AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL

CHAPTER

21 Vector Algebra

Chapter Highlights
Scalars and vectors, Representation of Vectors, Types of vectors, Equal Vectors, Fixed Vectors, Free Vectors,
Angle between Two Vectors, Addition (sum or resultant) of Two Vectors, Position Vector, Component of a
Vector, Linear Combination, Linearly Dependent and Independent System of Vectors, Collinearity of Three
Points, Coplanarity of Four Points, Some Results on linearly dependent and independent Vectors, Product Of
Two Vectors, Scalar Product of Two Vectors, Some Useful identities, Work done by a Force, Vector Product of
Two Vectors, Moment of a Force about a point, Scalar Triple Product.

ScalarS and VectorS type, to distinguish it from a scalar). Sometimes, however,

we write the vector a as a or a .

Scalar Quantity A quantity which has only magnitude and
no direction is called a scalar quantity or simply a scalar.
Examples of scalars are mass, temperature, volume, I M P O R TA N T P O I N T S
work and so on. To specify a scalar, two things are needed. 
Every vector ( AB) has the following
 three characteristics:
1. a unit in terms of which it is measured (a) Length: The length of AB is denoted by | AB | or

2. a real number (+ve, -ve or zero) simply AB.
Vector Quantity A quantity which has magnitude as well (b) Support: The line of unlimited length of which AB
as direction is called a vector quantity or simply a vector. is segment is called thesupport
 of vector AB .
Examples of vectors are displacement, velocity, (c) Sense:
 The sense of AB is from A to B and that of
acceleration, force and so on. To specify a vector, three BA will be from B to A. The sense of directed line
things are needed. segment is from its initial point to the terminal point.

1. a unit in terms of which it is measured

2. a real number (+ve, -ve or zero) modulus (or magnitude) of a Vector
3. a particular direction The positive real number which is the measure of the length
of the vector, is called the modulus, length, magnitude,
rePreSentation of VectorS absolute value or norm of the vector.
The modulus of a vector a or OA is usually denoted
The best way to represent a vector is with the 
by | a | or | OA | or by the corresponding letter ‘a’ (not in
help of a directed line segment. Suppose  A and bold-faced type), i.e.,
B are two points, then by the vector AB. , we 
| OA | = OA and | a | = a
mean a quantity whose magnitude is the length
AB and whose direction is from A to B.
multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
A and B are called the end points of the
vector AB. In particular A is called the initial The product of a scalar m and a vector a, is defined as a
point and B is called the terminal
 point. vector ma or am whose magnitude is the product of the
Sometimes a vector AB. is expressed by magnitudes of m and a and whose direction is that of a or
a single letter a (which is always written in bold Fig 21.1 opposite to a accordingly as m is positive or negative.
21.2 Chapter 21
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tyPeS of VectorS Co-initial Vectors The vectors which have the same initial
point are called co-initial vectors.
Equal Vectors Two vectors a and b are equal when they Negative of a Vector A vector having the same modulus as
have (1) the same magnitude and (2) the same direction. that of a given vector a and the direction opposite to that of
Symbolically such vectors are written as: a = b. a, is called the negative of a and is denoted by -a. Clearly,
Unit Vectors A vector whose magnitude is unity is called if OA = a, then
a unit vector. The unit vector having the same direction as
that of given vector a is usually denoted by the symbol â AO = -a, and therefore, OA = -AO
(read as ‘a cap’), i.e.,
A vector = Modulus of vector × Unit vector in its
direction eQual VectorS
or a = | a | â Two vectors a and b are said to be equal when they have
Also, Unit vector in a direction equal magnitudes and same direction. Geometrically, if
head of one vector coincides with, the head of other and
vector in that direction so do the tails coincide then the vectors are said to be
=
modulus of vector equal.
a
aˆ =
|a| CAUTION

If a = b, then a = b, always.
CAUTION
But if, a = b doesn’t always imply a = b
No units are to be attached with a unit vector, i.e., unit
vector is dimensionless physical quantity
fixed VectorS
Zero or Null Vector A vector whose magnitude is zero, is Fixed vector is that vector whose initial point or tail is fixed.
called a zero vector. For such a vector, initial and terminal It is also called localised vector. For example, position vec-
points are coincident so that its direction is indeterminate. tor and displacement vector are fixed vectors.
A zero vector is denoted by the bold-faced symbol O or O.
Collinear (or Parallel Vectors) The vectors which are par-
allel to the same straight line are called collinear vectors.
free VectorS
Vectors which are not parallel to the same line are Free vector is that whose initial point or tail is not fixed. It is
called non-collinear vectors. also known as non localised vector, For example, velocity
Like and Unlike Vectors Collinear vectors having the vector of a particular moving particle along a straight line
same direction are called like vectors and those having the is a free vector.
opposite directions are called unlike vectors.
Remark: If two vectors a and b are collinear, then there
exists a scalar m such that b = ma, m being positive or nega-
d
tive according as a and b are like or unlike vectors.
Conversely, if b = ma be given, then a and b must be c
collinear (or parallel) vectors such that | b | = | m | | a |.
Reciprocal Vector Let | a | be the modulus of the given b
vector a. Then a vector whose direction is that of a but O a
modulus is 1/| a | (reciprocal of the modulus of a) is called Fig. 21.2
the reciprocal of a and is written as a-1. Thus,

a −1
=
1
= aˆ
|a|
= aˆ
a angle between two VectorS
|a| | a |2 | a |2
The angle between two vectors a and b represented by OA
Coplanar and Non-coplanar Vectors Three or more vec- and OB, is defined as the angle AOB which does not exceed
tors are said to be coplanar when they are parallel to the same π. This is also known as the inclination of given vectors a
plane. Otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar vectors. and b. If the angle AOB be θ, then 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
 21.3
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APULVector Algebra
OB = OA + AB = a + b (1)
This method of addition of vectors is known as the
triangle law of addition.
Completing the parallelogram OABC. Since
AB = OC = b
OB = OA + AB = OA + OC (2)
Fig 21.3 That is, the sum of two co-initial vectors is the vector
π represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram formed
If θ = , then vectors are said to be perpendicular
2 with the component vectors as adjacent sides.
or orthogonal and if θ = 0 or π, then vectors are said to be This method of addition of vectors is known as the
parallel or coincident. parallelogram law of addition.
Remark From Equation (1), -BO = OA + AB or OA + AB
I M P O R TA N T P O I N T S + BO = O, showing that the sum of vectors determined by
the sides of a triangle, taken in order, is zero.
Whenever finding angle between two vectors, make
sure that either their heads coincide or their tails Properties of Vector addition
coincide.
1. Vector addition is commutative For any two vec-
tors a and b, we have
a+b=b+a
2. Vector addition is associative For any three vectors
a, b and c, we have
Fig 21.4 (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
3. Existence of additive identity For every vector a,
i.e., if heads coincide or tails coincide then internal
we have
angle is the angle between two vectors (whether
acute or obtuse) as in (1), (2), (3) and (4). a+O=a=O+a
If heads coincide with tall then external angle is where O is the null vector.
the angle between the two vectors as in (5) and (6). 4. Existence of additive inverse For a given vector a,
there exists a vector -a such that
a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0
The vector -a is called the additive inverse of a.

Fig 21.5
Properties of multiplication of Vector
by a Scalar
1. If m = o, then ma = o
addition (Sum or reSultant)
2. If m and n be two scalars, then
of two VectorS
m(na) = mna = n(ma)
3. If m and n be two scalars, then
(m + n)a = ma + na
4. If a, b are any two vectors and m be any scalar, then
m(a + b) = ma + mb

Fig 21.6 Subtraction (or difference) of two Vectors

Let a, b be two vectors. Take any point O and draw the Subtraction of vectors If a and b are two vectors, then
vectors OA = a and AB = b such that the terminal point of their subtration a - b is defined as a - b = a + (-b) where
the vector a is the initial point of vector b. Join OB. Then the -b is the negative of b having magnitude equal to that of b
vector OB is defined as the sum of a and b and is written as and direction opposite to b.
21.4 Chapter 21
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Then a - b = (a1- b1) i + (a2 - b2) j + (a3 - b3)k mb + na m n
 Since OP = r = = b+ a
m+n m+n m+n
B
= λa + µb

a+b b n m
where λ = and µ =
m+n m+n
O A
a Thus, p.v. of any point P on AB can always be taken as r = la
−b
+ mb, where l + m = 1.
a + (−b) = a − b
mb + na
 Since OP = r =
B m+n
Fig 21.7 ⇒ (m + n) r = mb + na
⇒ n ⋅ OA + m ⋅ OB = (n + m) OP,
Properties of Vector Subraction where P is a point on AB dividing it in the ratio m : n.
In particular, if P is the mid-point of AB, then
(i) a - b ≠ b - a (ii) (a - b) - c ≠ a - (b - c)
OA + OB = 2OP
(iii) Since any one side of a trian- P
gle is less than the sum and r
That is, twice the position vector of the middle point is equal
greater than the difference of to the sum of the vectors of the ends.
the other two sides, so for any
two vectors a and b, we have
(A) | a + b | ≤ | a | + | b |
(B) | a + b | ≥ | a | - | b | O (Origin) SolVed examPleS
(C) | a - b | ≤ | a | + | b | Fig 21.8 1. In a regular hexagon ABCDEF,
(D) | a - b | ≥ | a | - | b |
AB + AC + AD + AE + AF = kAD, where k is equal to
PoSition Vector (A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) none of these
If a point O is fixed as the origin in space (or plane) and P
Solution (C)
is any point, the OP is called the position vector of P with
respect to O. AB + AC + AD + AE + AF
= ED + AC + AD + AE + CD ( AB = ED, AF = CD)
∴
If we say that P is the point r, then we mean that the
position vector of P is r with respect to some origin O.
E D
1. AB in terms of the position vectors of points A and B:
If a and b are position vectors of points A and B respec-
tively. Then OA = a, OB = b F C
∴ AB = (Position vector of B) - (Position vector of A)
= OB - OA = b - a
A B
2. Position vector of a dividing point The position vectors
of the points dividing the line AB in the ratio m : n inter-
mb + na = (AC + CD) + (AE + ED) + AD
nally or externally are = AD + AD + AD = 3AD
m+n
mb − na
or 2. If M and N are the mid points of the diagonals AC and
m−n
BD respectively of a quadrilateral ABCD, then
AB + AD + CB + CD =
trick(S) for Problem SolVing
(A) 4NM (B) 4MN
 If P is the mid-point of AB, then it divides AB in the ratio
(C) 2MN (D) none of these
1 : 1. Thus position vector of P is given by
a+b Solution (B)
OP =
2 In ∆ABD, N is the mid-point of BD,
∴ AB + AD = 2AN (1)
 21.5
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APULVector Algebra

In ∆CBD, N is the mid point of BD,

3
∴ CB + CD = 2CN (2) Adding, AL + AM = ( AB + AD )
2
Adding (1) and (2), we have
3 3
AB + AD + CB + CD = 2(AN + CN) (3) = ( AB + BS ) = AC
2 2
In ∆ANC, M is the mid-point of AC
5. ABCD is a quadrilateral and E the point of intersection
∴ AN + CN = 2MN of the lines joining the middle points of opposite sides.
From (3), we get If O is any point, then the resultant of OA, OB, OC and
OD is equal to
AB + AD + CB + CD = 2(2MN) = 4MN (A) 2OE (B) OE
3. Five forces AB, AC, AD, AE, AF act at the vertex A of (C) 4OE (D) none of these
a regular hexagon ABCDEF. If O is the centroid of the Solution (C)
hexagon, then their resultant is a force given by
Let P, Q, R, S be the mid-points of sides BC, CD, DA,
(A) 4AO (B) 5AO AB respectively of a quadrilateral ABCD. By geome-
(C) 6AO (D) none of these try the figure formed by joining the mid-points P, Q,
Solution (C) R, S will be a parallelogram. Hence, its diagonals will
If R is the resultant of given forces, then bisect each other, say at E.

Now, P is the mid-point of BC

R = AB + AC + AD + AE + AF ∴ OB + OC = 2OP (1)
= ED + AC + AD + AE + CD And R is the mid-point of AD
( AB = ED and AF = CD)
∴
∴ OA + OD = 2OR (2)
= (AC + CD) + (AE + ED) + AD Adding (1) and (2), we have
= AD + AD + AD = 3AD = 6AO. OA + OB + OC + OD = 2(OP + OR) = 2 ⋅ 2OE = 4OE
∴
( E is mid-point of PR, ∴ OP + OR = 2OE)
4. ABCD is parallelogram. If L and M are the middle
points of BC and CD, then AL + AM = 6. Two forces act at the vertex A of a quadrilateral ABCD
1 3 represented by AB, AD and two at C represented by CB
(A) AC (B) AC and CD. If E and F are the middle points of AC and BD
2 2
respectively, then their resultant is represented by
(C) AC (D) none of these (A) EF (B) 2EF
Solution (B) 3
(C) EF (D) 4EF
1 1 2
AL = AB + BL = AB + BC = AB + AD
2 2 Solution (D)
1 1 We have,
AM = AD + DM = AD + DC = AD + AB
2 2 AB + AD = 2AF, where F is mid-point of BD
21.6 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
But |c| = 5 6 (given)
λ
∴ ± 54 = 5 6 ⇒ λ = ± 15.
9
15 5
Also, CB + CD = 2CF; Hence, c = ± (i − 7 j + 2 k ) = ± (i − 7 j + 2 k )
9 3
∴ AB + AD + CB + CD 9. If the points P, Q, R, S have position vectors p, q, r, s
= 2(AF + CF) = -2(FA + FC) = -2 [2FE], such that p - q = 2(s - r), then
where E is the mid-point of AC = - 4FE = 4EF. (A) PQ and RS bisect each other
7. Let OA = i + 3j - 2k and OB = 3i + j - 2k. The vector (B) PQ and PR bisect each other
OC bisecting the angle AOB where C is a point on the (C) PQ and RS trisect each other
line AB is (D) QS and PR trisect each other
(A) 2(i + j - k) (B) 4(i + j - k) Solution (D)
(C) i + j - k (D) none of these We have, p - q = 2(s - r)
Solution (A) p + 2r q + 2 s
⇒ p + 2r = q + 2 s ⇒ =
Taking O as origin, the position vectors of A and B are 1+ 2 1+ 2
a = i + 3j - 2k and b = 3i + j - 2k respectively. We have ∴ Point dividing PR in the ratio 2 : 1 is same as the
| a=| | b=| 14 point dividing QS in the ratio 2 : 1
Hence QS and PR trisect each other.
10. If a and b are position vectors of A and B respectively,
then the position vector of a point C in AB produced
such that AC = 3AB is
(A) 3a - b (B) 3b - a
(C) 3a - 2b (D) 3b - 2a
So, the bisector OC of ∠AOB meets AB at its mid- Solution (D)
point C. AC = 3AB ⇒ c - a = 3(b - a) ⇒ c = 3b - 2a.
1
∴ OC = (OA + OB ) = 2(i + j − k ) 11. A vector a has components 2p and 1 w.r.t a rectangu-
2 lar cartesian system. This system is rotated through a
8. The vector c, directed along the internal bisector of the certain angle about the origin in the counter-clockwise
angle between the vectors a = 7i - 4j - 4k and b = - 2i sense. If w.r.t the new system, a has components p + 1
- j + 2k with | c | = 5 6 is and 1, then
1
(A) p = 0 (B) p = 1 or p = −
5 5 3
(A) (5i + 5 j + 2k ) (B) (i + 7 j + 2 k ) 1
3 3 (C) p = −1 or p = (D) p = 1 or p = -1
5 5 3
(C) ( −5i + 5 j + 2k ) (D) (i − 7 j + 2k )
3 3 Solution (B)
Solution (D) Let i, j be unit vectors along the co-ordinate axes
The required vector c is given by ∴ a = 2pi + 1 ⋅ j (1)
On rotation, let b be the vector having components
 a b 
c = λ ( a + b) = λ  +  p + 1 and 1.
 |a| |b|  ∴ b = (p + 1) i + 1⋅j (2)
 1 1  where i, j are unit vectors along the new co-ordinate
= λ  (7i − 4 j − 4 k ) + ( −2i − j + 2k )  axes.
9 3 
But on rotation | b | = | a | ⇒ | b |2 = | a |2
λ ˆ
or, c= (i − 7 j + 2 k ) ⇒ ( p + 1)2 + 1 = (2p)2 + 1 ⇒ 3p2 - 2p - 1 = 0
9
λ λ 1
⇒ |c| = ± 1 + 49 + 4 = ± 54 . ⇒ (3 p + 1)( p − 1) = 0 ⇒ p = 1 or −
9 9 3
 21.7
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APULVector Algebra
12. Let ABCDEF be a regular hexagon. If AD = xBC and 1 1
CF = yAB, then xy = (A) (B)
4 2
(A) 4 (B) - 4 1 1
(C) 2 (D) -2 (C) (D)
6 8
Solution (B) Solution (A)
Since ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, from plane OM1 = OA + OB + OC + OD (given)
geometry, we have = OM + MA + OM + MB + OM + MC
+ OM + MD
= 4OM + (MA + MC) + (MB + MD)
= 4OM ( MA = - MC, MB = - MD)
∴
1 1
∴ OM = OM1 ∴ λ =
4 4
15. In a trapezoid the vector BC = lAD and p = mAD and
p = AC + BD is collinear with AD. Then
AD = 2 BC and FC = 2AB (A) m = l + 1 (B) l = m + 1
∴ AD = 2BC and FC = 2AB (1) (C) l + m = 1 (D) m = 2 + l
Given that AD = xBC. Solution (A)
∴ 2BC = xBC, by (1) We have,
⇒ x=2 (2) p = AC + BD = AC + BC + CD = AC + lAD + CD
Again, given that CF = yAB or -FC = yAB. = (AC + CD) + lAD = AD + lAD = (1 + l)AD
∴ -2AB = yAB, using (2) Since p = µAD ∴ µ = 1 + l
⇒ y = -2 (3) 16. AB = 3i + j - k and AC = i - j + 3k . If the point P on the
From (2) and (3), xy = 2 (-2) = - 4. line segment BC is equidistant from AB and AC, then
15 AP is
13. A vector a is collinear with vector 6i − 8 j − k of
2 (A) 2i - k (B) i - 2k
magnitude 50 making an obtuse angle with z-axis is (C) 2i + k (D) none of these
(A) 24i - 32j - 30k (B) -24i + 32j + 30k
Solution (C)
(C) 24i + 32j - 30k (D) none of these
A point equidistant from AB and AC is on the bisector
Solution (A) of the angle BAC.
15 A vector along the internal bisector of the angle BAC
Let b = 6i − 8 j − k.
2 AB AC
2 15 = +
A unit vector along b is ± (6i − 8 j − k ). | AB | | AC |
25 2
3i + j − k i − j + 3k 1
∴ a = a vector of length 50 along b = + ( 4i + 2k )
=
9 +1+1 1+1+ 9 11
15 ∴ AP = t (2i + k)
= ±4 (6i − 8 j − k ).
2 ∴ BP = AP - AB = t (2i + k) - (3i + j - k)
Since a makes obtuse angle with z-axis, so we must = (2t - 3) i - j + (t + 1) k
have Also BC = AC - AB = (i - j + 3k) - (3i + j - k)
a⋅k < 0 = - 2i - 2j + 4k.
But BP = s BC.
Thus, a = 24i - 32j - 30k ∴ (2t - 3)i - j + (t + 1) k = s(- 2i - 2j + 4k)
14. Given a cube ABCDA1 B1 C1 D1 with lower base ABCD, ∴ 2t - 3 = -2s, -1 = -2s, t + 1 = 4s
upper base A1 B1 C1 D1 and the lateral edges AA1, BB1, 1
∴ s= and t = 1 ∴ AP = 2i + k .
CC1, and DD1; M and M1 are the centres of the faces 2
ABCD and A1B1C1D1 respectively. O is a point on line 17. The position vectors a, b, c and d of four distinct points
MM1, such that A, B, C and D lie on a plane are such that | a - d | =
OA + OB + OC + OD = OM1, then OM = l. OM1 if l = | b - d | = | c - d | then the point D is the
21.8 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
(A) centroid of ∆ABC 20 10
(B) orthocentre of ∆ABC = (6 j − 2k ) − ( −5i + 3 j − k ) = ( 2i + 3 j − k ).
35 7
(C) circumcentre of ∆ABC
(D) none of these 10
∴ BM = − ( 2i + 3 j − k ).
Solution (C) 7
We have, a - d = -AD, b - d = -BD and c - d = -CD.
According to the given condition | AD | = | BD | = | CD |. linear combination
Thus, D is the circumcentre of ∆ABC.
A vector r is said to be a linear combination of the given
vectors a, b, c ..., and so on if there exist a system of scalars
comPonent of a Vector x, y, z, ..., and so on such that

The component of a vector PQ on a line l is RS, where R r = xa + yb + zc + ...

and S are the feet of perpendiculars from P and Q on the
line l. linearly dePendent and indePendent
The vector component of PQ on l will be denoted SyStem of VectorS
by RS.
1. If θ is the angle between PQ and RS, then the component The system of n vectors a1, a2, ..., an is said to be linearly
of PQ on l = PQ cos θ = | PQ | cos θ and the vector com- dependent, if there exist scalars x1, x2, ..., xn not all zero
ponent of PQ on l = PQ cos θ. such that
2. If r is the position vector of a point P, having coordinates x1a1 + x2a2 + ... + xnan = 0
(x, y, z) then r = xi + yj + zk, where i, j, k are unit vectors
along x, y and z axes respectively. The same system of vectors is said to be linearly
3. xi, yj, zk are the vector components of r on x, y and z axes independent, if all scalers are zero, i.e. x1 = x2 = ... = xn = 0.
respectively.
4. If a point P in space has coordinates (x, y, z), then its p.v.
remark
r is xi + yj + zk and | r | = | r |= x2 + y2 + z2 .
When the system of n vectors a1, a2, ... , an is linearly depen-
dent (or independent), then n vectors a1, a2, ..., an are said
to be linearly dependent (or independent).
SolVed examPle
18. The triangle ABC is defined by the vertices A(1, -2,
collinearity of three PointS
2), B(1, 4, 0) and C(-4, 1, 1). Let M be the foot of the
altitude drawn from the vertex B to side AC. Then BM The necessary and sufficient condition for three points with
= position vectors a, b and c to be collinear is that there exist
(A) (-20/7, -30/7, 10/7) (B) (-20, -30, 10) three scalars x, y, z, not all zero, such that
(C) (2, 3, -1) (D) none of these xa + yb + zc = 0, where x + y + z = 0
Solution (A) Test of Collinearity of Two Vectors To prove that two vec-
Since MB is the component of AB ⊥ to AC tors a and b are collinear, find a scalar m such that one of
the vectors is m times the other. In case no such scalar m
exists, then the two vectors will be non-collinear vectors.

test of collinearity of three Points

Method 1: To prove that three points A, B, C are collinear,
find the vectors AB and AC and show that there exists a
MB = AB - AM
scalar m such that AB = mAC.
( AB ⋅ AC ) AC If no such scalar m exists, then the points are not
= AB −
( AC ) 2 collinear.
Method 2: To prove that three points A, B, C with position
{(6 j − 2k ) ⋅ ( −5i + 3 j − k )}( −5i + 3 j − k )
= (6 j − 2 k ) − vectors a, b, c respectively are collinear, find three scalars
( 25 + 9 + 1) x, y, z (not all zero) such that
 21.9
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APULVector Algebra
xa + yb + zc = 0, where x + y + z = 0 1
⇒ 6 − 9λ − 1 − λ = 0 ⇒ 5 − 10λ = 0, ∴ λ =
If no such scalars x, y, z exist, then the points are not 2
collinear. 1 3 1
∴ β1 = λα = (3i − i ) = i − j
2 2 2
SolVed examPleS  3  1 1 3
β 2 =  2 −  i + 1 +  j − 3k = i + j − 3k
19. If the vectors a and b are non-collinear, then the value  2   2  2 2
of x, for which, the vectors c = (x - 2) a + b and d = (2x ∴ 2i + j - 3k = lα + β2
+ 1) a - b are collinear is Hence, β = β1 + β2
4 2
(A) (B) coPlanarity of four PointS
3 3
1 The necessary and sufficient condition for four points with
(C) (D) none of these
3 position vectors a, b, c and d to be coplanar is that there
exist scalars x, y, z and w, not all zero, such that
Solution (C)
The vector c is non-zero since the coefficient in b is xa + yb + zc + wd = 0
different from zero, and so the vectors c and d are col- where x + y + z + w = 0.
linear if for some number y we have Test of Coplanarity of Three Vectors To prove that three
d = yc that is vectors a, b and c are coplanar, express one of these vectors
(2x + 1)a - b = y (x - 2)a + yb as the linear combination of the other two such as c = xa + yb.
or ( yx - 2y - 2x - 1)a + (y + 1)b = 0 Now, compare the coefficients from the two sides and
Since a, b are non-collinear, we must have find the values of x and y. If real values of scalars x and y
yx - 2y - 2x - 1 = 0 and y + 1 = 0. exist, then the vectors are coplanar otherwise non-coplanar.
Solving these equations, we get y = -1 and x = 1/3
test of coplanarity of four Points
20. With reference to a right handed system of mutually
perpendicular unit vectors i, j, k α = 3i - j and β = 2i + Method 1: To prove that four points A, B, C and D are
j - 3k coplanar, find the vectors AB, AC and AD and show that
If β = β1 + β2, where β1 is parallel to α and β2 is per- these three vectors are coplanar.
pendicular to α, then Method 2: To prove that four points A, B, C and D with
position vectors a, b, c and d respectively are coplanar, find
3 1 four scalars x, y, z, w (not all zero) such that
(A) β1 = i+ j
2 2
xa + yb + zc + wd = 0 where x + y + z + w = 0
3 1
(B) β1 = i − j If no such scalars x, y, z, w exist, then the points are
2 2 non-coplanar.
1 3
(C) β 2 = i + j − 3k
2 2 Some reSultS on linearly dePendent
1 3
(D) β 2 = i − j − 3k and indePendent VectorS
2 2
1. If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, then these are lin-
Solution (B, C) early independent and conversely if a, b, c are lin-
Since β1 is parallel to α, early independent, then they are non-coplanar.
let β1 = lα, where l is a scalar. 2. If a = a1i + a2 j + a3k, b = b1i + b2 j + b3k and c = c1i
β = β1 + β2 (Given) + c2 j + c3k are three linearly dependent vectors, then
∴ β2 = β - β1 a1 b1 c1
= 2i + j - 3k - lα = 2i + j - 3k - l(3i - j)
a2 b2 c2 = 0
= (2 - 3l)i + (1 + l)i - 3k
Since β2 is perpendicular to α a3 b3 c3
∴ β2 ⋅ a = 0 3. Let a, b, c be three non-coplanar vectors. Then, vec-
⇒ [(2 - 3l)i + (1 + l)i - 3i] ⋅ (3i - i) = 0 tors x1a + y1b + z1c, x2a + y2b + z2c and x3a + y3b + z3c
⇒ 3(2 - 3l) - (1 + l) = 0 will be coplanar if
21.10 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
x1 x2 x3 a ⋅ a = | a |2 = a2
y1 y2 y3 = 0 5. Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero,
i.e., if a and b are two perpendicular vectors, then
z1 z2 z3
a ⋅ b = 0.
4. Two non-zero, non-collinear vectors are linearly However, if a ⋅ b = 0 ⇒ Either a = 0 or b = 0 or a ⊥ b.
independent. 6. Scalar product of mutually orthogonal unit vectors i,
5. Any two collinear vectors are linearly dependent. j, k:
6. Any three non-coplanar vectors are linearly i⋅i=1=j⋅j=k⋅k
independent. and i⋅j=j⋅k=k⋅i=0
7. Any three coplanar vectors are linearly dependent. 7. Scalar porduct of two vectors in terms of compo-
8. Any four vectors in 3-dimensional space are linearly nents: If
dependent. a = a1i + a2 j + a3k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k, then a ⋅ b =
a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Thus, the scalar product of two vectors is equal to
Product of two VectorS the sum of the products of their corresponding
Between two vectors, two distinct kinds of products are components.
defined. One being a pure number is called the scalar prod- 8. Angle between two vectors in terms of the compo-
uct while the other being a vector quantity is called the vec- nents of the given vectors.
tor product. If θ is the angle between two vectors
a = a1i + a2 j + a3k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k, then
a⋅b a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
Scalar Product of two VectorS cos θ = =
| a|| b| a + a2 + a2 b2 + b2 + b2
2
1 2 3 1 2 3
The scalar product or dot product of two vectors a and b is
defined as: | a | | b | cos θ, where θ is the angle between them I M P O R TA N T P O I N T S
such that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. It is denoted by placing a dot between
the vectors a and b. Thus, If θ is acute, a.b is positive and if θ is obtuse, a.b is negative
a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos θ
9. Components of a vector b along and perpendicular to
If either a or b is O, we define a ⋅ b = O. vector a
 a⋅b 
Component of b along a =  2  a
B | a| 
 a⋅b 
b Component of b perpendicular to a = b −  a
 | a | 2
10. Any vector r can be expressed as:
O M a A r = (r ⋅ i)i + (r ⋅ j) j + (r ⋅ k)k
Fig 21.9

key results on Scalar Product Some uSeful identitieS

1. Scalar product is commutative. For any two vectors a Since scalar product satisfies commutative and distributive
and b we have laws, we have
1. (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2a ⋅ b
a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a.
2. (a - b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2a ⋅ b
2. If m is any scalar and a, b be any two vectors, then 3. (a + b) ⋅ (a - b) = a2 - b2
(ma) ⋅ b = m(a ⋅ b) = a ⋅ (mb)
3. Scalar product is distributive with respect to vector
addition, i.e., for any three vectors a, b and c, we have work done by a force
a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c. Work done by a force F in displacing a particle from A to
4. Magnitude of a vector as a scalar product: For any B is defined by
vector a W = F ⋅ AB
 Vector Algebra 21.11
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
15
I M P O R TA N T P O I N T S ⇒ 2a × b = 49 − 9 − 25 = 15 ⇒ a × b =
2
∴ From (1), we get
 (a + b + c)2 = |a|2 + |b|2 + |c|2 + 2|(a . b + b . c + c .
a) 15 1
cos θ = = = cos 60° ⇒ θ = 60°
 | iˆ + ˆj + kˆ |=3 2 × 15 2
 Cauchy - Schwarz Inequality
23. a and c are unit vectors and | b | = 4. The angle
  
(a . b) ≤ |a|2|b|2
1
between a and c is cos −1   . If b − 2c = λ a , then

If a number of forces are acting on a particle, then    


the sum of the works done by the separate forces l is equal to 4
is equal to the work done by the resultant force
(A) 3, 4 (B) -3, 4
1 3
(C) 3, -4 (D) ,
SolVed examPleS 4 4
 Solution (C)
21. If a and b are unit vectors, then the greatest value of

Given:=
| a | 1=
, | c | 1 and | b | = 4.
  
   
| a + b | + | a − b | is
1 1
⇒ | a ⋅ c | = 1 ⋅1 ⋅ =
 
(A) 2 2 (B) 2
4 4
(C) 2 (D) 4 2   
Now, b − 2c = λ a ⇒ a ⋅ b − 2a ⋅ c = λ a 2
   
Solution (A)
  1
⇒ a ⋅b − 2⋅ = λ

Let θ be the angle between a and b .

4
 
Then, a . b = cos θ  1
⇒ a ⋅b = λ +

    
Now, | a + b | = | a |2 + | b |2 + 2a . b = 2 + 2 cos θ
 2
      
Again, b − 2c = λ a ⇒ b ⋅ b − 2b ⋅ c = λ b ⋅ a
 
θ
= 4 cos 2
2  1
⇒ 16 − 2b ⋅ c = λ  λ + 
 
 θ  2
⇒ | a + b | = 2 cos .

2   λ 2
λ
⇒ b ⋅c = 8− −
 θ 2 4
Similarly, | a − b | = 2 sin

2     
Also, b − 2c = λ a ⇒ b ⋅ c − 2c ⋅ c = λ b ⋅ a
   
     θ θ
∴ | a + b | + | a − b | = 2  cos + sin  ≤ 2 2 λ2 λ 1
 2 2 ⇒ 8− − − 2(1) = λ  
2 4 4
22. If a + b + c = 0 and | a | = 3, | b | = 5, | c | = 7, then the ⇒ l + l - 12 = 0
2

angle between a and b is ∴ l = - 4, 3

π π
(A) ⋅ (B) ⋅
24. The vectors a = xi - 3j - k and b = 2xi + xj - k include
2 3
π an acute angle and b and positive y-axis include an
π
(C) ⋅ (D) ⋅
obtuse angle. Then values of x may be
4 6
(A) -2 (B) -3
Solution (B)
(C) all x < 0 (D) all x > 0
Let θ be the angle between a and b
∴ a ⋅ b = |a| |b| cosθ Solution (A, B, C)
a⋅b a⋅b a⋅b According to the question
∴ cos θ = = = (1) a ⋅ b > 0 and b ⋅ j < 0 ⇒ 2x2 - 3x + 1 > 0 and x < 0
| a || b | (3)(5) 15
⇒ (2x - 1) (x - 1) > 0 and x < 0
Now a + b + c = 0
 1 
∴ a + b = -c i.e.,  x < or x > 1 and x < 0 ⇒ x < 0
⇒ |a + b| = |-c| = |c| ⇒ |a + b|2 = |c|2  2 
⇒ (a + b) ⋅ (a + b) = (7)2 ⇒ |a|2 + 2a ⋅ b + |b|2 = 49 25. If the unit vectors a and b are inclined at angle 2θ (0 ≤
⇒ (3)2 + 2a ⋅ b + (5)2 = 49 θ ≤ π) and |a - b| < 1, then θ lies in the interval
21.12 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
 π π π  ⇒ | a + b | = 112 = 4 7
(A) 0,  (B)  , 
 6 6 2 Similarly, | a − b |= 4 3
 π 5π 
(C)  ,  (D) none of these Hence the lengths of the diagonals are 4 3 and 4 3.
2 6 
Solution (A) 28. Let a = 2i - j + k, b = i + 2j - k and c = i + j - 2k be
a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos2θ three vectors. A vector in the plane of b and c whose
2
⇒ a ⋅ b = (1) (1) cos 2θ = cos 2θ. projection on a is of magnitude is
|a-b|<1 3
⇒ a2 + b2 - 2a ⋅ b < 1 ⇒ 1 + 1 - 2cosθ < 1 (A) 2i + 3j - 3k (B) 2i + 3j + 3k
⇒ 2(1 - cos 2θ) < 1 ⇒ 2(2sin2θ) < 1 (C) - 2i - j + 5k (D) 2i + j + 5k
1  π Solution (A, C)
⇒ sin 2 θ < ⇒ θ lies in 0, 
4  6 Any vector in the plane of b and c is
r = b + lc = (1 + 2j + k) + l(i + j - 2k)
26. If a, b, c are three vectors such that | a | = 3, | b | = 4,
= (1 + l)i + (2 + l)j + (-1 - 2l)k
| c | = 5 and a, b, c are perpendicular to b + c, c + a, a
+ b respectively, then | a + b + c | = r⋅a
Projection of r on a is =
(A) 6 2 (B) 4 2 |a|
2(1 + λ ) − ( 2 + λ ) − (1 + 2λ ) −λ − 1
(C) 3 2 (D) 5 2 = =
4 +1+1 6
Solution (D)
∴
a ⊥ (b + c) −λ − 1 2
∴ =± ⇒ − λ − 1 = ±2; λ = −3 or 1
∴ a ⋅ (b + c) = 0 ⇒ a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c = 0 (1) 6 3
Similarly b ⊥ (c + a) ⇒ b ⋅ c + b ⋅ a = 0 (2) Hence, r = - 2i - j + 5k or r = 2i + 3j - 3k
and c ⊥ (a + b) = 0 ⇒ c ⋅ a + c ⋅ b = 0 (3)
Adding (1), (2), (3), we get 29. If the moduli of vectors a, b, c are 3, 4, 5 are respec-
tively and a and b + c, b and c + a, c and a + b are
2(a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a) = 0 mutually perpendicular then the modulus of a + b + c
Now, (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a) is
= | a |2 + | b |2 + | c |2 + 0 (A) 12 (B) 12
= (3)2 + (4)2 + (c)2 = 50 (C) 5 2 (D) 50
Hence, | a + b + c |= 5 2 Solution (C)
27. A parallelogram is constructed on the vector a = 3p - q According to the given condition, we have
and b = p + 3q, given that |p| = |q| = 2 and the angle a ⋅ (b + c) = 0 (1)
π b ⋅ (c + a) = 0 (2)
between p and q is . The length of a diagonal is
⋅

3 c ⋅ (a + b) = 0 (3)
(A) 4 5 (B) 4 3 Now adding (1), (2) and (3), we get

(C) 4 7 (D) none of these 2 (a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a) = 0 (∵ a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a etc.)

Solution (B) Hence, | a + b + c |2
The diagonals of the parallelogram are represented by = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a)
the vectors. = 32 + 42 + 52 = 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
a + b = (3p - q) + (p + 3q) = 4p + 2q ⇒ | a + b + c | = 50 = 5 2
and a - b = (3p - q) - (p + 3q) = 2p - 4q
30. If p = i - 2j + 3k and q = 3i + j + 2k, than a vector r
Now, | a + b |2 = | 4q + 2q |2 = 16 | p |2 + 4 | q |2 + 16p ⋅ q
which is linear combination of p and q and also per-
π pendicular to q is
= 16( 2) 2 + 4( 2) 2 + 16( 2)( 2) cos
3 (A) i + 5j - 4k (B) i - 5j + 4k
 π 1 −1
= 64 + 16 + 12 = 112 ∵ cos =  (C) (i + 5 j − 4 k ) (D) none of these
 3 2 2
 Vector Algebra 21.13
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
Solution (C) 33. Let a, b, c be the three vectors such that a ⋅ (b + c) = b ⋅
We have, r = p + lq (c + a) = 0 and | a | = 1, | b | = 4, | c | = 8, then | a + b
⇒ r ⋅ q = p ⋅ q + lq ⋅ q +c|=
∴ 0 = 7 + 14l (A) 13 (B) 81
(∴ p ⋅ q = 3 - 2 + 6 = 7 and q ⋅ q = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14) (C) 9 (D) 5
7 1 1 Solution (C)
⇒ λ = − = − . ∴ r = − (i + 5 j − 4 k )
14 2 2 Adding a ⋅ (b + c) = b ⋅ (c + a) = c ⋅ (a + b) = 0,
31. A unit vector in XY plane that makes an angle of 45º we get 2(a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a) = 0
with the vector i + j and an angle of 60º with the vector ⇒ | a + b + c |2 = | a |2 + | b |2 + | c |2 + 2 (a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c +
3i - 4j is c ⋅ a)
i+ j = 1 + 16 + 64 = 81
(A) i (B)
2 Hence, | a + b + c | = 9
i− j
(C) (D) none of these 34. If e1, e2 are two unit vectors and θ is the angle between
2 θ
them, then cos is
Solution (D) 2
Let the required unit vector in the x-y plane be 1 1
(A) |e1 + e2 | (B) |e1 − e2 |
r = xi + yi, ∴ | r | = ( x 2 + y 2 ) = 1 2 2
|e e | |e1 + e2 |
or x2 + y2 = 1 (1) (C) 1 2 (D)
2 2 | e1 | | e2 |
Now the angle between r and vector 3i - 4j is 60º.
( xi + yj ) ⋅ (3i − 4 j ) Solution (A)
cos 60° = ⇒ x + y = 1 (2)
xi + yj 3i − 4 j (e1 + e2)2 = e1 ⋅ e1 + 2e1 ⋅ e2 + e2 ⋅ e2
5 ⇒ | e1 + e2 | = | e |2 + 2 | e1 | | e2 | cosθ + | e2 |2
and 3 x − 4 y = (3) ⇒ | e1 + e2|2 = 1 + 2 · 1 · 1 cosθ + 1
2
There exists no real values of x and y, satisfying equa- (∵ | =
e1 | | e=
2| 1)
tions (1), (2) and (3).
 θ
⇒ | e1 + e2 |2 = 2(1 + cos θ ) = 2  2 cos 2 
32. If ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, then AB ⋅ AF is  2
equal to
θ θ 1
1 1 ⇒ | e1 + e2 |2 = 4 cos 2 ⇒ cos = | e1 + e2 |
(A) BC 2 (B) − BC 2 2 2 2
2 2
1 2 −1 35. The points O, A, B, C, D are such that OA = a, OB = b,
(C) AC (D) AC 2
2 2 OC = 2a + 3b and OD = a - 2b . If |a| = 3|b|, then the
Solution (B) angle between BD and AC is
Let a be the length of each side of the hexagon π
(A) π (B) ⋅

ABCDEF so that AB = AF = BC = a. Also from plane 2

π
geometry, ∠BAF = 120°. (C) ⋅ (D) none of these
3
Solution (B)
BD ⋅ AC = |BD| |AC| cosθ where θ is the angle between
BD and AC.
⇒ (OD - OB) ⋅ (OC - OA)
= |OD - OB| |OC - OA| cosθ
⇒ (a - 2b - b) ⋅ (2a + 3b - a) = |a - 3b | | a + 3b | cosθ
Hence, we have ⇒ a2 - 9b2 = | a - 3b | | a + 3b| cosθ
⇒ 0 = | a - 3b | | a + 3b | cosθ ( | a | = 3| b |, ∴ a2 =
∴
AB ⋅ AF = | AB | | AF | cos 120º
= (AB) (AF) (-1/2) 9b2)
1 π
= −( a 2 /2) = − BC 2 . ⇒ cos θ = 0, ∴ θ =
2 2
21.14 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
36. A, B, C, D are four points on a plane with position ⇒ (2x - 1) (x - 1) > 0 and x < 0
vectors a, b, c, d respectively such that (a - d) ⋅ (b - c) ⇒ (x < 1/2, or x > 1) and x < 0
= (b - d) ⋅ (c - a) = 0. For ∆ABC, D is the Hence, x < 0 is the required solution.
(A) Incentre (B) orthocentre 39. A unit vector in xy plane that makes an angle of 45º
(C) centroid (D) none of these with the vector i + j and an angle of 60º with the vector
Solution (B) 3i - 4j is
Since (a - d) ⋅ (b - c), = 0 ∴ DA ⋅ CB = 0 (A) i (B) (i + j ) / 2
∴ AD ⊥ BC (C) (i − j ) / 2 (D) none of these
Since (b - d) ⋅ (c - a) = 0, ∴ DB ⋅ AC = 0 Solution (D)
∴ BD ⊥ CA
Let the required unit vector in the x-y plane be
Then D is the intersection of the altitudes through A
and B. Therefore, D is the orthocentre of the triangle r = xi + yj , ∴ | r | = ( x 2 + y 2 ) = 1
ABC.
or x2 + y2 = 1 (1)
37. Let a = iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ, b = iˆ − ˆj + kˆ, i = iˆ + ˆj − kˆ. A vector
  
   Since angle between r and vector i + j is 45º and the
coplanar to a and b has a projection along c of mag- angle between r and vector 3i - 4j is 60º.
1 ( xi + yj ) ⋅ (i + j )
nitude , then the vector is: ∴ cos 45° =
3 xi + yj i + j
(A) 2iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ (B) 4iˆ − ˆj + 4 kˆ ( xi + yj ) ⋅ (3i − 4 j )
and cos 60° =
(C) 2iˆ − ˆj + 4 kˆ (D) none of these xi + yj 3i − 4 j
Solution (A, B) ⇒ x+y=1 (2)
3x - 4y = 5/2

Let vector r be coplanar to a and b
  (3)
   No real values of x and y exist satisfying equations (1),
∴ r = a + tb (2), and (3).
⇒ r = (iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ ) + t (iˆ − ˆj + kˆ )


= iˆ(1 + t ) + ˆj ( 2 − t ) + kˆ(1 + t ) Vector Product of two VectorS

1
Then projection of r on c = The vector product or cross product of two vectors a and b
 
3 is defined as
r ⋅c
 
1
⇒  = a×b
|c | 3
|1⋅ (1 + t ) + 1.( 2 − t ) − 1.(1 + t )| 1 B
⇒ = n b
3 3
⇒ | 2 - t | = ±1 ⇒ t = 1 or 3
A
When t = 1, we have r = 2iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ O

a

When t = 3, we have r = 4iˆ − ˆj + 4 kˆ Fig. 21.10



38. The values of x for which the angle between the vec- a × b = | a | | b | sin θ n
tors a = xi - 3j - k and b = 2xi + xj - k is acute and the 1. | a | | b | sin θ is the modulus of a × b, θ being the angle
angle between the vector b and the y-axis lies between between the directions of a and b and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π;
π 2. direction of a × b is that of the unit vector n which is
and π are
⋅

2 perpendicular to both a and b such that a, b and n form a

1 1 right handed system.
(A) 1, (B) 0 < x <
2 2
remember
(C) all x < 0 (D) x < 0 or x > 1
 By right handed system we mean that as the first vector a
Solution (C) is turned towards the second vector b through an angle θ,
a ⋅ b > 0 and b ⋅ j < 0. n will point in the direction in which a right handed screw
⇒ 2x2 - 3x + 1 > 0 and x < 0 would advance if turned in a similar manner.
 Vector Algebra 21.15
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
 If either a or b is O, we have a ⋅ b = O. 2. The area of a triangle with adjacent sides a and b is
| a × b | = | a | | b | sin θ 1

given by | a × b | .
 A unit vector perpendicular to the plane of two given vec- 2
a×b 3. The area of a triangle ABC is
tors a and b is given as n = .
|a × b | 1 1 1
 a × b is perpendicular to the plane of a and b. | AB × AC | or | BC × BA | or | CB × CA |
2 2 2
4. The area of a parallelogram with diagonals a and b is
key results on Vector Product 1
given by | a × b | .
2
1. Vector product is not commutative. For any two vec- 5. The area of a quadrilateral ABCD is given by
tors a and b 1
a×b≠b×a | AC × BD | , where AC and BD are its diagonals.
In fact, a × b = - b × a 2
2. Vector product is associative with respect to a scalar. 6. Vector area of a ∆ABC, when a, b, c are the position vec-
If m and n be any scalars and a, b any vectors, then tors of A, B, C respectively is given by

m(a × b) = (ma) × b = a × (mb) = (a × b)m; 1

∆ ABC = ( a × b + b × c + c × a)
(ma) × (nb) = (na) × (mb) = (mna) × b 2
= a × (mnb) = mn(a × b)
3. Vector product is distributive with respect to addi- moment of a force about a Point
tion. For any three vectors a, b and c
The vector moment or torque M of a force F acting at a
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c point A about the point O is given by
4. If two vectors a and b are parallel, then a × b = 0. In M = r × F = OA × F
particular, a × a = 0.
5. Vector product of mutually orthogonal unit vectors i, where r = OA is the position vector of the point A with
j, k: respect to the point O.

i×i=j×j=k×k=O F

and i × j = k = - j × i, O

j × k = i = - k × j, k × i = j = - i × k.
r
6. Vector product in terms of components. Let A
a = a1i + a2 j + a3k Fig 21.11

and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k, then

NOTE
a × b = (a2b3 - a3b2)i + (a3b1 - a1b3) j
+ (a1b2 - a2b1) k The algebraic sum of the moments of a system of forces
about any point is equal to the moment of their resultant
i j k about the same point.
= a1 a2 a3
trick(S) for Problem SolVing
b1 b2 b3
Lagrange’s Identity
7. Angle between two vectors: If θ is the angle between If a and b are any two vectors, then
| a×b |
two vectors a and b, then sin θ = . |a × b|2 + (a . b)2 = |a|2 |b|2
| a || b|
geometrical interpretation
of cross Product SolVed examPleS
  
40. If a , b , c be three non-coplanar vectors and r be any

1. The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is
given by | a × b | . arbitrary vector, then
21.16 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
     
( a × b ) × ( r × c ) + (b × c ) × ( r × a ) + (c × a ) × ( r × b )
      n1 = AB × AC = - i + 2j - k
n2 = AB × AD = i + j - 2k
is equal to Let θ be the acute angle between the planes, then θ is
 
(A) 0 (B) [a b c ]r the acute angle between their normals n1 and n2
   
(C) 2[a b c ]r (D) 3[a b c ]r −1+ 2 + 2 3 1 π
∴ cos θ = = = = cos
Solution (C) 6⋅ 6 2 2 3
 
We have, ( a × b ) × ( r × c )
 
π
⇒ =
= (( a × b ) ⋅ c ) r − (( a × b ) ⋅ r ) c
        3
   
= [a b c ]r − [a b r ]c 43. Given A = ai + bj + ck, B = di + 3j + 4k and C = 3i +
     
Similarly, (b × c ) × ( r × a ) = [b c a ]r − [b c r ]c
  j - 2k. If the vectors A , B and C form a triangle such
      that A = B + C, then
and, (c × a ) × ( r × b ) = [c a b ]r − [c a r ]b
 
(A) a = -8, b = -4, c = 2, d = -11
  (B) a = -8, b = 4, c = -2, d = -11
   
∴ ( a × b ) × ( r × c ) + (b × c ) × ( r × a ) + (c × a ) × ( r × b )
     
        (C) a = -8, b = 4, c = 2, d = -11
= 3[a b c ]r − ([b c r ]a + [c a r ]b + [a b r ]c ) (D) none of these
   
= 3[a b c ]r − [a b c ]r Solution (C)
 
= 2[a b c ]r Here A, B, C are the vectors which represent the sides
of the triangle ABC where
41. If A = 2i + k, B = i + j + k and C = 4i - 3j + 7k, A = ai + bj + ck
then a vector R which satisfies R × B = C × B and B = di + 3j + 4k
R ⋅ A = O, is C = 3i + j - 2k
(A) - i - 8j + 2k (B) i - 8j + 2k Given that, A = B + C
(C) i + 8j + 2k (D) none of these ∴ ai + bj + ck = (d + 3)i + 4j + 2k
⇒ a = d + 3, b = 4, c = 2.
Solution (A) i j k
Let R = xi + yj + zk B ×C = d 3 4
∴ R ⋅ A = 0 ⇒ 2x + z = 0 (1)
3 1 −2
i j k i j k
R× B = C × B ⇒ x y z = 4 −3 7 = −10i + ( 2d + 12) j + ( d − 9)k
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ Area of the ∆ABC = B ×C
⇒ (y - z)i + (z - x)j + (x - y)k = -10i + 3j + 7k 2
⇒ y - z = -10 (2) 1
z-x=3 (3) = [100 + ( 2d + 12) 2 + ( d − 9) 2 ]
2
and x-y=7
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = -1, z = 2 = 5 6 (Given )
∴ From (2), y = -8.
⇒ (5d 2 + 30 d + 325) = 10 6
Hence R = - i - 8j + 2k
⇒ 5d2 + 30d + 325 = 600 ⇒ 5d2 + 30d - 275 = 0
42. Let A(0, 0, 0), B(1, 1, 1), C(3, 2, 1) and D(3, 1, 2) be ⇒ d2 + 6d - 55 = 0 ⇒ (d + 11) (d - 5) = 0
four points. The angle between the planes through the ⇒ d = 5 or -11
points A, B, C and through the points A, B, D is When d = 5, a = 8, b = 4, c = 2
π π and when d = -11, a = -8, b = 4, c = 2.
(A) ⋅
(B) ⋅

2 6
π π 44. If x + y = a, x × y = b and x ⋅ a = 1, then
(C) (D)
a + a×b ( a 2 − 1)a − a × b
⋅ ⋅

4 3 (A) x = (B) y =
Solution (D) a2 a2
2
Let n1 and n2 be the vectors normal to the planes ABC b + a×b (b − 1)b − a × b
(C) x = (D) y =
and ABD respectively. a2 a2
 Vector Algebra 21.17
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
Solution (A, B)
= 2 [a 2 b 2 sin 2 θ ] = 2 ( a 2 b 2 − a 2 b 2 cos 2 θ )
Given x+y=a
⇒ y=a-x (1) = 2 [16 − ( a ⋅ b) 2 ] (∵ | a | = | b | = 2)
x×y=b (2)
x⋅a=1 (3) 47. If a ⋅ i = 4, then (a ⋅ j) × (2j - 3k) =
From (1) and (2), we get (A) 12 (B) 2
x × (a - x) = b (C) 0 (D) -12
⇒ x×a-x×x=b⇒x×a=b
Solution (D)
⇒ a × (x × a) = a × b ⇒ (a ⋅ a) x - (a ⋅ x) a = a × b
We have, (a · j) × (2j - 3k)
⇒ | a |2 x - 1 ⋅ a = a × b [From (3)]
= a ⋅ ( j × ( 2 j − 3k )) = a ⋅ ( −3( j × k )
( a + a × b) = −3( a ⋅ i ) (∵ j × k = i)
⇒ x=
a2
= -3(4) = -12.
( a 2 − 1)a − a × b
and y = a − x = 48. If a ⋅ b = β and a × b = c, then b is equal to
a2
(A) (βa - a × c)/a2 (B) (βa + a × c)/a2
45. If a × (b × c) + (a ⋅ b) b = (4 - 2β - sin α) b + (β 2 - 1) c (C) (βc - a × c)/a 2
(D) (βc + a × c)/a2
and (c ⋅ c) a = c, while b and c are non-collinear, then
Solution (A)
π π Here a and c = a × b are non-collinear vectors.
(A) α = , β = −1 (B) α = , β = 1
2 2 ∴ Let b = xa + y(a × c) (1)
π π ∴ β = a ⋅ b = a ⋅ [xa + y(a × c)]
(C) α = , β = −1 (D) α = , β = −1 = x | a |2 + ya ⋅ (a × c) = xa2 ⇒ x = β/a2
3 3
And c = a × b = a × [xa + y (a × c)]
Solution (B)
= xa × a + ya × (a × c)
We have, a × (b × c) + (a · b) b = 0 + y (a ⋅ c) a - y(a ⋅ a)c
= (4 - 2β - sinα) b + (b2 - 1)c (1) = y [a ⋅ (a × b)]a - ya2c = -ya2c
and (c ⋅ c) a = c (2) ⇒ y = -1/a2
where b and c are non-collinear vectors and α, β are ∴ from (1), b = (βa - a × c)/a2
scalars
From (2), (c ⋅ c) a ⋅ c = c ⋅ c 49. Let OA = a, OB = 10a + 2b and OC = b where O, A, C
∴ a⋅c=1 (3) are non-collinear. Let p denote the area of the quadri-
From (1), we get lateral OABC and q denote the area of the parallelo-
(a ⋅ c)b - (a ⋅ b)c + (a ⋅ b)b p
gram with OA and OC as adjacent sides. Then is
= (4 - 2β - sinα) b + (β 2 - 1)c equal to q
or [1 + (a ⋅ b)] b - (a ⋅ b) c (A) 4 (B) 6
= (4 - 2β - sinα) b + (β 2 - 1) c 1 a−b
(C) (D) none of these
⇒ 1 + (a · b) = 4 - 2β - sin α (4) 2 | a|
and a ⋅ b = -(b2 - 1) (5) Solution (B)
∴ sin α = 1 + (1 - β)2 ⇒ β = 1, sin α = 1 Given, | a × b | = q
π 1 1
i.e., α = + 2nπ , n ∈ I . and | b × (10 a + 2b)| + | a × (10 a + 2b)| = p
2 2 2
46. If u = a - b, v = a + b and | a | = | b | = 2, then | u × v | ∴ 5|b×a|+|a×b|=p
=
p
(A) 2 [16 − ( a ⋅ b) 2 ] (B) [16 − ( a ⋅ b) 2 ] ⇒ 6 | a × b | = p ⇒ 6q = p ⇒ = 6.
q
(C) 2 [4 − ( a ⋅ b) 2 ] (D) [ 4 − ( a ⋅ b) 2 ] 50. Two planes are perpendicular to one another. One of
them contains a and b and the other contains vector
Solution (A) c and d, then (a × b) ⋅ (c × d) is equal to
u × v = (a - b) × (a + b) = 2a × b (A) 1 (B) 0
∴ | u × v| = 2| a × b | (C) [a b c] d (D) [b c d] a
21.18 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
Solution (B) Scalar triPle Product
a × b is a vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b
and c × d is a vector perpendicular to the plane of c Scalar triple product of three vectros If a, b, c are three
and d. vectors, then their scalar triple product is defined as the dot
Since, these planes are ⊥ to one another product of two vectors a and b × c. It is generally denoted
∴ (a × b) ⋅ (c × d) = 0 by a ⋅ (b × c) or [a b c].

51. If the vectors c, a = xi + yj + zk and b = j are such that

a, c and b form a right handed system then c is Properties of Scalar triple Product
(A) zi - xk (B) 0 (i) If a, b, c are cyclicallly permuted, the value of sca-
(C) yj (D) - zi - xk lar triple product remains the same, i.e., (a × b). c
Solution (A)
= (b × c) ⋅ a = (c × a). b or [a b c] = [b c a] =[c a b]
(ii) The change of cyclic order of vectors in scalar triple
Since a, c, b form a right-handed system, so
product changes the sign of the scalar triple product
c = l(b × a), l > 0
but not the magnitude i.e., [a b c] = -[b a c] = -[c b a]
i.e., c = λ i × ( xi + yj + zk ) = λ ( zi − xk ) = -[a c b]
Taking l = 1, c = zi - xk (iii) In scalar triple product the positions of dot and cross
52. ABCD is a quadrilateral with AB = a, AD = b and AC can be interchanged provided that the cyclic order of
= 2a + 3b. If its area is α times the area of the parallel- the vectors remains same i.e., (a × b) . c = a . (b × c)
ogram with AB, AD as adjacent sides, then α is equal (iv) The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if
to any two of them are equal.
5 (v) For any three vectors a, b, c and scalar l, [l a b c] = l
(A) 5 (B)
2 [a b c]
1 (vi) The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if
(C) 1 (D) any two of them are parallel or collinear.
2
Solution (B)
(vii) If a, b, c, d are four vectors, then [(a + b) c d ] = [a c
d] + [b c d]
Area of quadrilateral ABCD
(viii) The necessary and sufficient condition for three non-
= Area of ∆ABC + Area of ∆ACD
zero non-collinear vectors a, b, c to be coplanar is
1 1 that [a b c] = 0.
= [a × ( 2a + 3b)] + [( 2a + 3b) × b]
2 2 (ix) Four points with position vectors a, b, c and d will be
1 5 coplanar, if [a b c] + [d c a] + [d a b] = [a b c].
= [3a × b + 2a × b] = a × b
2 2 (x) Volume of parallelopiped whose coterminous edges
5 5 are a, b, c is [a b c] or a ⋅ (b × c).
= Area of ||gm ABCD. ∴ α =
2 2
53. Consider a tetrahedron with faces F1, F2, F3, F4. Let Scalar triple Product in terms
V1, V2, V3, V4 be the vectors whose magnitudes are of components
respectively equal to areas of F1, F2, F3, F4 and whose (i) If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3k, b = b1i + b2 j + b3k and c = c1i +
directions are perpendicular to their faces in outward c2 j + c2 j + c3k be three vectros
direction. Then | V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 | equals
(A) 1 (B) 4 a1 b1 c1
(C) 0 (D) none of these
then, [a b c] = a2 b2 c2
Solution (C) a3 b3 c3
We have,
1 1 (ii) If a = a1l + a2m + a3n, b = b1l + b2m + b3n and c = c1l
v1 = ( a × b), v2 = (b × c) + c2m + c3n, then
2 2
1 1
v3 = (c × a) and v4 = [(c − a) × (b − a)] a1 a2 a3
3 2
[a b c] = b1 b2 b3 [l m n]
∴ v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0
∴ | v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 | = 0 c1 c2 c3
 Vector Algebra 21.19
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
(iii) For any three vectors a, b and c
(A) [a + b b + c c + a] = 2[ a b c] SolVed examPleS
(B) [a - b b - c c - a] = 0 54. If i, j, k are the unit vectors and mutually perpendicu-
(C) [a × b b × c c × a] = [ a b c]2 lar, then [i - j j - k k - i] =
Tetrahedron A tetrahendron is a three-dimensional figure (A) 0 (B) 1
formed by four triangles. OABC is a tetrahedron with (C) -1 (D) none of these
DABC as the base. OA, OB, OC, AB, BC and CA are known Solution (A)
as edges of the tetrahedron. OA, BC; OB, CA and OC, AB (i - j) · [(j - k) × (k - i)]
are known as the pairs of oppposite edges. A tetrahedron in = (i - j) ⋅ (j × k - j × i - k × k + k × i)
which all edges are equal, is called a regular tetrahedron. = (i - j) ⋅ (i + k - 0 + j)
Any two edges of regular tetrahedron are perpendicular to =i·i+i⋅k+i⋅j-j⋅i-j⋅k-j⋅j
each other. = i2 + 0 + 0 - 0 - 0 - j2 = i2 - j2 = 1 - 1 = 0.
A (a)
55. If e1 ′, e2 ′, e3 ′ are vectors reciprocal to the non-copla-
nar vectors e1 , e2 , e3 then [e1 ′, e2 ′, e3 ′ ] [e1 e2 e3 ] =
a −1
(A) (B) 1
2
(C) 0 (D) 4
b c
Solution (B)
B (b) C (c)
1
Fig. 21.12
Since [e1′e2′ e3′ ] =
[e1e2 e3 ]
∴ [e′1 e′2 e′3] [e1 e2 e3] = 1
Volume of tetrahedron 1
56. If r = l (a × b) + m (b × c) + v (c × a) and [a b c] = , then
(i) The volume of a tetrahendron l + µ + v is equal to 8
1 (A) r ⋅ (a + b + c) (B) 8r ⋅ (a + b + c)
= (area of the base)(corresponding altitude)
3 (C) 4r ⋅ (a + b + c) (D) none of these
1 Solution (B)
= [ AB BC AD ]
6 1
Clearly r ⋅ c = λ[a b c] = λ
8
(ii) If a, b, c are position vectors of vertices A, B and
C with respect to O, then volume of tetrahedron 1
r ⋅ a = µ [a b c] = µ
1 8
OABC = [a b c]
6 1
r × b = v [a b c] = v
(iii) If a, b, c, d are position vectors of vertices A, B, C, D 8
of a tetrahedron ABCD, then its volume 1
∴ r ⋅ ( a + b + c) = (λ + µ + ν )
1 8
= [b − a c − a d − a ] ∴ l + m + v = 8r ⋅ (a + b + c)
6
Reciprocal system of vectors Let a, b, c be three non-co- Vector triple product
b×c c×a a×b
planar vectors, and let a′ = , b′ = , c′ = . Let a, b, c be any three vectors, then the vectors a × (b × c)
[a b c] [a b c] [a b c]
a′, b′, c′ are said to form a reciprocal system of vectors for and (a × b) × c are called vector triple product of a, b, c.
the vectors a, b, c. Thus, a × (b × c) = (a.c) b - (a.b) c
If a, b, c and a′, b′, c′ form a reciprocal system of
vectors then Properties of Vector triple Product
(i) a, a′ = b b′ = c.c′ = 1
(i) The vector triple product a × (b × c) is a lin-
(ii) a. b′ = a. c′ = 0; b.c′ = b.a′ = 0; c. a′ = c.b′ = 0
ear combination of those two vectors which are
1 within brackets.
(iii) [a′ b′ c′ ] =
[a b c] (ii) The vector r = a × (b × c) is perpendicular to a
(iv) a, b, c are non-coplanar iff so are a′, b′, c′. and lies in the plane of b and c.
21.20 Chapter 21
AIM : FREE EDUCATION TO ALL APUL
(iii) The formula a × (b × c) = (a .c) b - (a.b) c is π π
true only when the vector outside the bracket is (A) (B) ⋅

3 4
on the left most side. If it is not, we first shift on
left by using the properties of cross product and π
(C) ⋅ (D) none of these
then apply the same formula. Thus, (b × c) × a 2
= - {a × (b × c)} = - {(a ⋅ c) b - (a ⋅ b) c} = (a . Solution (C)
b) c - (a ⋅ c) b 1
We have, a × (b × c) = b
(iv) Vector triple product is a vector quantity. 2
(v) a × (b × c) ≠ (a × b) × c ⇒ (a ⋅ c) b - (a ⋅ b) c = 1/2b
⇒ (a ⋅ c - 1/2) b = (a ⋅ b) c
rotation of a Vector about an axis But since b and c are non-parallel, so the only possibil-
Let a = (a1, a2, a3). If system is rotated about ity is a ⋅ c = 1/2 and a ⋅ b = 0 Hence the angle between
(i) x-axis through an angle α, then the new compo- a and b is π/2.
nents of a are (a1, a2 cos α + a3 sin α, - a2 sinα + 58. If a and b are two unit vectors, then the vector (a + b )
a3 cosα). × (a × b) is parallel to the vector
(ii) y-axis through an angle α, then the new compo-
(A) a - b (B) a + b
nents of a are (-a3 sinα + a1 cosα, a2, a3 cosα +
(C) 2a - b (D) 2a + b
a1 sinα).
(iii) z-axis through an angle α, then the new compo- Solution (A)
nents of a are (a1 cosα + a2 sin α , -a1 sin α + a2 We have, (a + b) × (a × b)
cosα, a3). = a × (a × b) + b × (a × b)
= (a ⋅ b) a - (a ⋅ a) b + (b ⋅ b) a - (b ⋅ a) b
SolVed examPleS = (a ⋅ b) (a - b) + a - b (b ⋅ b = b2 = 1, a ⋅ a = a2 = 1
as a, b are unit vectors)
57. Given three unit vectors a, b, c no two of which are col- = (a ⋅ b + 1) (a - b)
1 = x (a - b) where x = a ⋅ b + 1 is a scalar.
linear satisfying a × (b × c) = b. The angle between a
and b is 2 ∴ The given vector is parallel to a - b.

EXERCISES

Single option correct type

1. a and b are mutually perpendicular unit vectors. If r is certain angle about the origin in the counter-clockwise
a vector satisfying r ⋅ a = 0, r ⋅ b = 1 and [r a b] = 1, sense. If w.r.t. the new system, a has components p + 1
then r is and 1, then
1
(A) a × b + b (B) a + (a × b) (A) p = 0 (B) p = 1 or p = −
(C) b + (a × b) (D) a × b + a 3
1
2. a, b, c are three vectors of magnitude, 3 , 1, 2 such (C) p = −1 or p = (D) p = 1 or p = -1
3
that a × (a × c) + 3b = O. If θ is the angle between a
4. If a ⋅ b = β and a × b = c, then β is equal to
and c, then cos2θ is equal to
1 3 (A) (βa - a × c)/a2 (B) (βa + a × c)/a2
(A) (B) (C) (βc - a × c)/a 2
(D) (βc + a × c)/a2
4 4
1 5. Let ABCDEF be a regular hexagon. If AD = x BC and
(C) (D) none of these
2 CF = y AB, then xy =
3. A vector a has components 2p and 1 w.r.t. a rectangu- (A) 4 (B) -4
lar cartesian system. This system is rotated through a (C) 2 (D) -2