AUDITION - is the sense of hearing.

Sound waves from the

environment cause the eardrum to vibrate, and these vibrations OUTER EAR
are translated into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain.
Pinna - The visible part of the outer ear has a special helical
SOUND AS A STIMULUS - The physical properties of shape. It’s made of tough cartilage covered by skin.
sound begin with the movement of an object. The movement
of an object results in the formation of waves, much like the Auditory Canal - It's a tube-shaped structure in the outer ear
ripples created in a pond by a dropped stone. that leads to the tympanic membrane.

AMPLITUDE - The height of a wave; in the audition, the

amplitude is perceived as loudness.

FREQUENCY - The frequency of a sound stimulus is defined

as the number of cycles per unit of time, or the wavelength.
The hertz is the unit used to express the frequency of sound
(Hz). In one second, a 500 Hz sound completes 500 cycles.
Human hearing operates at a frequency range of around 20 Hz
to 20,000 Hz. In the audition, frequency is perceived as pitch.

Infrasound- Sound at frequencies below the range of human

hearing or lower than about 20 Hz.

MIDDLE EAR
Ultrasound- Sound at frequencies above the range of human
hearing, or higher than about 20,000 Hz
Tympanic membrane - the membrane separating the outer and
middle ears, it is also called the eardrum.
TIBRE - Distinct quality of a sound due to combinations of
frequencies.
Oval Window - the membrane is separating the middle and
inner ear.
NOISE - Unsystematic combinations of sound waves.

Ossicles - the bones that span the middle ear

PURE TONE - Sound characterized by a single frequency.

There are 3 ossicles Bridging the middle ear

INTENSITY - Human beings are capable of perceiving
Malleus(Hammer)
sounds with an intensity range of over 10 billion, ranging from
Incus(Anvil)
the softest noises audible to the takeoff of a jet engine. A
Stapes (Stirrup)
logarithmic scale based on decibel (dB) values controls such a
wide variety of intensities. The hearing threshold, or the
lowest level of intensity that a human can hear more than 50%
of the time, is set to 0 dB. This sounds roughly like a mosquito
flying three meters (about ten feet) away from you.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE AUDITORY SYSTEM

THE INNER EAR Spiral Ganglion Neuron - Bipolar neurons found in the inner
ear whose axons form the auditory nerve
Cochlea - the fluid-filled structure of the inner ear containing
the auditory receptors. Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN) - Nucleus of the thalamus
that receives auditory input
it is about 32mm (0.25 inches) long and 2mm (.08 inches) in
diameter THE AUDITORY CORTEX

its shape rolled up like a snail shell and was about the size of a Primary Auditory Cortex (A1) - Cortex located just below the
pea. lateral fissure in the temporal lobe that provides the initial
cortical processing of auditory information
THE COCHLEA IS DIVIDED INTO THREE PARALLEL
CHAMBERS Secondary Auditory Cortex - Areas surrounding A1 in the
temporal lobe that process complex stimuli.
Vestibular Canal - The upper chamber of the cochlea
THE FUNCTION OF THE AUDITORY SYSTEM
Tympanic Canal - The lower chamber of the cochlea
OUTER EAR
These two are connected with each other near the apex
PINNA
Cochlear duct - The middle of the three-chamber of the serves to collect and focus sounds
cochlea locates source of the sound
movements allows some species to further localize sound or
Apex - The part of the cochlea most distant from the oval indicate emotional states
window channeled through the auditory canal

Perilymph - Fluid found in the vestibular and tympanic canals MIDDLE EAR
of the inner ear.
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Endolymph - The fluid found in the cochlear duct
-Ossicles
Reissner’s Membrane - A membrane that separates the
vestibular canal and cochlear duct Malleus (hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Basilar Membrane - A structure in the cochlea that separates Stapes (stirrup)
the tympanic canal and the cochlear duct
transfer sound energy from the outside air to the fluid in the
inner ear without losing too much

the connection between the three is hinged which creates a

lever action that increases the force of the vibration that the
stapes bone delivers to the oval window

when force is applied to a much smaller oval window it

provides much more pressure than the same applied to a larger
tympanic membrane.

CENTRAL AUDITORY PATHWAYS INNER EAR

-Cochlea Reissner’s membrane

3 Chambers: separates the vestibular canal and cochlear duct

Vestibular canal Basilar membrane

connected to the tympanic canal near the apex
Separates the tympanic canal and cochlear duct
contains perilymph
several structural features of the basilar membrane are relevant
Tympanic canal to its response to sound

connected to the vestibular canal near the apex when vibration produces pressure changes within the cochlea,
the basilar membrane responds with a wave-like motion,
contains perilymph similar to the motion of a rope or whip that is snapped

covered with a membrane called round window because both high-frequency sounds will cause a peak vibration of the
are connected, pressure applied to the oval window by the basilar membrane near its base, whereas low-frequency
stapes travels around the apex through the perilymph and sounds will cause a peak vibration closer to its apex
pushes the round window out into the middle ear.

CENTRAL AUDITORY PATHWAYS

Cochlear duct
Spiral Ganglion Neurons
contains a fluid called endolymph these bipolar neurons are the first neurons in the auditory
system to fire an action potential and supply all of the brain’s
Organ of Corti auditory input.

responsible for translating vibrations in the inner ear into Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN)
neural messages part of the thalamus that acts as the principal relay nucleus for
the auditory system between the inferior colliculus and
tectorial (roof) membrane auditory cortex

movement of the basilar membrane is sensed by the hair cells also receives input from the reticular formation of the
in the organ of Corti brainstem

3,500 out of the (approximately) 15,500 hair cells are known

as inner hair cells, which are the actual auditory receptors THE AUDITORY CORTEX

the remaining 12,000 are called outer hair cells, which amplify -Primary Auditory Cortex
the sound lower frequencies produce a response in columns located
rostrally in A1, whereas higher frequencies produce a response
both inner and outer hair cells have hairlike cilia extending in columns located in the more caudal portions of the area
from their tops

there are more outer hair cells but only 5% of the auditory Second Auditory Cortex
nerve (cranial nerve Vlll) fibers connect with it appears to be activated by more complex types of stimuli such
as clicks, general bursts of noise, and sounds with particular
only needs a small amount of movement to produce a response frequency patterns
in the hair cells

movement of the cilia within the endolymph alternately

hyper-polarizes and depolarizes the hair cells away from their
resting potential
AUDITORY PERCEPTION
 an understanding of the structures involved with audition, we
can turn our attention to the perception of pitch, loudness, and A person is considered legally deaf when speech sounds of 82
the localization of sounds. dB or less cannot be heard. Typical speech occurs at about 60
dB.
Auditory perception could be defined as the ability to receive
and interpret information that reached the ears through audible At the age of 30, most people cannot hear frequencies above
frequency waves transmitted through the air or other means. 15,000 Hz.

At the age of 50, most people cannot hear sounds above

PITCH PERCEPTION 12,000 Hz

Can vary due to factors other than frequency, such as the People over 70 have difficulty with sounds over 6,000 Hz.
intensity or context of a stimulus Example: Because speech normally ranges up to 8,000 Hz, many elderly
people begin to have difficulty understanding the speech of
"listeners perceive a bigger increase in pitch when comparing others.
tones of 500 Hz and 1,000 Hz than they do when comparing
tones of 3,000 Hz and 3,500 Hz, although the difference in CONDUCTION LOSS
frequency is the same in both cases."
hearing loss resulting from problems in the outer or middle ear
TONOTOPIC ORGANIZATION can result from a buildup of wax in the ear canal, infections of
the middle ear, and a disease known as otosclerosis
The tonotopic organization is maintained by the Auditory
Cortex - neurons responding to lower frequencies are located Otosclerosis occur when the stapes (stirrup) becomes
in the more caudal portions. immobilized by a buildup of abnormal bone at its base. People
with conduction loss can be helped by use of a hearing aid,
Describes the fact that neurons responding to one frequency which acts by amplifying sound signals
are located next to neurons responding to similar frequencies.
EARBUDS AND HEARING LOSS
Fund throughout the auditory system, from the basilar
membrane up through the primary auditory cortex. Hearing loss also occurs due to damage to the inner ear, the
auditory pathways, or the auditory cortex.
Assessing the frequency of a sound is the location of active
neurons. According to Zelman (1973) Medications, such as quinine
and some antibiotics, damage hair cells in sensitive
individuals. Nicotine produces hearing loss by reducing blood
GEORG VON BEKESY'S PLACE THEORY supply to the ear and based on Lalwani, Liu, & Weitzman
(2011) Secondhand smoke exposure was sufficient to reduce
He explains the tonotopic organization of the basilar hearing in adolescents.
membrane
Damage to the inner ear hair cells is often treated with
According to this theory, the peak of the wave traveling along cochlear prosthetics, or "cochlear implants”
the length of the basilar membrane is correlated with a sound's
frequency The electrode arrays receive radio signals from a small
microphone positioned on the outside of the head behind the
It works well for sounds above 4,000 Hz. Below frequencies ear. In turn, the electrode arrays stimulate auditory nerve
of 4,000 Hz, the response of the basilar membrane does not fibers. While not the equivalent of the hair cells, the cochlear
allow for precise localization. prosthetics have improved the hearing of large numbers of
people
TEMPORAL THEORY

Which patterns of neural firing match the actual frequency of

a sound, provides a better model than place theory for the
processing of sound frequency.
HEARING DISORDERS HEARING LOSS
 perceived as louder. This is due to temporal summation, or the
The risk factor for hearing loss today is the use of headphones addition of neural responses over time.
to listen to music.

The volume of an iPhone or similar device can easily exceed LOCALIZATION SOUND
120 dB, about the same level of sound intensity produced by a
propeller plane at takeoff. This level is only 10 dB below the A comparison of the arrival times of sounds at each ear.
point at which a sound would be considered painful and can Distinctions between arrival times of sound at each ear are
produce a hearing loss in as little as 75 minutes. made by neurons in the superior olive. Binaural neurons
respond most vigorously when input from both ears reaches
Experts recommend that consumers set the volume of their them simultaneously. If input from the two ears arrives at
devices to about 60 percent of the maximum and limit their slightly different times, the cells will respond less vigorously.
use to about an hour per day (the 60/60 rule), but such
recommendations are rarely heeded. The head blocks some sound waves, a sound "shadow" is cast
on the ear farthest away from the source of the sound,
In the study of Dobrucki, Kin, & Kruk (2013) adolescents and producing a quieter signal to that ear. However, this system
young adults between the ages of 16 to 25 years, works only for high-frequency sounds. The pinna of the ear is
approximately 15 percent showed hearing threshold changes at essential for localizing the elevation of sounds in the vertical
high frequencies, indicative of the type of permanent hearing plane (above or below).
damage we usually associate with older adults. These
researchers also investigated the impact of the type of COCHLEAR PROSTHETICS AND DEAF CULTURE
headphones used on changes in hearing. Headphones were
described as closed, semi-open, open, and in-ear. The discovery of Cochlear prosthetics takes place during the
1980s and 1990s era. Unfortunately, people who can and those
OPENNESS who cannot hear do not recommend using these prosthetics.
Critics of the cochlear prosthetic technology view this as an
It refers to the presence of openings in the back of the attempt to "cure" what they consider to be a culture, not a
earphone, and these varieties are designed for their acoustic disability, and have even likened the use of the technology to
qualities rather than safety. Of the four types, use of the in-ear "genocide" (Sparrow, 2005). Several decades of use of
headphones (earbuds) appeared to produce the greatest cochlear prosthetics have provided some perspective on the
changes in hearing thresholds. outcomes of the procedure. Nearly all youth with cochlear
prosthetics reported having hearing friends, and a majority
In general, if the listener cannot hear anything other than the reported having deaf friends as well. It is likely that the best
sound from the device, the sound is far too loud. Symptoms outcomes do not emerge from a one-size-fits-all approach, but
such as ringing or buzzing in the ears, difficulty understanding instead from approaches that are tailored to the individuals in
speech in noisy places, sounds perceived as muffled or coming question.
through a plugged ear, and awareness that television and other
electronic device settings must be consistently higher than in THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
the past could indicate early hearing loss and should be
evaluated by a professional. The vestibular system is a sensory system responsible for
providing our brain with information about motion, head
Using headphones other than earbuds, limiting listening time, position, and spatial orientation;
and using device settings to cap maximum volume can help
preserve hearing. VESTIBULAR LABYRINTH

LOUDNESS PERCEPTION The main components of the vestibular system are found in
the inner ear in a system of compartments called the vestibular
Decibels describe the physical qualities of the sound stimulus, labyrinth, which is continuous with the cochlea.
whereas loudness is the human perception of that stimulus.
According to Stevens(1960), loudness doubles with each 10 The vestibular labyrinth contains the semicircular canals
dB increase in stimulus intensity. Our ability to detect which are three tubes that are each situated in a plane in which
loudness varies with the frequency of a sound. Auditory the head can rotate
neurons can respond to higher sound amplitudes by increasing
their rate of response. Sounds that last longer are usually AMPULLA
 mechanoreceptor, also called mechanoceptor, is a sensory
The endolymph flows into an expansion of the canal called the receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion.
ampulla, within which there are hair cells, the sensory Mechanoreceptors are innervated by sensory neurons that
receptors of the vestibular system. At the top of each hair cell convert mechanical pressure into electrical signals that, in
is a collection of small "hairs" called stereocilia. The animals, are sent to the central nervous system.
movement of the endolymph causes movement of these
stereocilia, which leads to the release of neurotransmitters to Tactile corpuscles or Meissner's corpuscles are a type of
send information about the plane of movement to the brain mechanoreceptor discovered by anatomist Georg Meissner
(1829–1905) and Rudolf Wagner. This corpuscle is a type of
OTOLITH ORGANS nerve ending in the skin that is responsible for sensitivity to
light touch.
The vestibular system uses two other organs, known as the
otolith organs, to detect forward and backward movements A Pacinian corpuscle is an onion-shaped structure of
and gravitational forces. There are two otolith organs in the nonneural (connective) tissue built up around the nerve ending
vestibular labyrinth: the utricle, which detects movement in that reduces the mechanical sensitivity of the nerve terminal
the horizontal plane, and the saccule, which detects movement itself.
in the vertical plane. Within the utricle and saccule, hair cells
detect movement when crystals of calcium carbonate called The Merkel disc, also known as Merkel cell-neurite complex,
otoconia shift in response to it, leading to movement in the is a main type of tactile end organ highly abundant in human
layers below the otoconia and displacement of hair cells. fingertips, whisker hair follicles, touch domes, and other
tactile-sensitive spots throughout mammalian bodies
Axons originating in the otolith organs and semicircular canals
form part of the auditory nerve. (Cranial Nerve VIII). These Ruffini endings are located in the deep layers of the skin, and
axons synapse in the vestibular nuclei of the pons and medulla register mechanical deformation within joints, more
in the cerebellum. The cerebellum also participates in specifically angle change, with a specificity of up to 2.75
maintaining balance and motor coordination. In turn, degrees, as well as continuous pressure states.
information from the cerebellum, the visual system, and the
somatosensory systems. Encapsulated receptors have a special capsule that encloses a
nerve ending.
Axons from the vestibular nuclei make connections both in the
spinal cord and in higher levels of the brain. Input to the spinal
cord motor neurons provides a means to adjust our posture to
keep our balance.

Axons from the vestibular nuclei make connections both in the

spinal cord and in higher levels of the brain. Input to the spinal
cord motor neurons provides a means to adjust our posture to
keep our balance.
Touch pathway runs up dorsal (back) of the spinal column.
TOUCH Some connect with interneurons and motor neurons and
mediate reflexive arcs. 2 main pathways: Lemniscal (red;
Our sense of touch begins with our skin, the largest and newer) more sophisticated aspects of touch. Spinothalamic
heaviest organ of the human body. Our skin provides a (older; blue) pain and temperature
boundary separating what is inside from what is outside. It
prevents dehydration and protects the body from dirt and
bacteria.

Touch receptors are a subtype of sensory neuron that are

located in the skin and possess specialized endings that
respond to mechanical stimulation. As part of the
somatosensory system, touch receptors therefore transmit
information regarding tactile stimuli to the central nervous
system.
SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
VISCERAL PAIN This happens when internal organs, such as
The primary somatosensory cortex, also known as S1, is involuntary muscles in the heart, are injured or inflamed
located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, just caudal
to the central sulcus that separates the parietal and frontal Neuropathic pain is a painful condition that's usually chronic.
lobes. The secondary somatosensory cortex (S2) is located in It is caused by damage or injury to the nerves that transfer
the lateral sulcus. information between the brain and spinal cord from the skin.

Using single-cell recording, the area of the cortex that supplies Nociplastic pain is a type of pain related to increased nervous
the head and neck is in the lower Ventral part of the system sensation rather than tissue or nerve injury despite
postcentral gyrus, and the area that supplies the legs and feet having no clear evidence of actual tissue damage.
extends to the medial surface across the upper part of the
gyrus and the gyrus parietal lobe RECEPTORS FOR PAIN- Free nerve endings that respond to
pain are called nociceptors. Nociceptors respond to a variety
PLASTICITY OF TOUCH The somatosensory area is plastic of stimuli associated with tissue damage. Some nociceptors
and can reposition itself as the amount of input received respond most vigorously to mechanical injury such as the
changes. In these cases, the brain is adapting to a reduction in damage caused by a sharp object. The pressure of the
input from a specific part of the body. Increased stimulation mechanical stimulus on the nociceptor membrane opens
from a body part will also result in changes in the mapping of mechanically gated ion channels, leading to the generation of
the somatosensory cortex action potentials. Other nociceptors respond to extreme
temperatures. Some nociceptors appear to respond to both
SOMATOSENSORY DISORDERS Damage to the primary mechanical stimulation and temperature
somatosensory cortex produces deficits in both sensation and
movement of body parts served by the damaged area.
PAIN PATHWAYS TO THE BRAIN Information from the
WHAT IS PAIN? nociceptors is carried toward
Pain is an unpleasant sensation and emotional experience the CNS by two types of the nerve fiber. The faster,
usually caused by tissue damage. myelinated Ao fibers are responsible for that quick, sharp
"ouch:' The slower, unmyelinated C fibers are responsible for
Pain combines sensation with emotion and cognition. No other dull, aching types of pain sensation. Both types of ascending
sensory modality is as dramatically affected by culture, pain fibers use glutamate as their primary neurotransmitter
emotion, context, and experience as our sense of pain. The
connection between culture and the experience of pain is The Pain pathways to the brain are the information from the
vividly illustrated by the hook-swinging ritual practiced in nociceptors that are carried toward the central nervous system
India (Melzack & Wall, 1983). This ritual, designed to (CNS) by two types of nerve fibers. The faster, myelinated
promote the health of children and crops, involves hanging a A& fibers are responsible for quick, sharp pain sensation; the
male volunteer from steel hooks embedded into the skin and slower, unmyelinated C fibers cause dull, aching pain.
muscles of his back. Instead of suffering excruciating pain, the
volunteers appear to be in a state of exaltation. Both types of ascending pain fibers use glutamate as their
primary neurotransmitter. Pain fibers enter the spinal cord via
The purpose of pain is to assess and identify the factors the dorsal root. Once inside the cord, they synapse in the
affecting the patient's perception of pain. Aside from it, it is substantia gelatinosa.
also protecting, allowing the time to heal the body and to
repair injury damages appropriately. These cells are a group of cells in the outer gray matter of the
dorsal horn. Substance P stimulates changes in the dendrites of
NOCICEPTIVE PAIN This is the most common type of these cells
physical pain which typically results from tissue injury.
Substantia gelatinosa is a group of cells in the outer
RADICULAR PAIN This occurs when the nerve roots are gray matter of the dorsal horn. These cells also receive
irritated. It goes down your arm or leg through a nerve that descending input from the brain.
comes from the spinal cord.
Substance P stimulates changes in the dendrites of the cells in
SOMATIC PAIN This happens when any of the pain receptors the substantia gelatinosa. These structural changes provide for
in your tissues, such as muscles, bone, or skin, are activated adaptations to pain based on personal experience
 OLFACTION
Olfaction
The Gate Theory of Pain According to the gate theory of begins with the detection of molecules suspended in the air. In
pain, incoming pain messages can be influenced by factors addition to having the capacity to be suspended in air,
such as chronic stress (opening the gate wider and producing a olfactory stimuli must be small and water-repellant. We cannot
greater sensation of pain) or rubbing an injured body part sense every type of molecule suspended in the air.
(closing the gate and reducing the sensation of pain).
Olfaction
MANAGING PAIN Although pain certainly has its purpose, The sense of smell.
we are also motivated to help those who face the challenges of
chronic pain. Olfactory epithelium
The nasal cavity area containing olfactory receptors
Gate theory of pain An explanation of the effects of context
on the perception of pain. OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
The olfactory epithelium is a narrow layer of cells within the
Spinothalamic pathway A pathway carrying pain information nasal cavity that contains the neural receptors for olfaction
from the substantia gelatinosa to the
thalamus. Glomeruli Structures
within the olfactory bulb where olfactory receptor axons form
Trigeminal lemniscus A pathway for pain information from synapses with olfactory neurons. olfactory tract A fiber
the head and neck that connects the spinal trigeminal nucleus pathway connecting the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex.
and the thalamus.
Olfactory cortex
Intralaminar nuclei Nuclei within the thalamus that receives Cortex in the frontal and temporal lobes that responds to the
pain information. sense of smell.

Descending Messages Influence Pain Perception Many Medial dorsal nucleus

higher-level structures of the brain form connections with the The area of the thalamus that processes olfactory information.
periaqueductal gray (PAG) of the midbrain, a major locus for
endogenous opioid activity. The PAG in turn forms Gustation
connections with the raphe nuclei in the medulla and neurons The sense of taste.
in the spinal cord that can modulate incoming pain
information. The olfactory bulbs are a major destination for cells produced
in adult neurogenesis. The processing of components making
up complex odors remains separate in each bulb. Recognition
of odors (the perfume of a rose, for example) occurs at even
higher levels of processing in the brain. Olfactory cortex is
located at the base of the frontal lobe extending onto the
medial surface of the temporal lobe. Olfactory information is
widely distributed in the brain and used by systems involved WHAT CAUSES SYNESTHESIA?
with odor identification, motivation, emotion, and memory. People who experience synesthesia are born with it
People with schizophrenia show deficits in olfaction, possibly Genetically inherited
due to general problems with frontal lobe functioning

GUSTATION AND ITS FUNCTION

The sense of TASTE

It protects us from eating poisonous or spoiled food.
Gustation interacts with olfaction.

PRIMARY TASTE SENSATIONS

Sweet
Salty
Bitter
Sour
Umami (savory taste or the taste of protein)

Papilla Bumps
on the tongue that contains taste buds.

Taste buds
Structures that contain taste receptors.

Gustatory receptors
Receptors for taste, are present on the tongue are spread
evenly across the taste buds. Their main function is to provide
a sense of taste

Gustatory pathways
are part of the brain circuits upon which rest the decision to
ingest or reject food. The quality of food stimuli, however,
relies not only on their taste but also on properties such as
odor, texture, and temperature.

The Three Cranial Nerves

The facial nerve

The glossopharyngeal nerve
The vagus nerve

Synaesthesia
comes from the Greek origin: SYN, meaning together, and
AESTHESIS, meaning sensation.

A little more than 4 percent of the human population regularly

experience synaesthesia. It occurs when there is a cross wiring
of the senses in the brain such as ability to see color and shape
in your mind when listing to sound or music.