Introduction to Control System Technology

(ME-2009)

Mathematical
Modeling and
Frequency Domain
Phung Thanh Huy
Department of Mechatronics
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Version 2024.1

Ho Chi Minh City – 2024

Mathematical Modeling
Differential Equation
• Mathematically, the relationship among the components in a
system are usually represented by equations, called system
equations.
• The system equations are usually based on the basic laws of
physics.
• A common form of these equations are differential equations.
• A differential equation is any algebraic or transcendental equality
which involves either differentials (vi phân) or derivatives (đạo
hàm).
• An ordinary (total) differential equation is an equality involving
one or more dependent variables, one independent variable, and
one or more derivatives of the dependent variables with respect
to the independent variable.
• E.g.: Newton’s 2nd Law:
𝑑 𝑝Ԧ 𝑡
Ԧ
𝐹 𝑡 = = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
𝑑𝑡
The independent variable is time.
ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|2
Mathematical Modeling
Differential Equation
• A partial differential equation is an equality involving one or more
dependent and two or more independent variables, together with
partial derivatives of the dependent with respect to the
independent variables.
• E.g: Heat transfer function:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
=𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
is a partial differential equation. 𝑥 and 𝑡 are the independent
variables.
• For simplification in equations:
• If the independent variable in the total differential equation is
𝑑
time, could be replaced by a dot.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
→ 𝑥;ሶ 2
→ 𝑥;ሷ …
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛
• The operation 𝑛 could be replaced by 𝐷 𝑛 .
𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑛
• The operation 𝑛 could be replaced by 𝐷𝑥𝑛 .
𝜕𝑥
ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|3
Mathematical Modeling
Modeling of a system
• The first step to design as control system is to develop a
mathematical description (called a dynamic model or
mathematical model) of the process to be controlled. (Dynamic or
dynamical system: a system that involves the evolution of
variables over time)
• The term model, as it is used and understood by control
engineers, means a set of system equations (normally differential
equations) that describe the dynamic behavior of the process.
• A model can be obtained by:
• Using principles of the underlying physics
• Testing a prototype of the device, measuring its response to
inputs, and using the data to construct an analytical model
(system identification or data-driven modelling).
• Modeling is a complex and expensive process. It is not simple
and trial to get the model that describe accurately the system.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|4
Mathematical Modeling
Superposition and homogeneity
• If the system has an input that can be expressed as a sum of
signals, then the response of the system can be expressed as the
sum of the individual responses to the respective.
𝑢1 𝑡 → 𝑦1 𝑡
ൠ ⇒ 𝑎𝑢1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑢2 𝑡 → 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡
𝑢2 𝑡 → 𝑦2 (𝑡)
• Example:

• A system has superposition and homogeneity properties is a

linear system

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|5
Mathematical Modeling
Time Invariant
• If the input is delayed or shifted in time, then the output is
unchanged except also being shifted by exactly the same
amount.
𝑢 𝑡 →𝑦 𝑡 ⇒𝑢 𝑡−𝜏 →𝑦 𝑡−𝜏
• Example:
Check if the system below is Time Invariant.

• Linear-Time Invariant System (LTI system): both have

superposition and time invariant properties.
• Common form of LTI system:
𝑛 𝑖 𝑚
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑗𝑢
෍ 𝑎𝑖 𝑖 = ෍ 𝑏𝑗 𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖=0 𝑗=0
• A system in which time is the independent variable is called
causal (nhân quả) if the output depends only on the present and
past values of the input.
ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|6
Mathematical Modeling
Response
• Free response: The solution of the system
𝑛
𝑑𝑖 𝑦
෍ 𝑎𝑖 𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=0
• Forced response: The solution of the system
𝑛
𝑑𝑖 𝑦
෍ 𝑎𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 Stimulate
𝑖=0
• Total response: Sum of free response and forced response.
• Transient response: the part of the solution → 0 when 𝑡 → ∞
• Steady-state response: the part of the solution that ≠ 0 when 𝑡 → ∞

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|7
Mathematical Modeling
Example • Mass-spring-damper system:
𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
Let:
𝑚 = 1, 𝑐 = 3, 𝑘 = 2
𝑦ሷ + 3𝑦ሶ + 2𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑡
𝑦 0 = 0, 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0 Stimulate
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢 𝑦
System

Forced response 𝑢 𝑡 = 1 Forced response 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑡 Force response – force pulse

with amplitude = 1

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|8
Mathematical Modeling
Example • Mass-spring-damper system:
𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
Let:
𝑚 = 1, 𝑐 = 3, 𝑘 = 2
𝑦ሷ + 3𝑦ሶ + 2𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑡
𝑦 0 = 0, 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0 Stimulate
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢 𝑦
System

Exercise: RLC circuit.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|9
Mathematical Modeling
Popular stimulation (input)
• Unit-step function:
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 𝑡0
1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = ቊ
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0
• Unit ramp function: integral of unit step function
𝑡 − 𝑡0 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 𝑡0
𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = ቊ
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0
• Impulse function

Properties:

Impulse, Step, and Ramp Functions - MATLAB & Simulink (mathworks.com)

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|10
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform
• A transformation from t (time) to s (Laplace variable)

Pierre Simon
Laplace

• Laplace transformation 𝐿 ∙ is used to map time domain function

𝑓 𝑡 into 𝑠 domain function 𝐹 𝑠 . This mapping is defined as
∞
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑓(𝑡) = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

𝑠 is a complex variable, 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|11
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform
• Find the Laplace Transform of unit step function 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 =
1(𝑡)
Lu (t ) = F ( s ) =  1e − st dt =
 1
0 s

• The Laplace Transform of exponential function, f = e-tu(t),>0

Lu (t ) = F ( s ) =  e −t e − st dt =
 1
0 s +

• The Laplace Transform of a rectangle pulse

f (t )
h

h
s
(
F ( s ) = 1 − e −t w s ) (3-22)

tw
Time, t
ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|12
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform
• Find the Laplace Transform of unit step function 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 =
1(𝑡)
Lu (t ) = F ( s ) =  1e − st dt =
 1
0 s

• The Laplace Transform of exponential function, f = e-tu(t),>0

Lu (t ) = F ( s ) =  e −t e − st dt =
 1
0 s +

• Find the Laplace Transform of a rectangle pulse

f (t )
h

( )
0 for t  0
F ( s ) = 1 − e −t w s
 h
f ( t ) = h for 0  t  t w (3-20)
0 for t  t s
 w

tw
Time, t
ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|13
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform
• Impulse function

- The Laplace transform of the unit impulse is as follows

- According the definition, the integral produces zero value except

infinitesimal time interval [0− , 0+ ], within which 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒 −0𝑡 = 1

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|14
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform
• Impulse function
f (t )
h
0 for t  0

f ( t ) = h for 0  t  t w
0 for t  t
(3-20) F (s) =
h
s
(
1 − e −t w s )
 w

tw
Time, t
1
• Let: ℎ = 𝑡 , and 𝑡𝑤 → 0
𝑤
Then 𝐹 𝑠 → 1

Exercise:
Find the Laplace Transform of : sin(𝜔𝑡)

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|15
Laplace Transform
Inverse Laplace transform
∞
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑓(𝑡) = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝛾+𝑖𝑇
1
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝐹 𝑠 = lim න 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑖 𝑇→∞ 𝛾−𝑖𝑇

Important Properties
Linearity
If F1(s) and F2(s) are, respectively, the Laplace Transforms of f1(t)
and f2(t):
𝐿 𝑎𝑓1 + 𝑏𝑓𝑠 = 𝑎𝐹1 + 𝑏𝐹2
𝐿−1 𝑎𝐹1 + 𝑏𝐹2 = 𝑎𝑓1 + 𝑏𝑓2

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|16
Laplace Transform
Important Properties One way to represent:
𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑇 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇)
Time delay:
Cut part before T

The Laplace transform of𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇)

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|17
Laplace Transform
Important Properties
Multiplication by time,

The Laplace transform of 𝑡𝑓(𝑡)

By repetitive application of the above procedure, it can be

proven that

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|18
Laplace Transform
Important Properties
Laplace transform of a function derivative,

- Using integration by parts, , the

following expression are identified

- Then, the one obtains

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|19
Laplace Transform
Important Properties
Laplace transform of a function derivative,
By repetitive application of the above procedure:

Initial Value Theory:

𝑓 0+ = lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞

Final Value Theory:

𝑓 ∞ = lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|20
Laplace Transform
Important Properties
Scaling
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then
1 𝑠
𝐿 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 = 𝐹
𝑎 𝑎
Integral
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then
𝑡
𝐹 𝑠
𝐿 න 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 =
0 𝑠

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|21
Laplace Transform
Important Properties
Convolution integral ,𝑟(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) , is defined as follows

Exogenous input 𝑟(𝑡)and its response 𝑦(𝑡) after elapsed time 𝑡 − 𝜏

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|22
Laplace Transform
Important Properties
Convolution integral , 𝑟(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡), is defined as follows
- The Laplace transform of the convolution integral can be obtained
as follows

𝑟(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑡−𝜏

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|23
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|24
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|25
Laplace Transform
Laplace transform

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|26
Systems in Frequency Domain
Transfer function
The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation
system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function)
under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
- Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following
differential equation:

where 𝑥(𝑡) is the input and 𝑦(𝑡) is the output. The transfer function of this
system is

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|27
Systems in Frequency Domain
Transfer function
Response of the system
• A system has a transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 .
• The input has the Laplace transform in the frequency domain of 𝑈 𝑠 .
• The output (response) of the system in the frequency domain is 𝑈 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠

𝑈 𝑠 𝑈 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
G(s)

The response in time domain is 𝐿−1 [𝑈 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠

Poles and Zeros

𝑁(𝑠)
• For a transfer function has the form of G s = . The roots of :
𝐷 𝑠
• Numerator 𝑁 𝑠 are zeros
• Denominator 𝐷 𝑠 are poles.
In the case the order of 𝐷 𝑠 > the order of 𝑁(𝑠), the number of 𝐷 𝑠 is the
order of the system.
ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|28
Systems in Frequency Domain
Transfer function • Mass-spring-damper system:
𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
Let:
𝑚 = 1, 𝑐 = 3, 𝑘 = 2
𝑦ሷ + 3𝑦ሶ + 2𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑡
𝑦 0 = 0, 𝑦ሶ 0 = 0
𝑢 𝑦
System

𝐷2 𝑦 𝑡 + 3𝐷𝑦 𝑡 + 2𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 2𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠
1
𝐺 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|29
Systems in Frequency Domain
Transfer function
Properties of transfer function
1. Transfer function is the Laplace transform of its impulse function
response 𝑦𝛿 𝑡 > 0. That is, if the input to a system is an impulse, the
transformation of the output is the transfer function. (𝐿 𝛿 = 1)
2. The transfer function can be determined from the system differential
equation by taking the Laplace transform and ignoring all the terms arising
from initial values:
𝑌 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑋 𝑠
3. The system equation can be obtained from the transfer function by
𝑑
replacing the 𝑠 variable with the differential operator 𝐷, where 𝐷 ≜
𝑑𝑡
4. The characteristic of LTI system can be investigate via the denominator.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|30
Systems in Frequency Domain
Transfer function
Properties of transfer function
5. The transfer function can be specified to within a constant by specifying
the system poles and zeros. This constant, usually denoted by K, is the
system gain factor. The system poles and zeros can be determined by a pole-
zero map in the s-plane.
6. If the transfer function has poles and zeros without Positive real part, the
system is minimum phase system

Gain factor K: the value when 𝑡 → ∞ or 𝑠 → 0

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|31
Systems in Frequency Domain
Transfer function
Example:
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1) A system has differential equation: 2
+ + 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑥. Determine the
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
transfer function of the system.
𝑑𝑦
2) A system has the differential equation + 𝑦 = 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇). Determine the
𝑑𝑡
transfer function of the system.
3) An impulse is applied to a continuous system, the output is observed to
be the time function 𝑒 −2𝑡 . Find the transfer function of the system.
4) The impulse response of a given system is sin 𝑡 . Find the transfer
function and the differential function of the system.
7 3 1
5) The step response of the system is 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 . Find
3 2 6
the transfer function of the system.
6) The system has gain factor of 2 and pole-zero map below. What is the
transfer function.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|32
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Translational motion
• The basic law for the translation motion is the Newton’s second
law:
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
𝐹: total force applied to the body. [N]
𝑚: mass (inertia component) of the body. [kg]
𝑎:
Ԧ the acceleration of the body

Example: Cruise control • The engine imparts a force u.

• The air drag: 𝑏𝑥ሶ Damper
• Motion equation:
𝑢 − 𝑏𝑥ሶ = 𝑚𝑥ሷ
Total force Inerita
𝑏 1
𝑥ሷ + 𝑥ሶ = 𝑢
𝑚 𝑚
𝑏 1
Air drag Change to speed: 𝑣ሶ + 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑚 𝑢

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|33
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Translational motion
• The basic law for the translation motion is the Newton’s second
law:
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
𝐹: total force applied to the body. [N]
𝑚: mass (inertia component) of the body. [kg]
𝑎:
Ԧ the acceleration of the body

Example: Cruise control Transfer function:

Air drag

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|34
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Translational motion
Example: Two-mass system
A system consisting of one of the four-wheel suspensions is usually referred to
as a quarter-car model.

r: a reference
flat surface

or

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|35
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Translational motion
Example: Two-mass system
A system consisting of one of the four-wheel suspensions is usually referred to
as a quarter-car model.

Transfer function

Apply Crane rule:

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|36
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Rotational motion
• Application of Newton’s law to one-dimensional rotational
systems can be modified to:
𝑀 = 𝐼 𝛼Ԧ
𝑀: total moment. [Nm]
𝐼: moment of inertia about the center of mass. [kgm2]
𝛼: the angular acceleration of the body [rad/sec2]
Example: Satellite Attitude Control Model

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|37
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Rotational motion
• Application of Newton’s law to one-dimensional rotational
systems can be modified to:
𝑀 = 𝐼 𝛼Ԧ
𝑀: total moment. [Nm]
𝐼: moment of inertia about the center of mass. [kgm2]
𝛼: the angular acceleration of the body [rad/sec2]
Example: Satellite Attitude Control Model

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|38
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Rotational motion
Example: Flexible Satellite Attitude Control Model - Rotational M-S-D

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|39
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Rotational motion
Example: Pendulum

Linearization: 𝜃 → 0, sin 𝜃 → 𝜃

Natural Frequency

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|40
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Rotational motion
Example: Pendulum

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|41
Dynamics of Mechanical System
Combined Translation and Rotational motion
Example: Inverted Pendulum

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|42
Dynamics of Electrical System
Basic Laws and Components for modelling
• The basic laws:
• Ohm’s
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL)
• Components

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|43
Summary of some popular elements

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|44
Summary of some popular elements

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|45
Summary of some popular elements

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|46
Summary of some popular elements

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|47
Summary of some popular elements

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|48
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
SISO System
𝑈(𝑠) Y(s)
G(s)

MIMO System

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|49
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Review of block diagram components in a control system

Canonical form of a feed back control system

𝐶 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)
is the characteristic of the system G(s)
𝑅

There could be many form different from canonical form!

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|50
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Theorems for block diagram reduction

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|51
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Theorems for block diagram reduction

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|52
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Theorems for block diagram reduction

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|53
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Unity feedback systems Feedback equal 1

Canonical form to unity feedback form

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|54
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Superposition of Multiple input

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|55
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Superposition of Multiple input

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|56
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Superposition of Multiple input

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|57
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Complicated block diagram

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|58
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagram models and reduction
Complicated block diagram

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|59
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Signal Flows Graph
• A signal flow graph is a pictorial representation of the simultaneous equations
describing a system.
• It graphically displays the transmission of signals through the system, as does
the block diagram. But it is easier to draw and therefore easier to manipulate
than the block diagram.
• A system with equation:
𝑋𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝑋𝑗
Can be described by:

• Example:
Ohm’s law: E= RI

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|60
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Basic rules and notations for signal flow graphs
• Additional rule:
𝑛

𝑋𝑖 = ෍ 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝑋𝑗
𝑗=1

• Example: The signal flow graph for the equation of a line in rectangular
coordinates, Y = mX + b

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|61
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Basic rules and notations for signal flow graphs
• Transmission rule:
𝑋𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖𝑘 𝑋𝑘

• Example: The signal flow graph of the simultaneous equations Y = 3X, 2 = - 4X

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|62
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Basic rules and notations for signal flow graphs
• Multiplication (cascade) rule:
𝑛

𝑋𝑛 = 𝑋1 ෑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑖−1
𝑖=2

• Example: The signal flow graph of the simultaneous equations Y = 3X, 2 = - 4X

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|63
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Definitions
• Consider the signal flow graph:

• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no

node is passed more than once. For example, X1 to X2 to X3 to X4, X2 to X3 and
back to X2, and X1 to X2 to X4 are paths.
• An input node or source is a node with only outgoing branches. For example, X1
is an input node.
• An output node or sink is a node with only incoming branches. For example, X4
is an output node.
• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. For example, Xl
to X2 to X3 to X4, and X1 to X2 to X4 are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on
the same node. For example, X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|64
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Definitions
• Consider the signal flow graph:

• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. For example, A33 is

a self-loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch when the
transmission function is a multiplicative operator. For example, A33 is the gain of
the self-loop if A33 is a constant or transfer function.
• The path gain is the product of the branch gains encountered in traversing a
path. For example, the path gain of the forward path from X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is
A21A32A43 .
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. For example, the
loop gain of the feedback loop from X2 to X3, and back to X2 is A32A23.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|65
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Definitions
• Very often, a variable in a system is a function of the output variable. The
canonical feedback system is an obvious example. In this case, if the signal flow
graph were to be drawn directly from the equations, the “output node” would
require an outgoing branch, contrary to the definition.
• This problem may be remedied by adding a branch with a transmission function
of unity entering a “dummy” node.
• Example:

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|66
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Construction of signal flow graph
• Consider the system

Note that the - or + sign of the summing point is associated with H.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|67
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Construction of signal flow graph
• The signal flow graph of a system described by a set of simultaneous equations
can be constructed in the following general manner.
Step 1: Write the system equations in the form

An equation for X1 , is not required if X1 is an input node.

Step 2: Arrange the m or n (whichever is larger) nodes from left to right. The
nodes may be rearranged if the required loops later appear too cumbersome.
Step 3: Connect the nodes by the appropriate branches All, A,,, etc.
Step 4: If the desired output node has outgoing branches, add a dummy node
and a unity gain branch.
Step 5: Rearrange the nodes and/or loops in the graph to achieve maximum
pictorial clarity.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|68
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Construction of signal flow graph
• Example:

There are five variables, 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 . 𝑣1 is known. We can write four independent

equations from Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws. Proceeding from left to right in
the schematic, we have

Laying out the five nodes in the same order with 𝑣1 as an input node, and
connecting the nodes with the appropriate branches. Add dummy node to show
𝑣3 is output node.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|69
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Mason’s rule
σ𝑖 𝑃𝑖 Δ𝑖
𝑇=
Δ

Two loops, paths, or a loop and a path are said to be nontouching if they have no nodes
in common. 𝚫 is called the signal flow determinant or characteristic function, since
𝚫 = 0 is the system characteristic equation.

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|70
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Mason’s rule
• Example: Forward path

Loop

1 forward path: 𝑃1 = 𝐺
There is only one (feedback) loop: 𝑃11 = ∓𝐺𝐻
Δ = 1 − 𝑃11 = 1 ± 𝐺𝐻
Δ1 = 1 − 0 = 1
𝑃1 Δ1 𝐺
𝑇= =
Δ 1 ± 𝐺𝐻

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|71
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Mason’s rule
• Example:

Forward path

Feedback loop

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|72
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Mason’s rule
• Example:

There are two nontouching loops, loops 1 and 3. Hence

There are no three loops that do not touch. Therefore

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|73
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Application for Block diagram reduction
𝐶
• Desired function: 𝐺 =
𝑅

Construct signal flow graph

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|74
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Application for Block diagram reduction
𝐶
• Desired function: 𝐺 =
𝑅

2 Forward paths:

Feedback paths:

There are no nontouching loops, and all loops touch both forward paths; then

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|75
Block Diagram Algebra and Signal Flow Graphs
Application for Block diagram reduction
• Determine the canonical form:

• From the example above:

ME2009 – Introduction to Control System Technology Mathematical Modeling and Frequency Domain|76