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Snake and Spider Toxins Methods and Protocols 1st
Edition Avi Priel Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Avi Priel
ISBN(s): 9781493998449, 1493998447
Edition: 1st
File Details: PDF, 5.66 MB
Year: 2019
Language: english
Methods in
Molecular Biology 2068
Snake and
Spider Toxins
Methods and Protocols
METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Series Editor
John M. Walker
School of Life and Medical Sciences
University of Hertfordshire
Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
Edited by
Avi Priel
Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The Hebrew University
of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Editor
Avi Priel
Faculty of Medicine
School of Pharmacy
Institute for Drug Research
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jerusalem, Israel
This Humana imprint is published by the registered company Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature.
The registered company address is: 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, U.S.A.
Preface
In addition to being scientific discipline in toxicology, the research of animal toxins provides
powerful tools for the deciphering of various biological mechanisms; both their toxic effects
and extensive use as experimental tools consequent from their coevolution with their
targets. Specifically, snake and spider toxins serve as excellent sources for our understanding
of the development of peptide toxins, and different labs throughout the world routinely
employ a wide array of these toxins for studying complex biological processes. As such,
various methodologies have been developed for both handling and investigating peptide
toxins and their use as molecular tools. The goal of this book is to share common techniques
and protocols across different biological disciplines for the study and application of snake
and spider peptide toxins.
This book comprises of 16 chapters, including 2 overviews (Part I) describing the use of
toxins in the process of drug development and the analysis of bioactivity of complex
mixtures like venoms. The next 14 chapters provide detailed protocols describing the
extraction of venom glands and the recombinant production of toxins (Part II), the
characterization of toxins from the RNA level to peptide structure determination (Part
III), and the determination of toxins’ biological function (Part IV). These protocols employ
different cellular and animal models and various techniques involving toxins.
Snake and Spider Toxins: Methods and Protocols is the outcome of the joint effort of
36 contributors from 10 countries. I wish to thank each of the authors for their contribution
and willingness to share their valuable knowledge. Finally, I wish to thank Prof. John Walker
for his guidance and help throughout the process of editing this book.
v
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
PART I OVERVIEW
1 Snake- and Spider-Venom-Derived Toxins as Lead Compounds
for Drug Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Philip Lazarovici
2 Analytics for Bioactivity Profiling of Complex Mixtures
with a Focus on Venoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Marija Mladic, Wilfried M. A. Niessen, Govert W. Somsen,
and Jeroen Kool
vii
viii Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Contributors
ALEXEY BINGOR Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
JORDI DURBAN Unidad de Venómica Evolutiva y Traslacional, Instituto de Biomedicina de
València, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas, València, Spain
GERAD A. FOX Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma
Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
SHANA L. GEFFENEY Department of Biology, Utah State University-Uintah Basin, Vernal,
UT, USA
MATAN GERON Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, The Institute for Drug Research,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
AHMED HAFEEZ Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
CHARLES T. HANIFIN Department of Biology, Utah State University-Uintah Basin, Vernal,
UT, USA
ZAFAR HAYAT Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
WILLIAM K. HAYES Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma
Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
JEROEN KOOL AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
PHILIP LAZAROVICI Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
PETER I. LELKES Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Temple University,
Philadelphia, PA, USA
YOSSI MAATUF Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
STEPHEN P. MACKESSY School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado,
Greeley, CO, USA
CEZARY MARCINKIEWICZ Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Temple
University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
FRANCIS S. MARKLAND Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Keck School of
Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Norris Comprehensive
Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
CA, USA
REHANA MASOOD Department of Biochemistry, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University,
Peshawar, Pakistan
MARIJA MLADIC AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
CASSANDRA M. MODAHL School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado,
Greeley, CO, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore,
Singapore, Singapore
DAVID R. NELSEN Department of Biology, Southern Adventist University, Collegedale, TN,
USA
WILFRIED M. A. NIESSEN AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Hyphen MassSpec, Voorhout, The Netherlands
ix
x Contributors
STANO PEKÁR Faculty of Science, Department of Botany and Zoology, Masaryk University,
Brno, Czech Republic
AVI PRIEL Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
PONLAPAT ROJNUCKARIN Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok, Thailand
K. JOHAN ROSENGREN School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
CHRISTINA I. SCHROEDER Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
ONDREJ ŠEDO Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech
Republic
CATALINA SILVA-HIRSCHBERG Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology,
Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA;
Primary Speciality Center San Lazaro, Santiago, Chile, USA; Norris Comprehensive
Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
CA, USA
GOVERT W. SOMSEN AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
STEPHEN D. SWENSON Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Keck School of
Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of
Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, CA, USA
ANWAR ULLAH Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
OLGA VASIEVA Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK;
Ingenet Ltd, London, UK
VALERIA VÁSQUEZ Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee
Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
RAMI YAKA Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
KHIN THAN YEE Biochemistry Research Division, Department of Medical Research, Yangon,
Myanmar
ZBYNĚK ZDRÁHAL Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno,
Czech Republic; Faculty of Science, National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Masaryk
University, Brno, Czech Republic
Part I
Overview
Chapter 1
Abstract
Snake and spider venoms have been developed by nature as a defense mechanism against predators or to
immobilize their prey by blocking the cardiovascular, respiratory, and/or nervous systems. Consequently,
predators are deterred from approaching their prey by painful sensations. At a molecular level, the targeted
physiological systems are blocked or stimulated by peptide toxins which, once injected into the body,
modulate, though not exclusively, important cell membrane ion channels and receptors. Millions of years of
constant evolution have led to the evolvement of complex venom libraries of optimized protein toxins,
making them more potent, more selective, resistant to proteases, less immunogenic, and improved in terms
of pharmacokinetic (PK) properties. The resulting advantage is that they induce long-term and potent
pharmacodynamic (PD) effects toward unique molecular targets of therapeutic importance such as coagu-
lation cascade proteins, receptors, and ionic channels. This optimization process has been enabled by the
diversification of peptide sequences (mainly by gene duplication) and an upscaling of the complexity of
toxin peptide scaffold structures, through implementation of multiple disulfide bridges and sequence-active
motif diversification, leading to a wide diversity of chemical structures. This combination of pharmaceutical
properties has made venom toxins valuable both as pharmacological tools and as leads for drug develop-
ment. These highly tunable molecules can be tailored to achieve desirable biocompatibility and biodegrad-
ability with simultaneously selective and potent therapeutic effects. This brief overview provides basic
definitions, rules, and methodologies and describes successful examples of a few drugs developed from
snake toxins that are currently used in the clinic for therapy of several diseases as well as new molecular
entities in clinical development based on spider-venom-derived peptide toxins.
Key words Snake, Spider, Venom, Toxin, Peptide, Protein, Lead compound, Drug, Therapeutic
applications
1 Introduction
The key motivation behind this overview was the observation that
during the last decades there has been a surge in pharmaceutical
projects exploiting the extraordinary biological potency and target
selectivity of snakes and spider venom toxins to develop novel drugs
and diagnostics for human diseases [1], or as tools to study mam-
malian cell physiology and pharmacology [2, 3]. The pioneering
Avi Priel (ed.), Snake and Spider Toxins: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 2068,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9845-6_1, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020
3
4 Philip Lazarovici
Peptides have the potential to provide drugs with the specificity and
efficacy of large protein molecules combined with the smaller dose
size, simpler routes of delivery, and lower cost of manufacturing
as found with small, non-peptide molecules. They are, therefore,
uniquely suited for the treatment of many chronic diseases which
impact large patient populations. Peptides are a unique group of
molecules. The 20 natural amino acids, along with many more
non-natural amino acids and a series of posttranslational modifica-
tions, such as sugar and lipid incorporation, enable them to gener-
ate incredibly diverse molecules which the body sees as natural. This
means that our immune system is generally tolerant of them and
can pass them safely through the body without accumulation. They
have the exquisite selectivity of other biologics such as antibodies
but, are much smaller—making them both easier to manufacture
and able to reach places that antibodies can’t. In addition, they
break down to amino acids which are easily eliminated from the
human body.
Therapeutic peptides have taken a long time to come of age.
Many of the early peptide-based therapeutics were obtained from
animal tissue. The first chemical synthesis of a therapeutic peptide
was that of oxytocin hormone in 1953. Recombinant synthesis of
proteins was introduced in 1974, and recombinant human insulin,
6 Philip Lazarovici
5.2 Which At present, about 39,000 species of spiders exist worldwide. With the
Therapeutic exception of several hundred species, all of these are poisonous using
Applications Are their venom’ toxins for prey catching. Some spiders beeing small
Known for Spider- produce small amounts of venom. However, they contain very
Venom-Derived Toxin potent toxins to quickly paralyze their prey therefore, explaining
Peptides? the minute amount of venom produced. Once the pray is paral-
yzed, the spiders ingest the liquefied tissues due to hydrolytic activity
14 Philip Lazarovici
Table 2
Selected new molecular peptide entities in preclinical research for analgesia (iv injection), developed
from spider-venom-derived peptide toxins
properties. CaV2.1, CaV2.2, and CaV3 are the best validated tar-
gets for the development of analgesic drugs [35]. This was sup-
ported by the pharmaceutical development of the nonnarcotic pain
reliever Ziconotide (Prialt), an ICK peptide (derived from the
venom of the cone snail Conus magus) selectively targeting
CaV2.2 which is an FDA-approved analgesic drug available in the
clinic. Many spider-venom-derived toxins target and inhibit CaV
channels, but very few of these peptides display selectivity for a
particular CaV channel subtype. For example, PnTx3-6, a neuro-
toxin purified from the venom of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer
is a nonselective blocker of CaV1, CaV2.1, CaV2.2, and CaV2.3 by
physically occluding the channels that was shown to be analgesic in
mice models of neuropathic pain [36, 37]. This lack of complete
selectivity does not necessarily exclude this peptide toxin from the
drug development process, since different chemical modifications
may eventually lead to a more selective lead compound. Table 2
presents a few selected examples of spider-venom-derived NMEs,
developed by pharma companies or reported in academic research,
targeting CaVs, to envision their potential for pain therapeutic
applications. Pfizer Co. was among the first to use, as lead
compounds, spider-venom-derived ω-agatoxin- IVA and IVB,
48-amino acid peptides isolated from the venom of the American
funnel-web spider Agelenopsis aperta that target CaV2.1 channels
with nanomolar high affinity. These peptides are the most selective
CaV2.1 blockers described to date, which upon binding to the
channel shift the activation voltage of the channel to nonphysiolo-
gical positive potentials and confer relief from different types of
pain. Other spider-venom-derived toxin peptides that display selec-
tivity for other calcium channel subtypes, the CaV2.2 channels, are
HWTX-X, a 28-amino acid peptide with three disulfide bridges
ICK toxin peptide, purified from the venom of the spider Ornithoc-
tonus huwena and SNX-325, a 49-amino acid peptide with four
disulfide bonds from the venom of the spider Segestria florentina.
However, the characterization of the analgesic effect of these toxins
has not yet been reported. Other spider-venom-derived toxin pep-
tides target with relative selectivity neuronal CaV1.1-1.4. Typical
examples are represented by CSTX-1, a 74-amino acid peptide with
four disulfide bridge toxin isolated from the venom of the hunting
spider Cupiennius salei and ω-TRTX-Cc1a, a 39-amino acid pep-
tide with three disulfide bridges from the venom of the tarantula
Citharischius crawshayi (now Pelinobius muticus). Table 2 indicates
that the spider-venom-derived peptide toxin NMEs in preclinical
research for analgesia, using the intravenous delivery route, are ICK
peptides in the range of 30–74 amino acids folded by three or four
cysteine bridges. Drug development of these peptides may result
with smaller size lead compounds. Definitely, further screening of
spider venoms might provide a source of NMEs for drug develop-
ment to cope with the unmet clinical need for selective inhibitors of
18 Philip Lazarovici
Fig. 1 A flowchart of the screening, identification, lead discovery, and in vitro and
in vivo preclinical development of drug candidates of new molecular entities,
based on snake- and spider-derived protein/peptide toxins. Bioassay-guided
Venom Derived Toxins in Drug Development 19
simple and highly suitable for calculating the affinity for the molec-
ular target. Molecules with high affinity move on to further molec-
ular and cellular assays that determine the functional effects on the
target molecule in order to distinguish agonistic from antagonistic
receptor effects or openers or closers of ionic channels. Binding and
functional assays define the in vitro segment of this selection pro-
cess. Refined lead candidate molecules with sufficient binding affin-
ity, selectivity, and functional efficacy and a good therapeutic
window (Fig. 1, steps 9, 10), estimated by cell death in vitro assays
(see Chap. 11), are taken forward into in vivo safety and pharmaco-
kinetic evaluation and selection processes (Fig. 1, step 11). Based
on the data achieved, the optimal molecules from the ADME and
toxicological evaluations are selected as drug candidates (Fig. 1,
step 12) and in general licensed by academic laboratories or further
developed by pharma companies toward clinical trials (Fig. 1, step
13). From the ADME point of view, we would like to stress that in
the spider-venom-derived peptide toxins, the structure is stabilized
by an ICK motif. When rapid hydrolysis proves to be disadvanta-
geous for a spider-venom peptide of therapeutic interest, strategies
such as D-amino acid substitution of susceptible residues, cycliza-
tion to reduce conformational flexibility, protection of the termini
via C-terminal amidation, or use of N-terminal alkylation could be
employed to improve metabolic stability (proteolytic resistance).
Because of their inherent proteolytic resistance, the plasma half-life
of ICK peptides is likely to be determined by the rate at which they
are metabolized and eliminated. There are different strategies that
can be employed to reduce their degradation and clearance rates,
such as increasing the peptide mass by PEGylation, conjugation to
carrier proteins, or making peptides more hydrophobic in order to
enhance their nonspecific binding to serum albumin. As empha-
sized in Tables 1 and 2, for cardiovascular diseases and chronic
conditions such as persistent pain, injection of snake- and spider-
venom-derived proteins or peptide drugs is likely to be an accept-
able route of administration. In certain pathologies, alternative
local routes of administration such as intranasal, dermal, pulmo-
nary, and/or intrathecal may be a viable option if the difficulties
associated with peptide delivery are outweighed by the benefits of
treatment. Generally, however, oral delivery is likely to be desirable
but not yet considered for snake- and spider-venom-derived pro-
tein/peptide drugs. A major barrier to successful oral delivery of
peptide and protein molecules is their inherent instability in the
lumen of the gastrointestinal tract. In human gastric fluid, the
larger peptide drugs including somatostatin, calcitonin, secretin,
glucagon, and insulin are metabolized rapidly, while the smaller
peptides like oxytocin, vasopressin, and desmopressin, containing
disulfide bridges between their cysteine amino acids, partially
cyclize their structure and result in high resistance to pepsin cleav-
age and show good stability in gastric fluids. In human small
intestinal fluid, however, both small and large peptides degraded
22 Philip Lazarovici
rapidly with the exception of the cyclic peptide cyclosporine and the
disulfide bridge-containing peptides octreotide and desmopressin,
which showed good stability [38]. We would like to propose that
the intrinsic stability of ICK peptides is likely to facilitate the
development of oral delivery strategies since they will presumably
have much higher stability in the gastrointestinal tract and as a
result increased bioavailability upon oral delivery. In case of unsat-
isfactory results, the snake- and spider-derived drug candidates may
be improved by substituting the disulfide bond cyclization to back-
bone cyclization to increase stability and methylation to increase
intestinal permeability. The approach of backbone cyclization is a
general method well accepted in medicinal chemistry, by which
conformational constraint is imposed on peptides. In backbone
cyclization, a peptidomimetic is formed by covalently interconnect-
ing atoms in the backbone (N and/or C) of a target linear peptide
to form a ring. The advantage of backbone cyclization over other
modes of peptide cyclization is that cyclization is achieved mainly
using backbone atoms and not side chains that are essential for
biological activity. This method has been shown to dramatically
enhance the metabolic stability of substance P in serum without
affecting its selectivity for neurokinin receptor [39] and similarly for
somatostatin analogs [40]. Recent structural studies on libraries of
cyclic hexapeptides led to the identification of common backbone
conformations that are very important to the oral availability of
peptides [41]. With this background we predict that the presence of
N-methylated cis-peptide bonds at certain locations of snake- and
spider-derived-peptide drug candidates may increase their meta-
bolic stability and intestinal permeability through a suitable confor-
mational preorganization [42].
The high degree of method innovation in the field of snake and
spider toxins will generate a new wave of drug research and devel-
opment. Interdisciplinary research using new technologies, as
described in this book, will be essential for the future success of
using snake and spider toxins as novel NMEs that can make signifi-
cant contributions to the cure of human diseases. Through the
combination of venomics (a combination of MS and molecular
biology methodology), transcriptomics, proteomics, recombinant
proteins molecular pharming, and combinatorial peptide synthesis,
the contribution of snake and spider toxins to the future drug
development seems to be very promising.
Acknowledgments
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1, a toxin from the venom of the hunting spider 2014.02.008
Chapter 2
Abstract
This chapter introduces bioactivity and bioaffinity terms in relation to mixture profiling and gives the
significance of bioactivity and/or bioaffinity profiling of biologically active mixtures in general, and for
bioactive mixtures in drug discovery research in particular. Further, the chapter gives an overview of the
common and less common analytical approaches for bioactivity profiling of bioactive mixtures. Special focus
is put on bioassay-guided fractionation as the standard technique employed (in identification and purifica-
tion of bioactive molecules from a bioactive mixture), and on state-of-the-art post-column bioactivity
profiling approaches, also providing examples and limitations of these analytical methods. On-column and
pre-column bioactivity profiling analytics is also discussed. Examples of bioactive molecules identified and
purified from different natural products are given with emphasis on molecules isolated from animal venoms.
Finally, this chapter briefly discusses the importance of bioactivity profiling of metabolic mixtures in drug
discovery.
Key words Analytical approaches, Bioactivity profiling, Natural products, Venoms, Drug discovery,
Metabolic mixtures
Avi Priel (ed.), Snake and Spider Toxins: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 2068,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9845-6_2, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020
27
28 Marija Mladic et al.
1.1 Bioassay-Guided Over the years, different strategies have been developed for bioac-
Fractionation tivity analysis of complex mixtures, such as venoms, and identifica-
tion of the bioactive components (e.g., venom-derived toxins). The
first and still most frequently used approach is (bio)assay-guided
fractionation (BGF), which was initially introduced for profiling
natural extracts of plants. Similar approaches (often under different
names) were developed and used in other fields where bioactivity
profiling of complex mixtures is of interest [2]. A well-known
example in this regard is effect-directed analysis (EDA) used for
bioactivity assessment and identification of toxic pollutants present
in environmental samples. As the main focus of this book is toward
analytical strategies for toxin identification, bioactivity profiling of
environmental extracts will not be discussed further. Strategies
used in this particular research field were recently reviewed by
Jonker et al. [3].
The BGF approach has been successfully used for identification
of many lead compounds from natural products, such as animal
venoms and extracts from plants. The traditional BGF is a multistep
approach which most often consists of four steps after optional
sample preparation: (1) initial separation of the mixture of interest
followed by low-resolution fractionation (microfractionation);
(2) bioassaying of collected fractions and identification of the bio-
active fraction(s); (3) an additional (preferably orthogonal) separa-
tion step, followed by fractionation and bioactivity assessment
performed on the bioactive fraction to isolate the pure compound
for chemical analysis; and (4) (chemical analysis and) structure
elucidation of the bioactive compound. In many cases, after two
rounds of fractionation, the fractions are still too complex for
bioactive compound identification and further rounds of fractiona-
tions are needed. The sample preparation that precedes BGF can be
simple dilution of a lyophilized sample with optional centrifuga-
tion, as is often done in case of animal venoms. In case of plant
material, the sample preparation step usually includes grinding and
sawing of starting material followed by subsequent extraction of the
bioactive sample using different organic solvents. The choice of the
initial separation highly depends on the nature of the sample ana-
lyzed, but most often it is performed using liquid chromatography
(LC) based on reversed-phase (RPLC), size-exclusion (SEC), or
ion-exchange (IEX) separation mechanisms. SEC and IEX are
especially useful for the initial separation of mixtures mainly con-
taining peptides and proteins such as animal venoms [4, 5]. Other
30 Marija Mladic et al.
1.2 Pre-column and Even though highly successful and still widely used, the BGF
On-Column approach is very laborious and time consuming. Therefore, many
Approaches for academic groups have put significant effort in the development of
Bioaffinity Profiling of alternative approaches for analysis of bioactive mixtures [19]. Part
Mixtures of these efforts were due to advances in separation sciences, in
hyphenation of separation technologies to MS, and especially in
hyphenation of bioassays to separation techniques and MS detec-
tion [20]. Approaches based on protein-ligand affinity separation
will be briefly discussed here first (see Jonker et al. [19] for an
elaborate discussion).
Different techniques based on ultrafiltration, size-exclusion
separation, and centrifugation can be used to analyze affinity of
compounds binding to a solubilized target. Continuous ultrafiltra-
tion [21, 22] is a technique for bioaffinity screening of mixtures by
injecting the target protein into an ultrafiltration chamber, featur-
ing a molecular weight cutoff membrane, after which a bioactive
mixture can be pumped through the chamber. After washing, a
disruption step or sufficient elution time for the bound ligands to
dissociate from the target protein allows processing of the eluted
ligands toward MS for identification. This technique has been
applied in a HTS format for screening of a compound library for
affinity toward a Streptococcal enzyme [23]. Furthermore, online
coupling of ultrafiltration with LC–MS was developed to screen
natural extracts and other mixtures for bioaffinity toward the rele-
vant targets [24–26]. Pulsed ultrafiltration is a further development
and improvement of this approach [27]. In pulsed ultrafiltration,
continuous infusion is replaced by injection of a small amount of
sample into the ultrafiltration unit. Molecules that do not bind to
the target protein are flushed away through the molecular weight
cutoff membrane using a continuous buffer flow. Again, sufficient
elution time or use of a dissociation buffer allows migration of the
ligands toward the MS for their subsequent identification. Pulsed
ultrafiltration has been applied in a metabolic stability study [28]
and in the screening for inhibitors of the retinoid X receptor
[29]. In the field of natural extract screening, the use of pulsed
ultrafiltration has been described for affinity selection of cyclooxy-
genase inhibitors from medicinal plants [30].
SEC coupled to MS can be applied as an affinity selection
method to screen binding of multiple ligands to a receptor
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municipale ou ceux que me fournissait un cabinet de lecture assez
bien au courant des nouveautés.
C’est alors que Balzac me fut révélé. Je le lus tout entier, d’un
seul trait et, quand j’eus fini, je le relus encore et encore. Balzac, ce
géant dont l’œuvre domine le XIXe siècle, me fit comprendre la
société contemporaine en ses origines, sa structure, ses vices et ses
avortements. Comme il insuffla une vie intense à tous les
personnages de la Comédie humaine, ceux-ci m’apparaissaient aussi
réels que si je les avais coudoyés dans la rue ou fréquentés à
domicile. Littéralement, Rastignac, Rubempré, Pons, Nucingen,
Philippe Bridau, Hulot, Esther, Eugénie Grandet, Madame de
Mortsauf, Jenny Cadine et tous les autres, respiraient, agissaient
autour de moi. L’empire du génie balzacien sur mon imagination fut
extraordinaire.
J’étais trop jeune, j’ignorais trop complètement la religion, la
politique, la sociologie pour saisir toute la portée de ces romans — si
l’on peut appeler « romans » de pareilles anatomies du Vrai. C’est
seulement des années plus tard que j’ai perçu la sagesse incluse
dans des livres comme le Médecin de campagne et le Curé du village
et que j’ai admis les principes qui coordonnent toutes les parties du
monument élevé par Balzac à l’Église et à la Monarchie.
Mais, dès cette époque, tout ce qu’il grava de son burin
irrésistible aux profondeurs de mon être contribua, sans doute, à
former quelques-uns des éléments de ma réaction future contre la
folie révolutionnaire.
Immédiatement, je reçus de lui des enseignements précieux pour
ma formation littéraire.
Sous son influence j’écrivis un conte, bien entendu plein de
gaucherie et de réminiscences ingénues, dont je n’ai gardé qu’un
souvenir très vague, l’ayant détruit presqu’aussitôt, tant il me parut
au-dessous de mon modèle. Tout ce que je me rappelle, c’est que j’y
racontais, à travers force descriptions prolixes, les avatars d’un
disciple de Pythagore voué à la métempsycose. Voilà le thème ;
quant aux développements, je les ai oubliés.
Peu à peu, le démon de la littérature me posséda de nouveau et
d’une façon si entière que je fus obligé d’abandonner les projets que
j’avais conçus pour mon avenir. Naguère, encouragé par mes
supérieurs, je méditais d’entrer à l’École de Saumur, puis, une fois
officier, de poursuivre ma carrière dans l’armée d’Afrique.
L’idée n’était pas déraisonnable. Mais, de par Balzac, de par
quelques autres livres aussi — les poèmes et les proses de
Baudelaire, les romans de Barbey d’Aurevilly — elle fut emportée,
balayée comme au souffle d’une rafale brûlante. La fièvre littéraire
se ralluma dans mes veines. Mille sujets de livres me tourbillonnaient
dans la cervelle. Selon cette infatuation juvénile qui gonfle les
débutants, je me voyais entassant volume sur volume, à l’exemple
du Maître, acclamé par une multitude de lecteurs, couronné d’un
laurier d’or par la Gloire !…
Ah ! comme la vie et les dures expériences qu’elle implique se
chargent d’émonder ces rêves exubérants. « La gloire est le soleil
des morts », a dit magnifiquement Balzac lui-même. Mais je n’étais
pas encore apte à retenir cette maxime si profonde en sa concision.
Le sens philosophique du livre amer d’où je l’extrais et qui s’intitule
la Recherche de l’Absolu m’échappait. Et mon esprit devait bien des
fois se fracasser les ailes avant d’en réaliser la vérité…
Toutefois, durant mes six derniers mois au régiment, je ne
négligeai pas trop mon service. Mais le feu sacré n’y était plus. Il
flambait ailleurs — à Paris, où je me voyais déjà installé, en train de
polir les livres dont je ne cessais plus de rêver.
Cette hantise, je l’emportais dans mes promenades solitaires, à la
Roche-d’Érigné, sur le chemin du Lion d’Angers, aux ardoisières de
Trélazé, comme sur cette rive de la Maine où de sveltes peupliers
frémissants reflètent leur feuillage délicat dans les moires et les
remous de l’eau qui fuit sans trêve.
Plus de galops bien rassemblés, plus de trots rythmiques. J’allais
au pas, les rênes flottantes, laissant mon cheval faire ce qu’il voulait.
Je vivais dans le monde féerique des images et des formes, et je les
entendais bourdonner en moi comme une grappe d’abeilles
impatientes d’essaimer.
Ainsi absorbé, j’atteignis le jour de ma libération. Ce fut le 1er
septembre 1886…
En quittant le quartier, je n’éprouvai pas du tout cette sensation
de délivrance qui m’avait rendu si joyeux lors de mon départ du
collège. Au contraire, prenant congé de mes chefs qui me
témoignèrent leurs regrets que je n’eusse pas rengagé, je me
sentais le cœur passablement serré. C’est que l’armée m’avait
inculqué le goût d’une vie régulière, pleine d’occupations bien
déterminées. Là, sous une discipline bienfaisante, j’avais appris à
réfréner ma nature impétueuse. Enfin j’avais trouvé une sorte de
famille remplaçant celle qui m’avait fait défaut. Bref, je tiens à le
souligner, au régiment, j’avais été heureux parce que j’avais appris à
obéir.
Maintenant qu’il me fallait affronter, seul, sans foyer, sans
fortune, sans relations ni indices d’une réussite, les hasards de la
carrière des lettres, je me reprochais presque d’avoir pris ce parti.
Mais la vocation me sollicitait d’une façon trop impérieuse pour que
je revinsse sur ma décision. Si je l’avais fait, je crois qu’au bout de
très peu de temps j’en aurais été au désespoir.
Les écrivains, qu’un appel irrésistible força de suivre la Muse,
malgré tous les obstacles, me comprendront.
Du moins, j’emportais avec moi la notion que, comme l’a si bien
démontré Alfred de Vigny, la servitude militaire a sa grandeur.
Gardienne de la civilisation française, l’armée suscita en moi le
sentiment de la solidarité nationale et y enracina l’idée de patrie. Par
la suite, sous l’action de circonstances déplorables, l’illusion
humanitaire m’égara pendant quelques années. Mais, par la grâce
de Dieu, je retournai assez vite au bon sens. C’est pourquoi, en ces
jours de réflexion mûrie par l’épreuve, où je récapitule les
vicissitudes de ma jeunesse, je me félicite, j’aime à le redire, d’avoir
été — un bon soldat.
CHAPITRE VI
LE SYMBOLISME
et ce distique :
Voilà qui est fort bien dit. Toutefois, il faut émettre la restriction
que nous, symbolistes d’origine française, nous nous cantonnions sur
notre chère Rive Gauche et que nous ne nous laissions pas
contaminer jusqu’aux moelles par les miasmes d’outre-Rhin et du
Ghetto. Pour ma part, je n’ai jamais mis les pieds dans les salons
Natanson, et c’est tout au plus si j’ai donné deux fois de la copie à
leur revue.
Mais il est vrai que nous faisions beaucoup trop facilement un
sort aux produits de l’étranger. Plusieurs métèques abusaient de
notre courtoisie pour prendre des airs arrogants vis-à-vis de nous.
L’un d’entre eux, venu du Wisconsin ou du Connecticut, en trois
bateaux, pour réformer la prosodie française, se distingua par son
outrecuidance. Ce n’est pas la peine de le nommer ; ses
élucubrations, sans rythme, ni rimes ni raison, n’ont jamais réuni
qu’une douzaine de prosélytes obscurs. Et nul ne se souvient de son
passage dans nos revues.
Un autre défaut des symbolistes, c’était un individualisme si
accusé, si ombrageux qu’il en résultait que chacun suivait sa voie
sans adhérer à une doctrine commune. Nous savions ce que nous ne
voulions pas ; nous ne savions pas trop ce que nous voulions.
Au point de vue de la technique, tous s’appliquaient à libérer le
vers des chaînes excessives dont les Parnassiens l’avaient surchargé.
Mais où l’on n’était plus d’accord, c’était sur les limites entre
lesquelles il était sage de se tenir. Les uns conservaient l’alexandrin,
d’autres le rejetaient. On émettait force théories ; on se gardait,
comme d’un crime, de poser des lois. C’était le règne de l’inspiration
déréglée.
Au point de vue de l’art, en général, on entendait substituer aux
inventaires de sensations basses où se confinait le naturalisme une
littérature plus subtile, moins terre-à-terre que celle dont nous
critiquions les tendances. On visait à remplacer le roman par la
légende. De belles réalisations furent obtenues mais, comme chacun
se forgeait à soi-même des convictions toutes personnelles, l’apport
collectif restait indéterminé. C’était une sorte de symphonie où les
dissonances tenaient plus de place que l’unisson. En somme, le
symbolisme fut un groupement anarchiste toujours sur le point de se
dissoudre. Cela se comprend, puisque on n’y trouvait point d’entente
sur un programme accepté de tous.
C’est contre ce manque de cohésion que tenta de réagir Jean
Moréas, quand il fonda l’école romane avec Charles Maurras, du
Plessys, La Tailhède et Raynaud. Si, dans ses premières œuvres, il fit
la part trop grande à l’archaïsme, il donna bientôt des poèmes où le
soin de se conformer à la tradition classique ne contrariait en rien
l’essor de sa personnalité. Ce furent les Stances où, sous une forme
très pure, il exprimait ce que la sagesse païenne contient de plus
élevé. Moréas fut un stoïcien attardé. Mais comme, de propos
délibéré, il ignora le christianisme, c’est-à-dire le principe unique qui
permette de vivifier les âmes, comme, en outre, il s’isolait dans un
rêve de beauté antique, hors du temps où il vécut, sa tentative
échoua. Ainsi que ses émules, il bâtit une chapelle littéraire, loin de
la foule, et rien de plus.
D’ailleurs, tout en l’admirant, les symbolistes se montraient bien
trop hostiles à toute idée de soumission à un chef d’école pour le
reconnaître comme tel. Leur proposer une discipline était donc
chimérique.
Le symbolisme individualiste eut probablement son expression la
plus complète en Remy de Gourmont, esprit très fin, érudit très
informé, intelligence aux multiples ressources, féconde en aperçus
ingénieux, beau styliste. Mais un vice gâtait ces grandes qualités. Par
instinct de destruction, il s’attachait tellement à dissocier les idées
qu’il aboutissait par excès d’esprit critique au scepticisme total et à
des négations hâtives. Parce qu’elle affirme, l’Église lui était en
haine. Lorsqu’il la rencontrait, sa distinction native, son souci
d’élégance dans la diction l’abandonnaient. Il rivalisait en propos
indécents avec le pire Voltaire. Plus encore, il tombait dans
l’anticléricalisme balourd d’un Homais.
Celui-là non plus ne fut pas le Maître que beaucoup attendaient.
Il ne méritait pas davantage de le devenir ce Mallarmé à qui un
grand nombre de symbolistes vouaient une admiration désordonnée.
Platonicien trouble, dont le mépris pour le Réel passait toutes les
bornes, Mallarmé se confinait si étroitement dans la contemplation
des fantaisies de son Subconscient que ses sectateurs les plus
intransigeants devaient avouer leur impuissance à comprendre les
écrits de sa seconde manière, tant qu’il ne les leur avait pas
commentés.
Mais cette glose, elle-même, manquait souvent de clarté, de
sorte que les mallarmistes en donnaient chacun une interprétation
différente. Et pourtant — détail qui révèle un état d’esprit vraiment
singulier — plus leur idole se rendait hermétique, plus ils la
déclaraient sublime.
Il me semble utile de reproduire le fragment suivant d’un article
que je publiai jadis dans la Revue de Jean Finot ; il prouve que,
touchant le cas Mallarmé, je me séparais nettement du symbolisme,
objet de mes prédilections partout ailleurs. — Voici :
« Mallarmé devint célèbre pour n’avoir pas écrit l’œuvre annoncée
pendant dix ans comme devant résumer, sous une forme définitive,
l’âme humaine et l’âme universelle. Il employa son existence à
rééditer une traduction partielle d’Edgar Poe, dix sonnets, six
poèmes en vers un peu plus étendus, quinze poèmes en prose, une
scène de tragédie, quelques fragments théoriques. De son propre
aveu, et quoique deux ou trois de ces morceaux — les plus clairs ou
les moins obscurs — ne manquassent pas de valeur, ce n’étaient que
des essais, les pierres d’attente d’un édifice toujours futur dont il
expliquait, à l’occasion, le plan et la portée, mais qu’il ne voulut ou
plutôt qu’il ne put bâtir.
« La raison de cette impuissance réside en ceci que Mallarmé se
déclarait incompétent en autre chose que l’absolu. Or, on ne réalise
pas l’absolu. On peut y rêver, mais le faire tomber sous nos sens,
c’est là chose impossible. S’y entêter, c’est se vouer à la stérilité…
« Mallarmé essaya d’ailleurs de distribuer quelques tranches
d’Absolu aux initiés préparés, croyait-il, par ses entretiens, à
s’assimiler cette vague nourriture. Dans cette intention, il soumit la
langue française à une série de déformations qui n’en laissèrent
subsister que des membres épars. Puis, partant de ce principe
bizarre que : « Nommer un objet, c’est supprimer les trois quarts de
la jouissance du poème qui est faite du bonheur de deviner peu à
peu », il s’interdit de traiter autrement que par allusion les vers et les
proses qu’il offrait à la sagacité de ses lecteurs. Frapper directement
leur esprit lui semblait puéril. Il prétendait ne leur suggérer que de la
façon la plus détournée ses intentions. Ce qui ramène sa doctrine à
ceci : quand on veut faire entendre quelque chose à quelqu’un, le fin
du fin consiste à s’exprimer par énigmes. Voilà, du coup, la charade
réhabilitée et même exaltée comme un genre littéraire de premier
ordre.
« Et les mots, ces pauvres mots que tant de poètes, embourbés
dans le Relatif pour n’avoir pas connu la région où vivre, avaient cru
propres à rendre leurs sensations, leurs sentiments et leurs idées,
Mallarmé les accuse de ne pas représenter suffisamment ses
concepts. D’une part, il les méprise si fort qu’il préfère à tout texte
« même sublime » des pages blanches portant « un dessin espacé de
virgules et de points ». Mais, d’autre part, il leur confère une fonction
nouvelle à quoi personne n’avait pensé jusqu’à lui : « Il faut, dit-il,
que, de plusieurs vocables, on refasse un mot total, neuf, étranger à
la langue et comme incantatoire… qui nous cause cette surprise de
n’avoir jamais ouï tel fragment ordinaire d’élocution, en même temps
que la réminiscence de l’objet nommé baigne dans une neuve
atmosphère… »
« Mallarmé eut donc pour objectif de créer un langage spécial,
n’ayant guère de rapport avec le français et destiné à formuler des
pensées tellement inaccessibles qu’il fallait se transporter, par
l’imagination, dans un monde différent du nôtre, si l’on voulait
parvenir à en soupçonner la signification à jamais symbolique.
« Il se donna tout entier à cette tâche impossible. Il y usa toutes
les ressources de son intelligence sans avoir réussi même une
esquisse de son rêve et surtout sans avoir déterminé une de ces
révolutions qui changent la face de la littérature. »
Il ne détermina, en effet, que des apologies sans grande portée,
puisque tout en proclamant la transcendance de son art, aucun de
ses admirateurs ne crut devoir le suivre dans la voie qu’il indiquait.
C’est, disent-ils, que Mallarmé ayant réalisé l’individualiste par
excellence, on ne saurait l’imiter.
Non, grâce à Dieu, on ne l’a pas imité, parce qu’il n’a pas su
« créer un poncif » comme le demandait Baudelaire à l’écrivain digne
de maîtrise. Et puisque je cite Baudelaire, je lui emprunterai encore
les termes qui définissent le mieux Mallarmé. Ce ne fut pas un génie
créateur ; ce fut « une curiosité esthétique ».
Maintenant que j’ai dit le mal qu’on a le droit de penser du
symbolisme, je vais dire le bien.
Les symbolistes ont assoupli la prosodie. Sans entrer dans le
détail et tout en concédant que certains d’entre eux ont porté la
réforme trop loin jusqu’à produire des choses vagues, qui n’étaient
ni prose ni vers, on doit retenir à leur actif que, par eux, le vers
devient plus musical, s’enrichit de rythmes nouveaux et réussit à
exprimer, avec charme, des nuances de sentiment inaperçues avant
eux.
Ils ont fait connaître Verlaine dont l’œuvre avait été
sournoisement étouffée par ses frères du Parnasse et que la
postérité tiendra probablement pour l’un des plus grands poètes du
XIXe siècle.
Ils ont détruit, avec une rudesse pleine d’équité, plusieurs
réputations usurpées.
Leur lutte contre le naturalisme n’a pas été vaine. Ils ont porté le
coup de mort aux sottises matérialistes mises en vogue par Zola.
Enfin, ils ont rendu à l’Art un culte désintéressé et ils ont montré
un mépris de la basse réclame qui condamne les commerçants de
lettres dont nous constatons le règne aujourd’hui.
Voilà qui est pour excuser leurs erreurs d’autant, qu’ils ont été les
victimes et non les guides de leur époque. Or, ce fut une période
d’anarchie dans les idées et dans les mœurs — tout comme le milieu
qui se décompose autour de nous tandis que j’écris ces lignes. Une
société sans Dieu, sans autorité fixe, ne peut guère en produire
d’autres.
La vie aux champs et dans la forêt eut donc cet effet bienfaisant
de me pénétrer du sentiment de la nature. Mais elle ne m’ancra pas
dans une doctrine immuable d’où je pusse déduire des certitudes.
L’illusion panthéiste était beaucoup trop ondoyante pour me les
fournir et même, si elle me les avait procurées, elle aurait été
impuissante à les corroborer d’une morale stable, répondant à tous
les besoins de mon âme inquiète. Au fond je cherchais une religion.
J’aspirais à un idéal qui élevât davantage les sommets de mon être,
qui me purifiât suffisamment pour que, contemplant sa lumière,
j’apprisse à réfréner mes passions mauvaises et qui me consolât aux
heures de doute et de découragement.
Cet Absolu divin je crus un moment l’avoir trouvé dans la
philosophie de Lucrèce. Avec lui, je disais : « La religion, ce n’est pas
de se tourner sans cesse vers la pierre voilée, ni de s’approcher des
autels, ni de se jeter prosterné à terre, ni de lever les mains devant
les demeures des dieux, ni d’arroser les temples du sang de
beaucoup d’animaux, ni d’entasser les vœux sur les vœux, mais de
tout regarder avec une âme tranquille [10] . »
[10]
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