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i. n
n g
Measures of
ri Dispersion
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e Unit- IV
.L
w
w
w
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1
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Definitionin
g.
r i n
Measures of dispersion e e are descriptive
statistics that describe i n how similar a set of
ng
scores are to each E other
r n
ea
The more similar the scores are to each other,
.L the measure of dispersion will be
the lower
w similar the scores are to each other, the
Thewless
w the measure of dispersion will be
higher
In general, the more spread out a distribution is,
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the larger the measure of dispersion will be
2
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Measures of Dispersion
in
g.
r i n
Which of the
e e
distributions of scoresin 125
has the larger n g 100

dispersion? rnE
75
50

ea
The upper distribution
25

.L
0
has more dispersion 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
w
becausew the scores are 125

morewspread out
100
75
50
That is, they are less 25
similar to each other 0
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3
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Measures of Dispersion
in
g.
r i n
There are three maineemeasures of
dispersion: i n
ng
The range
n E
a r
The semi-interquartile range (SIR)
e
.L/ standard deviation
Variance
w
w
w
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The Range
in
g.
r i n
The range is definedeeas the difference
between the largest i nscore in the set of data
ng
and the smallest E score in the set of data, XL
r n
- XS
ea
.L range of the following data:
What is the
w
4 8 w1 6 6 2 9 3 6 9
w
The largest score (XL) is 9; the smallest
score (XS) is 1; the range is XL - XS = 9 - 1 For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in

=8 5
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When To Use the

i n Range
g.
r i n
The range is used when
e e
you have ordinal data i n or
you are presenting ng your results to people with
n E
little or no knowledge of statistics
a r
The range is
L e rarely used in scientific work
.
as it is fairly
w insensitive
w
It depends on only two scores in the set of data,
Xw L and XS
Two very different sets of data can have the
same range: For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in

1 1 1 1 9 vs 1 3 5 7 9 6
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The Semi-Interquartile
i n Range
g.
r i n
The semi-interquartile e e range (or SIR) is
defined as the differencei n of the first and
ng
third quartiles divided
E by two
r n
a
The first quartile
e is the 25th percentile
.L quartile is the 75th percentile
The third
w
SIR =w(Q3 - Q1) / 2
w
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SIR Example
in
g.
What is the SIR for the r i n
e 2
data to the right? n e 4
i
25 % of the scores areng
 5 = 25th %tile
6
E
below 5 rn
a 8
L e
5 is the first quartile
10
.
25 % of thewscores are 12
above 25w
w
25 is the third quartile
14
20
SIR = (Q3 - Q1) / 2 = (25  25 = 75th %tile
30
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- 5) / 2 = 10 8
60
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When To Use the

i n SIR
g.
r i n
The SIR is often used e ewith skewed data as it
is insensitive to the i nextreme scores
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Variancein
g.
r i n
Variance is defined as e e the average of the
square deviations:gin
E n  X    2

r n  N 2

ea
.L
w
w
w
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What Does the Variance Formula

Mean?g. i n
r i n
First, it says to subtract e e the mean from each
of the scores i n
g
This differenceEnis called a deviate or a deviation
r n
score
ea
.L tells us how far a given score is
The deviate
from wthe typical, or average, score
w
w the deviate is a measure of dispersion for
Thus,
a given score
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What Does the Variance Formula

Mean?g. i n
i n
r the average of
Why can’t we simplyeetake
the deviates? That i nis, why isn’t variance
ng
defined as: E
r n
ea  X   
L   2
. N
w
w
w This is not the
formula for
variance!
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What Does the Variance Formula

Mean?g. i n
r i n
One of the definitions e e of the mean was that
it always made the i nsum of the scores minus
g
n0
the mean equalEto
r n
ea
Thus, the average of the deviates must be 0
since the.L
sum of the deviates must equal 0
w
w this problem, statisticians square
To avoid
w
the deviate score prior to averaging them
Squaring the deviate score makes all the For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in

squared scores positive 13

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What Does the Variance Formula

Mean?g. i n
i n
r the squared
Variance is the meaneeof
deviation scores gin
E n
The larger thenvariance is, the more the
a r
scores deviate, on average, away from the
e
mean .L
w
w
Thewsmaller the variance is, the less the
scores deviate, on average, from the mean
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Standard Deviation
in
g.
i squared in variance,
When the deviate scoreserare
n
e
n squared as well
their unit of measureiis
ng
E.g. If people’s weights are measured in pounds,
E
n of the weights would be expressed
r
then the variance
a
2 e squared pounds)
in pounds L(or
.
w units of measure are often
Since squared
w
w to deal with, the square root of variance
awkward
is often used instead
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The standard deviation is the square root of variance
15
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Standard Deviation
in
g.
r i n
Standard deviation =eevariance
i n 2
Variance = standard
ng deviation
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Computational Formula
in
g.
r i n
When calculating variance,
e e it is often easier to use
a computational formula i n which is algebraically
ng
equivalent to the definitional formula:
E
a r n
X
2
 
 
e
   
2
L

2
X. X
w
  ww N 
2

N N
2 is the population variance, X is a score,  is the
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population mean, and N is the number of scores 17

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Computational Formula
i n Example
g.
X2 r i X- n
X e (X-)2
9 81 in
e 2 4
8 64n
g 1 1
E
n36
6 a r -1 1
e
5 .L 25 -2 4
8 w 64 1 1
w
6w 36 -1 1
 = 42  = 306 =0  = 12
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Computational Formula
i n Example
g.
r i n
 X
2
e
X e  X 
2

2


2
 N i n 
2

N ng N
2
E
rn
12
306  42 
 ea 6 6
6
L 2
306  294 .

6w
w
12 w

6
2
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Variance of a Sample
in
g.
r i n
Because the sample mean
e e is not a perfect estimate
of the population mean,i n the formula for the
variance of a sampleng is slightly different from the
E
formula for thernvariance

 
of a population:
ea
.L 2  X  X
2

w 
w s
w N 1
s2 is the sample variance, X is a score, X is the For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in

sample mean, and N is the number of scores 20

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Measure of Skew
in
g.
r i n
Skew is a measure ofeesymmetry in the
distribution of scores i n
ng
n E Normal
a r (skew = 0)
L e
Positive . Negative Skew
w
Skew w
w
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Measure of Skew
in
g.
r i n
The following formula e e can be used to
determine skew: gin
n X  X 
3

n E
a r  N 3

 X  X 
e s 2

.L
w
w N
w
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Measure of Skew
in
g.
r i n
s3
If < 0, then the distribution
e e has a negative
skew i n
ng
3
If s > 0 then then E distribution has a positive
skew a r
L e
3 .
If s = 0wthen the distribution is symmetrical
w
Thewmore different s3 is from 0, the greater
the skew in the distribution
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Kurtosis
. i n
(Not Related to gHalitosis)
r i n
Kurtosis measures whether e e the scores are
spread out more or i nless than they would be
ng
in a normal (Gaussian)E distribution
r n
ea Mesokurtic
.L (s = 3) 4

w
w
w
Leptokurtic (s 4 Platykurtic (s 4

> 3) < 3)
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24
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Kurtosisin
g.
r i n
When the distribution e e is normally
distributed, its kurtosisi n equals 3 and it is
ng
said to be mesokurtic
E
r n
ea
When the distribution is less spread out than
.L kurtosis is greater than 3 and it is
normal, its
w
said tow be leptokurtic
w
When the distribution is more spread out
than normal, its kurtosis is less than 3 and it For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in

is said to be platykurtic 25
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Measure of Kurtosis
in
g.
r i n
The measure of kurtosis e e is given by:
i n
En
g 
4

n 
a r  XX 
e   
.L   X  X  
2

w
w s   N


w N
4

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26
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2 3
s ,s , & in s4
. g
r i n
Collectively, the variance e e (s2), skew (s3),
4 i n
and kurtosis (s ) describe the shape of the
g
distribution En
r n
ea
.L
w
w
w
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i. n
n g
r i
e e
Optical Fiber iCommunications n
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
Optical Networks- unit 5
w
w
w
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Network Terminology STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

•
•
Stations are devices that network subscribers use to communicate.
i. n
A network is a collection of interconnected stations.
n g
• i
A node is a point where one or more communication lines terminate.
r
•
e e
A trunk is a transmission line that supports large traffic loads.
• in
The topology is the logical manner in which nodes are linked together by
ng
information transmitting channels to form a network.

n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Segments of a Public Network

•
i. n
A local area network interconnects users in a large room or work area, a department, a
home, a building, an office or factory complex, or a group of buildings.
• A campus network interconnects a several LANs in a localized area.
n g
• r i
e e
A metro network interconnects facilities ranging from buildings located in several city
blocks to an entire city and the metropolitan area surrounding it.
• in
An access network encompasses connections that extend from a centralized switching
ng
facility to individual businesses, organizations, and homes.

n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Protocol Stack Model STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

• The physical layer refers to a physical transmission medium

i. n
• The data link layer establishes, maintains, and releases links that directly
connect two nodes n g
r i
• The function of the network layer is to deliver data packets from source to
destination across multiple network links. e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Network Layering Concept

i n
. arrangement and
• g
Network architecture: The general physical
ir n
operational characteristics of communicating equipment
together with a common set ofeecommunication protocols
•
n
Protocol: A set of rules andgiconventions that governs the
E n
generation, formatting, control, exchange, and interpretation
r n a telecommunication network or
of information sent through
a
that is stored in aedatabase
• L
Protocol stack:.Subdivides a protocol into a number of
individual w w of manageable and comprehensible size
layers
w layers govern the communication facilities.
– The lower
– The upper layers support user applications by structuring and
organizing data for the needs of the user.
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Optical Layer
The optical layer is a wavelength- i. n
based concept and lies just above n g
r i
the physical layer
e e
• The physical layer provides a physical
in
connection between two nodes
ng
• The optical layer provides light path
n E
r
services over that link
a
• The optical layereprocesses
.L
include wavelength
wadding and
w
multiplexing,
w wavelengths, and
dropping
support of optical switching
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Synchronous Optical Networks

• SONET is the TDM optical .network in standard
g
for North America ir n
• SONET is called Synchronous
e e Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) in ithe n rest of the world
ng
• SONET is the basic E phycal layer standard
• Other data typesr n such as ATM and IP can be
transmitted ea
over SONET
.L
• OC-1 consists
w of 810 bytes over 125 us; OC-
w of 810n bytes over 125 us
n consists
w
• Linear multiplexing and de-multiplexing is
possible with Add-Drop-Multiplexers For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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SONET/SDH
STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

• The SONET/SDH standards enable the interconnection of fiber

optic transmission equipment from various vendors through i. n
multiple-owner trunk networks.
n g
r i
• The basic transmission bit rate of the basic SONET signal is
e e
i n
• In SDH the basic rate is n g
155.52 Mb/s.
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Basic formats of (a) an STS-N SONET frame and (b) an STM-N SDH frame
8
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Common values of OC-N and STM-N

i. n common to refer
• OC stands for optical carrier. It has become
to SONET links as OC-N links. n g
• The basic SDH rate is 155.52 Mb/s r i
e e and is called the
i n
synchronous transport module—level 1 (STM-1).
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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SONET Add Drop Multiplexers

i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
SONET ADMeis a fully synchronous, byte
oriented .L
device, that can be used add/drop
w
w
OC sub-channels within an OC-N signal
w and OC-12 signals can be individually
Ex: OC-3
added/dropped from an OC-48 carrier
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Not to be confused with Wavelength ADM

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SONET/SDH Rings STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

• SONET and SDH can be configured as either a ring or mesh architecture

i. n
• SONET/SDH rings are self-healing rings because the traffic flowing along a
n g
i
certain path can be switched automatically to an alternate or standby path
r
following failure or degradation of the link segment
e e
• Two popular SONET and SDH networks:
in
g
– 2-fiber, unidirectional, path-switched ring (2-fiber UPSR)
n
– 2-fiber or 4-fiber, bidirectional, line-switched ring (2-fiber or 4-fiber BLSR)
n E
a r
e
.L Generic 2-fiber
UPSR with a
w counter-rotating
w
w protection path

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2-Fiber UPSR Basics

i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng Node 1-2

n E OC-3

a r
e Node 2-4; OC-3

.L
w
w
w
Ex: Total capacity OC-12Formay be divided to
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four OC-3 streams, the OC-3 is called a path here
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2-Fiber UPSR Protection

• Rx compares
i. n
n g
the signals r i
received via the e e
i n
primary and ng
protection paths n E
and picks thea r
e
best one .L
• Constant
w
w
w and
protection
automatic
switching For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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BLSR Recovery from Failure Modes

• i n
. the affected nodes detect a loss-
of-signal condition and switch both primary n g
If a primary-ring device fails in either node 3 or 4,
fibers connecting these nodes to the
secondary protection pair r i
• e
If an entire node fails or both the primary
e and protection fibers in a given span are
severed, the adjacent nodes switchithe n primary-path connections to the
protection fibers, in order to loopgtraffic back to the previous node.
E n
r n
e a
.L
w
w
w
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4-Fiber BLSR Basics

i. n
g
ir n
e

All secondary fiber left for protection

n e
g i
E n
r n
ea
.L
w
w
w
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Node 13; 1p, 2p Node 31; 3p, 4p

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BLSR Fiber-Fault Reconfiguration
i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
wof failure, the secondary fibers between
In case
only the affected nodes (3 & 4) are used, the
other links remain unaffected For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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BLSR Node-Fault Reconfiguration
i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
If both primary and secondary are cut, still the
connection is not lost, but both the primary and
secondary fibers of the entire ring is occupied
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Generic SONET network

i. n
Large National
City-wide
n g Backbone
r i
e e
i n
ng
n E
Local Area
a r
e
.L
w
w Versatile SONET equipment
w are available that support wide
range of configurations, bit rates
and protection schemes
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Passive Optical Networks

i n
. between the
• g
In general, there is no O/E conversion
ir n continuous light path) in
transmitter and the receiver (one
PON networks e e
• Only passive elementsgusedin to configure the network
• Power budget and riseE n time calculations has to be done
from end-to-end rn
• There are star, ea
bus, ring, mesh & tree topologies
.L
• w Access Networks are deployed widely and
Currently PON
the wordwPON means mainly the access nw.
w
The PON will still need higher layer protocols (Ethernet/IP
For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
etc.) to separate multiple users
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Basic PON
Topologies i. n
BUS
n g
r i
e e
i n
ng
RING E
r n
ea
.L
w
w
w STAR

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Star, Tree & Bus Networks

i. n
• Tree networks are widely gdeployed in the
access front r i n
e e
• i n to star couplers
Tree couplers are similar
(expansion in onlyngone direction; no splitting in
E
the uplink) arn
•
e
.L are widely used in LANs
Bus networks
• w
Ring networks (folded buses with protection)
w
w used in MAN
are widely
• Designing ring & bus networks is similar For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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Network Elements of PON

• Passive Power Coupler/Splitter: i n
. Number of
input/output ports and theripower n g is split in different
ratios. e e
– Ex: 2X2 3-dB coupler; i n80/20 coupler
ng
• Star Coupler: Splits
n E the incoming power into
a
number of outputsr in a star network
e
• Add/Drop Bus.L Coupler: Add or drop light wave
to/from wanwoptical bus
• w Switch: Divert the incoming light wave
All Optical
into a particular output
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Star Network
i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
Power Budget: .L
w
P -P = 2l + α(Lw
+L ) + Excess Loss + 10 Log N + System Margin
s r
wc 1 2

Worst case power budget need to be satisfied For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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Linear Bus Network Ex. 12.1

i. n
g
ir n
e e
i n
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
 Po 
10log 
P   ( N  1) L  2 NLC  ( N  2) Lthru  2 LTAP  NLi
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 L, N 
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Add-Drop Bus-Coupler Losses

i. n
g
ir n
e e
i n
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
Connector loss (Lc) = 10Log (1-Fc)
w loss (Ltap)
Tap = -10 Log (CT)
Throughput loss (Lth) = -20 Log (1-CT)
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Intrinsic loss (Li) = -10 Log (1-Fi)
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Linear Bus versus Star Network

i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
• The loss
w linearly increases with N in bus
networks while it is almost constant in star
networks (Log(N)) For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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Passive Optical Networks (PONs) STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

• A passive optical network (PON) uses CWDM over a single

bidirectional optical fiber. i. n
• Only passive optical components guide traffic from the centraln g
r i
e
office to the customer premises and back to the central office.
e
– In the central office, combinedi ndata and digitized voice are sent
downstream to customers by
n g using a 1490-nm wavelength.
– The upstream (customer E to central office) uses a 1310-nm wavelength.
n downstream using a 1550-nm wavelength.
r
– Video services are sent
a
e
.L
w
w
w
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27
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Active PON Modules STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

• The optical line termination (OLT) is located in a central office and controls
the bidirectional flow of information across the network. i. n
n g
• An optical network termination (ONT) is located directly at the customer
r i
premises.
e e
n
– The ONT provides an optical connection to the PON on the upstream
i
g
side and to interface electrically to the local customer equipment.
n
• An optical network unit (ONU) is similar to an ONT, but is located near the
n E
r
customer and is housed in an outdoor equipment shelter.
a
e
.L
w
w
w
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PON Protection Methods

i. n
PON failure protection
n g
mechanisms include a r i
fully redundant 1 + 1 e e
protection and a in
partially redundant ng
1:N protection. n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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29
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WDM Networks
. i n
• Single fiber transmits multiple g
wavelengths  WDM r i nNetworks
e e
• One entire wavelength i n (with all the data)
n
can be switched/routedg
n E
• r
This adds another
a dimension; the
e
Optical Layer
.L
• w
Wavelength converters/cross
w
w
connectors; all optical networks
• Note protocol independence
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Basic WDM PON Architectures

i. n
g
• Broadcast and Select: employsir n passive
optical stars or buseseefor local networks
i n
applications
ng
E
– Single hop networks
n
r
– Multi hop networks
a
e
• Wavelength .L Routing: employs advanced
w routing techniques
wavelength
w
w wavelength reuse
– Enable
– Increases capacity
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Single hop broadcast and select WDM
i. n
n g
r i
Star
e e
Bus

in
ng
n E
a r
• e
L at a different fixed wavelength
Each Tx transmits
.
• w receives all the wavelengths, but
Each receiver
selects w
(decodes) only the desired wavelength
•
w
Multicast or broadcast services are supported
• Dynamic coordination between the TX & RX and
tunable filters at the receivers are required
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A Single-hop Multicast WDM Network

i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
wMultiple receivers may be listening to the same
w wavelength simultaneously
The drawback in single hop WDM networks,
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Number of nodes = Number of wavelengths
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WDM Multi-hop
i. n
Architecture
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a
Four node broadcast
r and select multihop network
e
L at fixed set of wavelengths and
.
Each node transmits
w set of wavelengths
receive fixed
w required depending on destination
Multiplewhops
Ex. Node1 to Node2: N1N3 (1), N3N2 (6)
No tunable filters required but throughput is less
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Data Packet
i. n
g
ir n
e e
i n
ng
n E
a r
L e
.
w networks, the source and destination
In multihop
w is embedded in the header
information
w
These packets may travel asynchronously
(Ex. ATM) For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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Shuffle Net
i. n
Shuffle Net a popular
n g
multihop topology r i
e e
i n
N = (# of nodes) X n
g
(per node) rn
E
ea
Max. # of hops L =
. –1
w
2(#of-columns)
w
w # of ’s
(-) Large Ex: A two column shuffle net
(-) High splitting loss Max. 2 X 2 - 1= 3 hops
between any two nodes
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Wavelength Routing
• The limitation is i. n
n g
overcome by: r i
–  reuse, e e
–  routing and in
–  conversion ng
• As long as the logical n E
a r
paths between nodes e
do not overlap they .L
can use the same  w
w
w
Most long haul networks use wavelength routing
WL Routing requires optical switches, cross connects
etc. For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in
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Optical Add/Drop Multiplexing STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

• An optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM) allows the insertion or extraction

of one or more wavelengths from a fiber at a network node. i. n
n
• Most OADMs are constructed using WDM elements such as a series of
g
r i
e
dielectric thin-film filters, an AWG, a set of liquid crystal devices, or a
e
n
series of fiber Bragg gratings used in conjunction with optical circulators.
i
ng
• The OADM architecture depends on factors such as the number of
wavelengths to be dropped/added, the OADM modularity for upgrading
n E
flexibility, and what groupings of wavelengths should be processed.
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Reconfigurable OADM (ROADM)

• ROADMs can be reconfigured by a network operator within i. n
minutes from a remote network-management console.
n g
r
• ROADM architectures include wavelength blockers, arrays ofi
small switches, and wavelength-selective switches. e e
i n
• ROADM features:
n g
– Wavelength dependence. E When a ROADM is independent of
n or has colorless ports.
r
wavelength, it is colorless
a
– ROADM degree is e the number of bidirectional multiwavelength
interfaces the.L
device supports. Example: A degree-2 ROADM has 2
w WDM interfaces and a degree-4 ROADM supports 4
bidirectional
w WDM interfaces.
bidirectional
w
– Express channels allow a selected set of wavelengths to pass through
the node without the need for OEO conversion.
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Wavelength Blocker Configuration

i. n
g
The simplest ROADM configuration ir n uses a
broadcast-and-select approach: e e
i n
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Optical Burst Switching

• Optical burst switching provides an efficient solution for i. n
sending high-speed bursty traffic over WDM networks. n g
r i
• Bursty traffic has long idle times between the busy periods in
e e
which a large number of packets arrive from users.
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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41
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A 12X12 Optical Cross-Connect (OXC)

i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w Incoming
w wavelengths can
be dropped or
routed to any
desired output
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Optical Cross Connects (OXC)

i. n
• Works on the optical domain g
ir n
• Can route high capacitye wavelengths
e
n electronically
• i
Switch matrix is controlled
g
• Incoming wavelengthsE n are routed either to
r n
desired output
ea (ports 1-8) or dropped (9-12)
• .L
Local wavelengths can be added
•
w
w
What happens when both incoming fibers have
w wavelength? (contention)
a same

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Ex: 4X4 Optical cross-connect

i. n
n g
r i
e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
Wavelength switches are electronically configured
Wavelength conversion toForavoid contention
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IP over DWDM STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

• Early IP networks had redundant management functions in each layer, so

i. n
this layering method was not efficient for transporting IP traffic.
• An IP-SONET-DWDM architecture using Multiprotocol Label Switching
n g
r i
(MPLS) provides for the efficient designation, routing, forwarding, and
switching of traffic flows through the network. e e
in
ng
n E
a r
e
.L
w
w
w
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Optical Ethernet
i. n
• The IEEE has approved the 802.3ah Ethernet in the First Mile (EFM) standard.
g
• The first mile is the network infrastructure that connects business or
n
i
residential subscribers to the CO of a telecom carrier or a service provider.
r
e e
in
ng Three EFM physical transport
schemes are:

n E 1. Individual point-to-point

a r (P2P) links
e 2. A single P2P link to
.L multiple users
w 3. A single bidirectional PON
w
w
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