SQL Commands - Comprehensive Notes
SQL Commands - Comprehensive Notes
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
- Commands used to define and manage database structure:
- CREATE: Creates new database objects like tables, indexes, or views.
Syntax: CREATE TABLE table_name (column1 datatype, column2 datatype, ...);
- ALTER: Modifies existing database objects.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
- DROP: Deletes database objects permanently.
Syntax: DROP TABLE table_name;
- TRUNCATE: Removes all records from a table without logging.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
- Commands used to manipulate data in the database:
- SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables.
Syntax: SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition;
- INSERT: Adds new rows to a table.
Syntax: INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2) VALUES (value1, value2);
- UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table.
Syntax: UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1 WHERE condition;
- DELETE: Removes rows from a table.
Syntax: DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
3. Data Control Language (DCL)
- Commands used to control access to data:
- GRANT: Provides privileges to users.
Syntax: GRANT privilege ON object TO user;
- REVOKE: Removes privileges from users.
Syntax: REVOKE privilege ON object FROM user;
4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
- Commands used to manage transactions in a database:
- COMMIT: Saves all changes made in the transaction.
Syntax: COMMIT;
- ROLLBACK: Reverts changes made in the current transaction.
Syntax: ROLLBACK;
- SAVEPOINT: Sets a point within a transaction for partial rollbacks.
Syntax: SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;
- RELEASE SAVEPOINT: Removes a savepoint.
Syntax: RELEASE SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;
5. Query Clauses in SQL
- Clauses used to refine queries:
- WHERE: Filters records based on a condition.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE condition;
- GROUP BY: Groups rows sharing a property for aggregation.
Syntax: SELECT column, COUNT(*) FROM table_name GROUP BY column;
- HAVING: Filters grouped data.
Syntax: SELECT column, COUNT(*) FROM table_name GROUP BY column HAVING condition;
- ORDER BY: Sorts results in ascending or descending order.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table_name ORDER BY column ASC|DESC;
- LIMIT: Restricts the number of rows returned.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table_name LIMIT number;
6. Joins in SQL
- Combines rows from two or more tables:
- INNER JOIN: Retrieves records with matching values in both tables.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
- LEFT JOIN: Retrieves all rows from the left table and matching rows from the right.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
- RIGHT JOIN: Retrieves all rows from the right table and matching rows from the left.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
- FULL OUTER JOIN: Retrieves all rows when there is a match in either table.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
7. SQL Functions
- Functions to perform calculations or manipulate data:
- Aggregate Functions: COUNT(), SUM(), AVG(), MAX(), MIN().
Syntax: SELECT COUNT(column) FROM table_name;
- String Functions: CONCAT(), LENGTH(), SUBSTRING(), UPPER(), LOWER().
Syntax: SELECT CONCAT(column1, column2) FROM table_name;
- Date Functions: NOW(), CURDATE(), YEAR(), MONTH(), DAY().
Syntax: SELECT NOW();
8. Views in SQL
- Virtual tables created by a query:
- CREATE VIEW: Creates a view.
Syntax: CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT columns FROM table_name WHERE condition;
- DROP VIEW: Deletes a view.
Syntax: DROP VIEW view_name;
9. Indexes in SQL
- Improves query performance:
- CREATE INDEX: Creates an index.
Syntax: CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name(column);
- DROP INDEX: Deletes an index.
Syntax: DROP INDEX index_name;
10. Triggers in SQL
- Executes automatically in response to events:
- CREATE TRIGGER: Creates a trigger.
Syntax: CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name BEFORE|AFTER event ON table_name FOR EACH
ROW BEGIN ... END;
- DROP TRIGGER: Deletes a trigger.
Syntax: DROP TRIGGER trigger_name;
Conclusion
SQL commands provide powerful tools to manage and interact with databases efficiently. Mastering
these commands ensures effective database handling.
