a particular
● "Hands-on" – practise with the user's needs.
system itself ● Practice with the system itself is the most authentic
● Group activities and role play learning experience but it could cause problems with live
● Blogs, wikis, forums, FAQs data.
● Getting feedback from users ● Allowing users to give feedback gives them a sense of
ownership.
● Forums and FAQs allow the users to build their own
knowledgebase.
● A variety of training methods gives users a spectrum of
learning experiences.
● Dedicated support teams can give focused attention and
provide a personal touch.

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1.1.11 Identify a range of causes of data loss.

• Viruses, malware, deliberate deletion of data

• Natural disasters, such as fire, earthquake, flooding.
• Hardware failure
• User error (accidental deletion)
• Physical damage, eg dropping a hard disk
• Power failure can cause data that has not already been
written to disk to be lost. It can be mitigated by using a
UPS (uninterruptible power supply)
• Back-ups are essential but they present extra security
issues.

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1.1.12 Outline the consequences of data loss in a specified
situation.
• Business activities may have to be suspended
• You can't deliver goods to your customers if you have lost all
their orders
• You can't bill your customers if you have lost their account
details

• It is damaging to an organisation's reputation

• Customers may have to be notified

• There may be costs associated with replacing the data

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1.1.13 Describe a range of methods that can be used to
prevent data loss.
• Back-up
• Removable media: Cheap, simple to install (USB), large capacity, easy
to move offsite. Also easy to lose!
• Offsite: Take back-ups offsite in case of disasters like fire or flooding.
• Online: Always available, need internet connection, possible security
risk.
• Antivirus: Prevent malware from deleting/editing data.
• Failover and redundancy:
• A redundant system is a clone of an existing that is kept up-to-date in
case the primary system fails.
• Failover is the process of detecting a failure of the primary system and
switching users to the redundant system.
• This is often done with large enterprise servers because of the high cost
that would be associated with a server outage.

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1.1.14 Describe strategies for managing releases and
updates.
• The software life cycle involves continuous monitoring, testing, bug-fixing and
re-development
• Hence the need for multiple releases and updates of software
• Reasons include:
• Bug-fix (often called a "patch")
• Security threat
• User requests
• Additional features
• Mechanism: Software compares current release with latest release via internet. If the
current release is out-of-date, the newer version is downloaded and installed.
• Some software allows automatic update option, eg Windows update.
• Possible issue: How do you know that the update is genuine? How do you know that it
doesn't grant the software extra privileges that you wouldn't have agreed to on first
installation, eg accessing your contacts?
• Possible solution: On first install, Android apps have to declare the privileges they
require, and they can update themselves only if they do not require extra privileges.

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1.2.1 Define the terms: hardware, software, peripheral,
network, human resources.
• Hardware: The machines, wiring, and other physical
components of a computer or other electronic system
• Software: The instructions and data that can be stored
electronically in a computer system.
• Peripheral: A computer device, such as a CD-ROM drive
or a printer, that is not part of the main computer but
which is added to provide some extra function.
• Network: A group of two or more computers linked via a
wired or wireless communication medium.
• Human resources: The personnel or workers of a
business or organization, esp. when regarded as a
significant asset.
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1.2.2 Describe the roles that a computer can take in a
networked world.
• Client: A computer on a network that makes requests to a server. Example:
Your computer on the school network. When you go to student resources and
double-click a file you are making a reques of the school's file server.
• Server: A computer on a network that listens to and responds to requests
from clients. Examples are file servers, database servers, web servers, etc.
• Email server: A computer on a network dedicated to sending and receiving
email.
• DNS server: DNS = Domain Name Service. A computer on a network that
translates between user-friendly names of network resources and their
numerical IP address. Example: User-friendly name: www.yahoo.com, IP
address: 206.190.36.150.
• Router: A computer on a network that is responsible for sending network
packets to the right host, subnet or network.
• Firewall: A computer on a network that limits the flow of data packets for a
number of different reasons including: port number, application, content

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Firewalls
• A firewall is a program that restricts data allowed into and out of a
network, on the basis of a set of rules
• One of the ways it does this is to close certain ports. A port is an
identification number for a process running on a machine.
• Try playing World of Warcraft using the school’s internet connection.
You will fail. Why? Because the WoW software uses certain port
numbers but the school’s firewall blocks traffic on those ports.
• Other ways you can block traffic is by its source address,
destination address, or the application that its coming from.
• The word “firewall” can refer to the software itself, or the hardware on
which the software runs. Often a firewall is a dedicated machine that
does nothing else.
• "Next generation" firewalls can actually open up and inspect the
contents of packets and so can help to detect viruses.

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1.2.3 Discuss the social and ethical issues associated with
a networked world

• I have generally tried to concentrate all social and ethical

stuff into one slide (1.2.11)
• Also see discussion in Topic 3

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1.2.4 Identify the relevant stakeholders when planning a
new system
A "stakeholder" is any person or organization that is actively
involved in a project, or whose interests may be affected
positively or negatively by execution of a project.
Examples are:
• End-users of the planned system
• Basic user, superuser, administrator
• Other employees
• Customers
• Suppliers
• Shareholders
• Unions
• Local community
• Etc

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1.2.5 Describe methods of obtaining requirements from
stakeholders.
• Surveys:
• Adv: You can get information from a lot of people quickly
• Disadv: The survey may not ask the right questions. Qualitative
information difficult to quantify.
• Interviews:
• Adv: Stakeholders can make you aware of things you hadn't
thought of, unlike with survey in which their answers are restricted
• Disadv: Time-consuming. Stakeholders may give biased
information.
• Direct observations:
• Adv: Avoids bias.
• Disadv: Time-consuming. Observer can affect the process.

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1.2.6 Describe appropriate techniques for gathering the
information needed to arrive at a workable solution.
• Examine the current system to see how it works. What
are the inputs and outputs? What processing is done?
What different roles are there for the users?
• Competing products can give ideas about different way
to achieve the same aim.
• Organisational capabilities. Are there experts within the
organisation who can be consulted?
• A literature search is the term given to a systematic
study to previous project reports to in an attempt to see if
the problem has already been solved by someone else

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1.2.7 Construct suitable representations to illustrate system
requirements.
Structure diagram
• This just shows how something can be broken down. It
doesn't imply any sort of sequence.
• You probably all did or will do one as part of your IA
• I would be surprised to see this on the exam outside of an
inheritance hierarchy diagram

Main
Note: If you do Option D, don't problem
confuse this with an inheritance
hierarchy! Just because one
box appears above some
others, doesn't imply
inheritance. This, in fact, is a Small Small Small
composition hierarchy. task A task B task C

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1.2.7 Construct suitable representations to illustrate system
requirements.
Data Flow Diagram
• The guide does mention DFDs but I don't think it has
been thought through properly
• DFDs are very specific things and constructing them
takes a long time
• I can't believe there is any way you will be asked to
create one in an exam

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1.2.7 Construct suitable representations to illustrate system
requirements.
Systems Flowchart
• I have seen this regularly on the exam
• Exact use of the right symbol is not important
• You need to think about inputs, processing, outputs
• They are often X-shaped with inputs at the top of the X, processing as the
middle, and outputs at the bottom

Input/
Manual
Output Hours Transaction Master
Input File
worked File

Tape
Storage Process Document

Calculate Pay

Disk Documents
Updated
Master Payslips
Storage File

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1.2.7 Construct suitable representations to illustrate system
requirements.
Systems Flowchart Examples
Customer orders are collected on A program accesses a text file on disk. To
paper, keyed in, and stored in the edit the text the user of the program enters
customer orders file. A stock master data using a keyboard. The program then
file is searched to determine whether amends the text which was read from the
sufficient stock is available and an file, writes the updated file back to disk and A sequential transaction file is sorted,
appropriate report is produced. produces a printed report of all stored onto a hard disk,
Construct a systems flowchart amendments made to the text file. and a printed report is produced.
representing the process described Construct a systems flowchart representing Construct a systems flowchart
above. [5 marks] the process. [4 marks] representing the process. [4 marks]

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1.2.8 Describe the purpose of prototypes to demonstrate
the proposed system to the client.
• Allows the user to give the developer immediate
feedback
• Gives the client a better sense of what the software will be
like because it's easier to understand a prototype than,
say, a written description
• Allows the developer to verify that he understands the
requirements
• Allows the client to change/amend requirements before
the software is developed
• This reduces costs in the long term
• And saves time

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1.2.9 Discuss the importance of iteration during the design
process.
• Once the system is in use, users
might find:
• bugs
• unfulfilled requirements
• new requirements
• improvements
• There may be changes to other
systems that necessitate changes,
eg a new operating system
• Any changes to a system start a
new cycle of design and
development

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1.2.10 Explain the possible consequences of failing to
involve the end-user in the design process.
• The end-users are the experts and they know what they need
from the system better than anyone
• If users are not involved in the design process, there is an
increased chance that the software will be designed
inappropriately
• If this happens, the client will end up not using the software
• This means that the development cost will have been wasted
• There may also be reduced productivity in the client
organisation
• Involving the user requires constant communication in a
variety of ways, including surveys, interviews, focus groups,
responses to prototypes, etc

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 1.2.11 Discuss the social and ethical issues associated with the introduction of new IT systems.
Summary of Social and Ethical Issues Social and ethical issues related to information systems and databases
• privacy of the individual – security of data and information • acknowledgment of data sources
• accuracy of data and information • the freedom of information act
• changing nature of work • privacy principles
• appropriate information use • accuracy of data and the reliability of data sources
• health and safety • access to data, ownership and control of data
• copyright laws • new trends in the organisation, processing, storage and retrieval of data such as data
Social and ethical issues in collecting warehousing and data-mining
• bias in the choice of what and where to collect data Social and ethical issues related to communication systems
• accuracy of the collected data • the use of communication systems to share knowledge, not just data
• copyright and acknowledgment of source data when collecting • issues related to messaging systems
• the rights to privacy of individuals on whom data is collected • ideas delivered by this means appear less forceful and caring than ideas delivered personally
• ergonomic issues for participants entering large volumes of data into an information system • danger of being misinterpreted
• power relationships
Social and ethical issues associated with organising • privacy and confidentiality
• current trends in organising data, such as: • electronic junk mail
• the increase in hypermedia as a result of the world wide web • information overload
• the ability of software to access different types of data • implications of Internet trading including:
• a greater variety of ways to organise resulting from advances in display technology • local taxation laws
• the cost of poorly organised data, such as redundant data in a database used for mail-outs • employment ramifications
• the appropriateness of a two digit date field at a time when storage and processing was more expensive, versus the • nature of business
current inappropriateness • trading over the Internet and its commercial implications
Social and ethical issues associated with analysis • the difficulties of censoring content on the Internet
• unauthorised analysis of data • issues arising from Internet banking, including:
• data incorrectly analysed • security of banking details
• erosion of privacy from linking databases for analysis • changing nature of work
Social and ethical issues associated with storing/retrieving • branch closure and job loss
• the security of stored data • the removal of physical boundaries by enabling:
• work from home
• unauthorised retrieval of data • virtual organisations, ie organisations structured around the communication system
• advances in storage and retrieval technologies and new uses such as data matching • removal of national and international barriers to trade
Social and ethical issues associated with processing • how participants are supported:
• types of computers on networks • individuals by providing a means for communication
• flexibility from the distributed processing of personal computers on networks • participant teams by enabling the exchange of ideas and data
• security from the centralised processing of network computers (terminals) • the emerging trend of accessing media such as radio and video across the Internet
• ownership of processed data Social and ethical issues related to multimedia systems
• bias in the way participants in the system process data • copyright: the acknowledgment of source data and the ease with which digital data can be modified
Social and ethical issues associated with transmitting and receiving • appropriate use of the Internet and the wide spread application of new developments on it such as live video data
• accuracy of data received from the Internet • the merging of radio, television, communications and the Internet with the increase and improvements in digitisation
• security of data being transferred • the integrity of the original source data in educational and other multimedia systems
• net-etiquette Social and ethical issues related to transaction processing systems
• acknowledgment of data source • changing nature of work and the effect on participants, including:
• global network issues, time zones, date fields, exchange rates • the automation of jobs once performed by clerks
• changing nature of work for participants, such as work from home and telecommuting • the bypassing of clerks by people in the environment performing their former roles
(Eg collecting now done by customers using the bank's ATM machines instead of via the bank clerk)
• current developments and future trends in digital communications, radio and television
• the need for non-computer procedures to deal with transactions when the computer is not available in real time systems
• the impact of the Internet on traditional business
• bias in data collection:
Social and ethical issues associated with displaying • when establishing the system and deciding what data to collect
• communication skills of those presenting displays • when collecting data
• past, present and emerging trends in displays • the importance of data in transaction processing, including:
• appropriate displays for a wide range of audiences, including: • data security
• standards for display for the visually impaired • data accuracy
• displays suitable for young children • data integrity
Social and ethical issues associated with Planning, Design and Implementation • control in transaction processing and the implications it has for participants in the system
• machine-centred systems simplify what computers do at the expense of participants
• human-centred systems as those that make participants’ work as effective and satisfying as possible
• how the relationships between participants change as a result of the new system
• ensuring the new system provides participants with a safe work environment
• awareness of the impact the system may have on the participants:
• opportunities to use their skills
• meaningful work
• need for change
• opportunities for involvement and commitment

There is a good chance you will have to talk about issues like
these in your exam, possibly in the context of a given
scenario, for up to 6 marks. Familiarise yourself with this
slide. I suggest you zoom in.
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Social and environmental implications of computing
I strongly recommend the use of Atkisson's Sustainability
Compass in tandem with the Sustainable Development
Goals when considering these issues.

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1.2.12 Define the term usability.

• Usability: The notion of how easy a system is to learn and use

• Learnability: How easy is it for users to accomplish basic tasks the first
time they encounter the design?
• Efficiency: Once users have learned the design, how quickly can they
perform tasks?
• Memorability: When users return to the design after a period of not
using it, how easily can they reestablish proficiency?
• Errors: How many errors do users make, how severe are these errors,
and how easily can they recover from the errors?
• Satisfaction: How pleasant is it to use the design?
• Ergonomics: designing and arranging things people use so
that the people and things interact most efficiently and safely
• Accessibility: The ability of people to access and benefit from
some system. Often people with disabilities or special needs.

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1.2.13 Identify a range of usability problems with commonly
used digital devices.
Students should be aware of usability issues in a range of
devices including PCs, digital cameras, cell phones, games
consoles, MP3 players and other commonly used digital
devices. [IB guide]
• Confusing navigation
• Lack of help
• No search facility
• Small, fiddly buttons
• Too complex, too many functions

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1.2.14 Identify methods that can be used to improve the
accessibility of systems.
• Touch screen
• Voice recognition
• Text-to-speech
• Braille keyboard
• Screen magnifier
• Font adjustment and zoom

• https://www.apple.com/accessibility/ios/
• http://www.microsoft.com/enable/products/windows8/
• http://www.google.com/accessibility/products/

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1.2.15 Identify a range of usability problems that can occur
in a system.
These should be related to the following systems:
• Ticketing: I have no idea what this means. Ticketing
usually applies to help desks, ie support tickets. I guess
time zones could be a problem when you need online
support.
• Online payroll: Internet downtime, currency dependent
• Scheduling: Time zone wrong
• Voice recognition: Can't understand accents/languages or
speech-impaired users
• Systems that provide feedback: Feedback not provided in
a usable format. Compatibility.

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1.2.16 Discuss the moral, ethical, social, economic and
environmental implications of the interaction between
humans and machines.
• Toxic e-waste • Increase in quality of
• Increased power life? Efficiency gains.
consumption and use of • Overcoming medical
fossil fuels disabilities with implants
• Pollution and intelligent
prosthetics
Automation (robots) of • Computers can work in
human jobs, leading to dangerous
unemployment environments, overnight,
• Overdependence on etc.
internet / computer • Use in warfare :(
systems
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© Justin Robertson 2017. All rights reserved.