Parts of Speech

Lesson 1: Nouns

Definition:

A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Types of Nouns:

1. Common Nouns: General names for a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., cat, city, book).
2. Proper Nouns: Specific names for a person, place, or organization. They always begin
with a capital letter (e.g., Emma, New York, Microsoft).

Examples:

 Person: teacher, doctor, John, Emily

 Place: school, park, London, Paris
 Thing: chair, computer, ball, Eiffel Tower
 Idea: happiness, courage, knowledge

Lesson 2: Pronouns

Definition:

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun to avoid repetition.

Types of Pronouns:

1. Subject Pronouns: Used as the subject of a sentence (e.g., I, you, he, she, it, we, they).
2. Object Pronouns: Used as the object of a verb or preposition (e.g., me, you, him, her, it,
us, them).
3. Possessive Pronouns: Show ownership (e.g., my, your, his, her, its, our, their).
4. Reflexive Pronouns: Refer back to the subject of the sentence (e.g., myself, yourself,
himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves).
5. Demonstrative Pronouns: Point out specific things (e.g., this, that, these, those).

Examples:

 Subject Pronoun: She is going to the market.

 Object Pronoun: I will call him tomorrow.
 Possessive Pronoun: This is my book.
 Reflexive Pronoun: They did it themselves.
 Demonstrative Pronoun: That is a beautiful painting.

Lesson 3: Verbs
Definition:

A verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being.

Types of Verbs:

1. Action Verbs: Describe physical or mental actions (e.g., run, jump, think, believe).
2. Linking Verbs: Connect the subject with a subject complement that describes or
identifies it (e.g., am, is, are, was, were, seem, become).
3. Helping Verbs: Help the main verb express tense, mood, or voice (e.g., do, does, did,
have, has, had, can, could, will, would).

Examples:

 Action Verb: She writes every day.

 Linking Verb: He is a teacher.
 Helping Verb: They have finished their homework.

Lesson 4: Adjectives

Definition:

An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.

Examples:

 Describing Quantity: three, several, many

 Describing Quality: beautiful, fast, happy
 Describing Size: big, small, tiny
 Describing Color: red, blue, green

Position in a Sentence:

1. Before a Noun: She has a big house.

2. After a Linking Verb: The sky is blue.

Lesson 5: Adverbs

Definition:

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It often tells how,
when, where, or to what extent.

Examples:

 Modifying a Verb: She sings beautifully.

  Modifying an Adjective: The book is very interesting.
 Modifying an Adverb: He ran quite quickly.

Common Adverbs:

 Manner: quickly, slowly, carefully

 Time: now, yesterday, soon
 Place: here, there, everywhere
 Frequency: always, often, never

Lesson 6: Prepositions

Definition:

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other
words in a sentence. It often indicates direction, location, or time.

Common Prepositions:

 Direction: to, towards, through

 Location: in, on, under, above
 Time: at, on, in

Examples:

 Direction: She walked to the store.

 Location: The cat is under the table.
 Time: The meeting is at 10 AM.

Lesson 7: Conjunctions

Definition:

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.

Types of Conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words or groups of words that are similar (e.g.,
and, but, or, so).
2. Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect a dependent clause to an independent clause
(e.g., because, although, if, when).
3. Correlative Conjunctions: Pairs of conjunctions that work together (e.g., either/or,
neither/nor, both/and).

Examples:
  Coordinating: I want to play basketball and football.
 Subordinating: She stayed home because she was sick.
 Correlative: Both Tom and Jerry are funny.

Articles

Definition:

Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. The main articles are "a," "an,"
and "the."

Types of Articles:

1. Definite Article (the): Specifies a particular noun (e.g., the book, the apple).
2. Indefinite Articles (a, an): Refer to any member of a group (e.g., a book, an apple).

Usage Rules:

 "A" before a consonant sound: a dog, a car.

 "An" before a vowel sound: an apple, an hour.
 "The" when referring to something specific: the sun, the car.

Examples:

 Indefinite: I saw a cat in the garden.

 Definite: The cat was playing with a ball.

Basic Sentence Structure

Key Components of a Sentence

1. Subject:
o The subject is the doer of the action or the person/thing the sentence is about.
o It can be a noun, pronoun, or a noun phrase.
o Examples: John, she, the cat.
2. Verb:
o The verb expresses the action or state of being in the sentence.
o It tells us what the subject is doing.
o Examples: runs, is, writes.
3. Object:
o The object is the receiver of the action.
o It answers the question "what?" or "whom?" after the verb.
 o Examples: ball, him, the book.

Simple Sentences Using Subject, Verb, and Object

To understand these components better, let's look at some simple sentences:

1. John (subject) kicks (verb) the ball (object).

o Here, John is performing the action of kicking.
o The ball is receiving the action of being kicked.
2. She (subject) reads (verb) a book (object).
o She is the one doing the reading.
o The book is what is being read.
3. The dog (subject) chased (verb) the cat (object).
o The dog is performing the chasing.
o The cat is the one being chased.

Building More Complex Sentences

Now that we understand the basic structure, we can expand our sentences by adding more
details. This helps in forming sentences that are richer and more descriptive, often used in essay
writing.

Adding Modifiers

1. John quickly (adverb) kicks the red (adjective) ball.

o Here, quickly modifies how John kicks, and red describes the ball.
2. She carefully (adverb) reads an interesting (adjective) book.
o Carefully modifies how she reads, and interesting describes the book.
3. The dog excitedly (adverb) chased the frightened (adjective) cat.
o Excitedly modifies how the dog chased, and frightened describes the cat.

Using Prepositional Phrases

1. John kicks the ball into the goal.

o Into the goal shows where the ball is kicked.
2. She reads a book in the library.
o In the library shows where she reads the book.
3. The dog chased the cat around the yard.
o Around the yard shows where the dog chased the cat.

Forming Compound and Complex Sentences

To write more sophisticated sentences, we can combine simple sentences into compound or
complex sentences:

Compound Sentences
  Combine two independent clauses using conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or, so).

1. John kicks the ball, and it hits the wall.

o Two actions: John kicks and the ball hits.
2. She reads a book, but she doesn't understand it.
o Two contrasting actions: She reads and she doesn't understand.
3. The dog chased the cat, so it ran up the tree.
o Cause and effect: The dog chased, and the cat ran up.

Complex Sentences

 Combine an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses using subordinating
conjunctions (e.g., because, although, when).

1. John kicks the ball because he wants to score.

o Main action: John kicks the ball.
o Reason: because he wants to score.
2. She reads a book while waiting for the bus.
o Main action: She reads a book.
o Time condition: while waiting for the bus.
3. Although the dog chased the cat, it didn't catch it.
o Main action: The dog didn't catch the cat.
o Contrasting condition: Although it chased the cat.

Applying Sentence Structures in Essay Writing

1. Introduction: Set the context and present the thesis statement.

o Simple Sentence: Pollution (subject) affects (verb) the environment (object).
o Compound Sentence: Pollution affects the environment, and it harms human
health.
o Complex Sentence: Because pollution affects the environment, it is a serious
issue that needs attention.

2. Body Paragraphs: Develop ideas with detailed explanations and examples.

o Simple Sentence: The government (subject) implements (verb) new policies
(object).
o Compound Sentence: The government implements new policies, but
companies must also take responsibility.
o Complex Sentence: Although the government implements new policies,
companies must take responsibility to reduce pollution.

3. Conclusion: Summarize the main points and restate the thesis.

 o Simple Sentence: Efforts (subject) are needed (verb) to combat pollution
(object).
o Compound Sentence: Efforts are needed to combat pollution, and individuals
can contribute by reducing waste.
o Complex Sentence: Since efforts are needed to combat pollution, individuals
and organizations should work together.

Present Tenses

Lesson 1: Simple Present Tense

Objectives:

 use the simple present tense to describe habits, general truths, and repeated actions.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + Base Verb (add -s or -es for third-person singular)
 I/You/We/They work.
 He/She/It works.

Examples:

 She walks to school every day.

 They play football on weekends.
 The sun rises in the east.

Lesson 2: Present Continuous Tense

Objectives:

 use the present continuous tense to describe actions happening right now or around the current
time.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + am/is/are + Verb + -ing
 I am eating.
 You/We/They are eating.
 He/She/It is eating.
Examples:

 She is studying for her exams now.

 They are watching a movie.
 I am working on a project.

Lesson 3: Present Perfect Tense

Objectives:

 use the present perfect tense to describe actions that happened at an unspecified time before
now or actions that started in the past and continue to the present.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + have/has + Past Participle
 I/You/We/They have played.
 He/She/It has played.

Examples:

 She has visited many countries.

 They have finished their homework.
 I have seen that movie.

Lesson 4: Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Objectives:

 use the present perfect continuous tense to describe actions that started in the past and are still
continuing or were recently completed.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + have/has been + Verb + -ing
 I/You/We/They have been playing.
 He/She/It has been playing.

Examples:
  She has been studying for three hours.
 They have been working here for a year.
 I have been reading this book since morning.

Past Tenses

Lesson 5: Simple Past Tense

Objectives:

 use the simple past tense to describe actions that happened and were completed at a specific
time in the past.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + Verb in past form
 I/You/We/They/He/She/It played.

Examples:

 She visited Paris last year.

 They watched the game yesterday.
 I finished my homework last night.

Lesson 6: Past Continuous Tense

Objectives:

 use the past continuous tense to describe actions that were in progress at a specific time in the
past.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + was/were + Verb + -ing
 I/He/She/It was eating.
 You/We/They were eating.

Examples:

 She was reading a book at 8 PM.

 They were playing soccer when it started to rain.
  I was watching TV when the phone rang.

Lesson 7: Past Perfect Tense

Objectives:

 use the past perfect tense to describe actions that were completed before another action in the
past.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + had + Past Participle
 I/You/We/They/He/She/It had played.

Examples:

 She had left before the meeting started.

 They had finished the work before the deadline.
 I had eaten dinner when they arrived.

Lesson 8: Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Objectives:

 use the past perfect continuous tense to describe actions that were ongoing in the past up until
another action in the past.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + had been + Verb + -ing
 I/You/We/They/He/She/It had been playing.

Examples:

 She had been reading for an hour when I called.

 They had been working there for five years before they moved.
 I had been studying all night when I fell asleep.
Future Tenses

Lesson 9: Simple Future Tense

Objectives:

 use the simple future tense to describe actions that will happen in the future.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + will + Base Verb
 I/You/We/They/He/She/It will play.

Examples:

 She will go to the store tomorrow.

 They will visit their grandparents next week.
 I will start my new job soon.

Lesson 10: Future Continuous Tense

Objectives:

 use the future continuous tense to describe actions that will be ongoing at a specific time in the
future.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + will be + Verb + -ing
 I/You/We/They/He/She/It will be playing.

Examples:

 She will be studying at 8 PM tomorrow.

 They will be traveling to Spain next month.
 I will be working on the project all week.

Lesson 11: Future Perfect Tense

Objectives:
  use the future perfect tense to describe actions that will be completed before a specific time in
the future.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + will have + Past Participle
 I/You/We/They/He/She/It will have played.

Examples:

 She will have finished the project by tomorrow.

 They will have arrived by the time we start.
 I will have completed the course by next year.

Lesson 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Objectives:

 use the future perfect continuous tense to describe actions that will be ongoing until a specific
time in the future.

Structure:

1. Affirmative:
o Subject + will have been + Verb + -ing
 I/You/We/They/He/She/It will have been playing.

Examples:

 She will have been working here for five years by next month.
 They will have been studying for two hours by then.
 I will have been living in this city for a decade next year.