SYLLABUS

COMPUTER NETWORKS

(CIC-307)/(CIC-313)
Applicable from Batch admitted in Academic
Session 2021-22 Onwards

UNIT I

Data Communications: Components, Networks, The Internet, Protocols and

Standards, Network Models: The OSI Model, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, A Comparison of
the OSI ard TCP/IP Reference Models, Addressing, Physical Layer: Analog and Digital
Signais, Transmission modes, Transmission Media: Guided — Unguided Media,
Review of Error Detection and Correction codes.
Switching: Circuit switching (space-division, time division and space-time
division),
packet switching (virtual circuit and Datagram approach), message switching.

UNIT II
Data Link Layer: Design issues, Data Link Control and Protocols: Flow and Error
Control, Stop-and-wait ARQ. Sliding window protocol, Go-Back-N ARQ, Selective
Repeat ARQ, HDLG, Point-to —Point Access: PPP Point -to- Point Protocol, PPP Stack,

Medium Access Sub layer: Channel allocation problem, Controlled Access,

Channelization, multiple access protocols, IEEE standard 802.3 & 802.11 for LANS
and
WLAN, high-speed LANs, Token ring, Token Bus, FDDI based LAN, Network Devices-
repeaters, hubs, switches bridges.

UNIT III

Network Layer: Design issues, Routing algorithms, Congestion contro] algorithms,

Host to Host Delivery: Internetworking, addressing and routing, IP addressing
(class
full & Classless), Subnet, Network Layer Protocols: ARP, IPV4, ICMP, IPV6 and

ICMPV6.

UNIT IV
Transport Layer: Process to Process Delivery: UDP; TCP, congestion control and
Quality of service. Application Layer: Client Server Model, Socket Interface,
Domain
Name System (DNS): Electronic Mail (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), HTTP and WWW.
SYLLABUS
DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING

(ECC-311)
Applicable from Batch Admitted in Academic Session 2021-22 onwards

UNIT I

Data Communications ‘Components protucols and standards, Network and Protoopl

Architecture, Reference Moet 180-081, TCP TPOwermew topology, tranermismon
mode. digital signals, digzta! to digutal enceeiing, digotal data transmission,
DTE-DCE
interface, interface standards, modems, cable mipdem. transcussion media- guided
and
unguided, trans-masion i= parment. Performatee, wavelength and Shannon capacity.
Renew of Error Detection end Correctucn codes.
Switching: Circut switching ‘space-divimien. time divisjon and space-time dvisioni,
packet emitehing virtual arcwt and Datezre 7 approach), message switch.ng

‘ {No. of Hours: 11]

UNIT H
Data Link Layer: Design issues, D2! \Link Contre] and Protocols Flow end Error
Control, Step-and wait ARQ STidicz »=indow protcce!l, Go-Back-N ARQ. Selective
Repeat ARQ, HDLC, Point to 2Poir:t Aetess: PPP Point —to Point Protece!, PPP Stack.
Medium Access Sub layer: Channe! allocaticn problem. Controlle! Access,
Channebzation/multi ple acrets protecsis, IEEE standard 892 3 & 80? 11 for LANS and
WLAN, high-speed LANs, Token ring. Taken Bus, FDD! based LAN. Network Devices-
repeaters, hubs switches tidges. . (No. of Hours: 11]
UNTT Ul
Network Layer: Design issues, Routing algonthms Cergestion contre] algorithms,
Host to Host Delivery: Internetworking. addreserng arid routing, IP addressing
‘class
full & Classlessi, Subnet, Network Leyer Protocols’ ARP, IPV4, ICMP, IPV6 ad
ICMPV6. {No. of Hours: 11]
UNIT IV
Transport Layer: Process to Process Delivery. UDP; TCP. congestion contre) and
Quality of service.
Application Layer: Client Server Mode!, Socket Interface, Domain Name Syatem

(DNS? Electronic Mail (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), HTTP and WWW.
No. of Hours: 11]
SYLLABUS (2016-17)

-— * aaiieticesdiilinenetiiee es

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS (ETEC-310)

Instructions to Paper Setters: Max, Marks :75

1. Question No. 1 should be compulsory and cower the entire eyllabus. Thus question
should
have objective or short anawert type questions, It should be of 25 marks.

2. Apart from Question No. 1, rest of the paper shall consists of four units as per
the eyllabus.
Every unit should have two question. However, student may be asked to attempt only
1
question from each unst, Bach question should be of 12.6 marks.

UNIT-I

Data Communications: Componenta, protocols and standards, Network and Protocol

Architecture, Reference Model ISO-OSI, TCP/IP-Overview, topology, transmission
mode,
digital signals, digital to digital encoding, digital data transmission, DTE-DCE
interface,
interface standards, modems, cable modem, trantmiesion media-guided and unguided,
tranemission impairment, Performance, wavelength and Shannon capacity. Review of
Error
Detection and Correction codes,

Switching: Circuit switching (space-divielon, time division and space-time

division),

packet ewitching (virtual circuit and Datagram approach), message switching.

{T1, T2, R1, R4) (No. of Hours ; 11)

UNIT-II

Data Link Layer: Design issuee, Data Link Control and Protocols: Flow and Error
Conuol, Stop and-wait ARQ. Sliding window protocol, Go-Back-N ARQ, Selective Repeat
ARQ. HDLC. Point-to-Point Access: PPP Point-to-Point Protocol, PPP Stack.

Mediuin Access Sub Layer: Channel allocation problem, Controlled Access,

Channelization, multiple access protocols. IEEE Standard 602.3 & 602.11 for LANS
and
WLAN, high speed LANs, Token ring, Token Bus, FDDI based LAN, Network Devic2s-
repeaters, hule, switche bridges (T1, T2, R1) (No. of Hours: 11)

UNIT-HI

Network Layer: Design issues, Routing algonthms, Congestion control algorithms.

Host to Host Delivery Internetworking, addressing and routing. IP addressing (class

full & Claseless), Subnet, Network Jayer Protocols: ARP, I?’V4, ICMP, IPVG ad
ICMPV6.
{T1, T2, Ri} (No. of Hours: 11)

UNIT-IV
Transport Layer: Process to Procesa Delivery: UDP; TCP, congestion control and
Quality
of service
Application Layer: Client Server Model, Socket Interface, Domain Name System (DNS):
Electronic Mail (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), HTTP and WWW.
(T2, T1, Ri, R4) (No. of Hours: 11)
As per the New Syllabus 2021-22 onwards
(CIC -309)(ECC-311)\/(CIC-313)
UNIT - 1

) Kefer 104295 Few Important Question (Py No 1.2)

Q Sefer to Q.1 (a), (eFiret Term Exam 2916 (Py No 1, 22016)
Q. Hofer to (2 (hj Piret Term Kxam 2016 (Pg No 22016)
Q. Hefer to Q 4 (a) (b) Piret Term Kaa 2016 (Py No 34-2016)
Q. Refer to 4 (e) First Term Beam 2016 (Mg No % 2016)
Q, Hafler to Q 1 (9),b) End Term Kaa 2016 (Pg. No. 14-2016)
Q. Refer to Q1(f) Rnd Term Fxsum 2016 (Py No 142016)
Q. Mtefer to Q.2 End Term Exam 2016 (Py No 16-2016)
Q. Hofer to Q.3 (a) (b) End Term Exam 2016 (Pg No 18,21 2016)
Q Refer to Q 1 (a),(b) First Term Exam 2017 (Pg. Wo 12017)
Q. Kefer to Q.2 (a)/b) Firwt Term Exam 2917 (Pz, No 23-2017)
Q. Kefer to Q.3 (b) Firet Term Exam 2017 (Pe Na 32017)
Q. Kefer to Q.4 (b) (d) First Term Exam 2017 (Pg No 4,5-2017)
Q. Refer to Q 1 (a).fc) th) End Term Exam 2017 (Pg No 6,7,9-2017)
Q. Refer to Q.2 (a),(b) (c) End Term Exam 207 (I’g No. 1143-2917)
Q. Refer to Q 3/a)(c) End Term Exam 2017(V'g.No 14-2017)
Q. Refer to Q.5 (b) End Term Exam 2017622 No. 18-2017)
Q Refer to Q.1 (a) (b) Firet Term Rxarn2019Pg. No 12018)
Q Hefer to Q 2 (a) First Term Exam 2914 (Pg No. 35-2015)
0). Refer to 0) 3 (ay le) First Term Exam 2018 (Pg. No. 7,9-2018)
Q. Refer to Q.Ma)(b) End Term Exam 2018 (Pg. No. 12-2018)
Q. Refer toQ Wf) End Term Pxam 2018 (Pg No. 14-2018)
QL Refer to @4 (a) Bnd Term Exam 2016 (Pg No. 18-2019)
Q. Refer to Ql (c) First Term Exam 2019 (Py. No 15-2019)
Q. Refer to Q 3 fa) (b) First Term Exam 2019 (Pg No. 3,4-2019)
Q. Lefer to QI (a) (b) End Term Exam 2019 (Pg. No. 6-2019)
Q Refer to Q.2 (a) End Term Exam 2019 (Pg. No. 9-2919)
Q. Refer to Q3 (a) End Term Exam 2019 (Pg. No 9-2919)
UNIT - II
Q. Refer to Q.1 tb) (c) (d) First Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 1-2016)
Q Refer to Q 2 (a) First Term Examination 2016 (Pg No 2-2016).
Q, Refer to Q 3 (b) of First Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 3-2016).
Q. Refer to QA (c),(d) First Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 4,5-2016).
Q. Kefer to Q.1 (a) Second Term Examination 2016 (Pg No. 6-2016).
Q. Refer to Q 1 fc) (d) End Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 13-2016).
Q, Kafer to Q.4 (a) (b) End Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 22,23-2016).
Q Hofer to Q5 (a) /b) End Terts Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 25,27-2016).
Q. Refer to Q J (c),{d) Firat Term Exarnsnation 2017 (Pg. No. 1,2-2017).
4 LL

LP. University-{B.Tech]-Akash Books 2022-5

Q. Refer to Q.3 (a) First Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 3-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.4 (a) (c) (e) First Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 4,5-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (d) (e) (f) (g) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 89-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.5 (b) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 14-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.4 (a) (b) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 15, 16-2017).
Q. Refer to Q5 (a) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 17-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (c) (d) (e) First Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 3-2018)
Q. Refer to Q.2 (b) (c) First Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 6,7-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.4 (a) (b) (c) First Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 9,11-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (d) (e) (g) End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 14,15-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.2 (a) (b) End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 16,17-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.3 (b) End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 21-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.4 (a),(b) End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 21,22-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (a), (b), (g) First Term Examination 2019 (Pg. No. 1,2-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.2. First Term Examination 2019 (Pg. No. 2-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.3 (c) First Term Examination 2019 (Pg. No. 5-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.4 (a),(b), (c) First Term Examination 2019 (Pg. No. 5-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (c),(d), (e), (g), G) End Term Exam 2019 (Pg. No. 7,8,9-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.3 (b) End Term Examination.2019 (Pg. No. 11-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.4.(a), (b) End Term Examination 2019 (Pg. No. 12-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.5 (a),(b) End Term Examination 2019 (Pg. No. 13,14-2019).
Q. Refer to Q.7 (a) End Term Examination 2019 (Pg. No. 19-2019).

UNIT - Il
Q. Refer to Q.1 Few Important Question (Pg. No.1).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (b),(c), (e) Second Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 7-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.2 (b) Second Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 9-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.3 (a), (b) Second Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 10,11-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.4 (i),(ii) Second Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 11-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (g) End Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 14-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.6 (a), (b) End Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. ,27,28-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.7 (a) End Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 29-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.8 (b) End Term Examination 2016 (Pg. No. 30-2016).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (b) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 8-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (j) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 11-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.6 (a),(b) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 19-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.7 (a),(b) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 19,20-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.8 (b) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 22-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.9 (a) End Term Examination 2017 (Pg. No. 22-2017).
Q. Refer to Q.1 (c) End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 13-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.5 (a),(b) End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 22,25-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.6 (a),(b) End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 25,2G6-2018).
Q. Refer to Q.7 End Term Examination 2018 (Pg. No. 27-2018).
6. Yi? 11h Sereuter

Q, Refer to Q.1 10,1) Bnd Term hamenatinn 2519 (Py Sy 8S wy)

Q. Wafer w YG (a)iby find Term #2 1 ation 2919 Py Ns 16.17 201g)

Q Refer te). (by Kind Term Rawmiention 219 Pe Mo 19 2659)

Unt -1V

Q. Refer 19) 4.04), fivi, (wy flecond Term Praw 2616 (Py My I} 20pm)

Q Refer to 1 (e) Bnd Term Basen 2916 (Pg Mo 1b2918)

Q, Refer to (5 \n) Rind Term Bases, 2916 (Py Mo 242010,

Q Refer to 9 Rad Term Buse 2016 (Pg Mo. 31-2018)

@ Refer to Q.1.44) nd Terns Beeaen 2917 (Py. No $2017)

Q Refer to 8 (a) Bid Toren Biesen 2017 (Py Mo. 21-

Q, Refer to 9 (hy, (1, (d), 10) Bnd Toren Exam 2017 (Ps

Q Refer to Q.1 th) Bnd Term Exam 2014 (Py .

Q Refer to Q 1 (h) End Term Pxam

Q Refer to Q8 (a)(b) End Terma E
@ Refer to Q.9 (i), (it) End Term
END TERM EXAMINATION (JULY 2023)
SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS (ETEC-310]

Time: 3 Hre Max. Marks: 75

Note: Attempt any five questions including Q. No. 1 which is compulsory.

Select one question from each unit

(1. Attempt any Five (5 x 6 = 25)

QI. (a) Explain the correlation between the OSI model and TCPAP model
with a proper diagrammatical] form.

@.1. (b) What do you understand by Circuit Switching and Packet

Switching? Discuss through the diagram.

Q.1. (¢) Describe the LAN-based PDDI over a basic token ring in detail.
©.1. (d) Differentiate SMTP & POP protocol.

1. fe) Explain the IPv4 protocol with header format. Also, compare with
IPv6.

Q.1. (f) Explain the High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) protocol used

in computer networks. Discuss its key features, frame structure, and modes
of operation.

UNIT. J
2 (a) What is the OSI reference model? Draw a block diagram and explain
the functioning of cach layer. (7.5)
©.2. (b) (i) Define the transmission modes with a diagram. (2.5)
(i1) Describe the transmission impairment. (2.5)

Q Explain the follow ing terms with proper examples: (2.5 x 5 = 12.5)
(a) Virtual Circuit with diagram
(b) Guided and Unguided Media
‘c) Wavelength
{d) Differentiate Process to Process and Host to Host delivery
(e) Baseband transmission and Broadband transmission
UNIT - Il

QA ‘a) Explain the working of the Go-Back-N ARQ protocol and the
Selective Repeat ARQ protocol Also, compare the Sender and Receiver
Window Sizes of both ARQ. (6.5)

4. (b) Short nate on: (6)

{i) Leaky bucket algorithm
(ti) Channefization in Medium Access Control

(5. (a) Define the meaning of carrier sense in CSMA. Also, Explain the
CSMA CD and CSMA/CA with the diagram. (6.5)
82022 Fifth Semeater(u Tec) 1)

Q.5. (b) Explain tho following:

(i) Control Protocols in Medium Access Control (by

(i) Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA

Q.6, (a) Explain tho classful IP addressing in detail, (ty

Q.6. (b) Describe and Differentiate between: 6
(i) ARP and RARP

(i) ICMP and IGMP

Q.7. (a) Givo a detailed description of standard IEEE 802.11

Q.7. (b) A datagram of 3000 bytes (20 bytes of IP heador + 2989 b

IP payload) reached the router and must be forwarded to link with
(maximum transmission unit) of 500 bytes. How man

(6.5)

yY fragments Will be
Sranted also write MF, offsot, and total length value for all?
Q.8. Explain the following: (6.5, 6)
Q.8, (a) What is FTP? How file aro transferred using FTP?
Q.8, (b) Dif ference between UDP and TOP.
Q.9. Attempt any Two: (6.25 x 9)

Q.9. (a) Explain the DNS,

Q.9. (b) Explain TCP Header in detail.
Q.9. (c) Describe the terms HTTP and www.
FIRST TERM EXAMINATION [FEB.-2016]
SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]
DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKS
[ETEC-310]
Time : 1.30 Hrs. MLM. : 30

Note: Attempt Q.1 and any 2 other

Q.1. (a) What is the difference between circuit switcl¥ing and packet

switching? ‘ (10)
Ans.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching Packet Switching

(Datagram type) (Virtual Circuit type)

Dedicated path No Dedicated path No Dedicated path
Path is established for | Route is established for Route is established for entire
entire conversation each packet conversation
Call setup delay Packet transmission delay Call setup delay as well as

packet transmission delay

Overload may block Overload increases packet Overload may block cal] setup
call setup delay and increases packet delay
Fixed bandwidth Dynamic bandwidth Dynamic bandwidth
No overhead bits after | Overhead bits in Overhead bits in each
call setup each packet packet

Q.1. (6) What factors should be considered in deciding the size of sliding
window?

Ans. By placing limits on the number of packets that can be transmitted or received
at any given time, a sliding window protocol allows an unlimited number of packets
to
be communicated using fixed-size sequence numbers. The term “window” on the
transmitter side represents the logical boundary of the total number of packets yet
to
be acknowledged by the receiver. The receiver informs the transmitter in each
acknowledgment packet the current maximum receiver buffer size (window boundary).
The receiver informs the transmitter in each acknowledgment packet the current
maximum receiver buffer size (window boundary). The TCP header uses a 16 bit field
to
report the receive window size to the sender. Therefore, the largest window that
can be
used is 216 = 64 kilobytes

Q.1. (c) What is the deciding factor in Go back N and Selective Repeat
protocol? ‘

Ans. Deciding factors are bandwidth, complexity of protocol, types of links (noisy
and noisy less), window size, sorting, searching, storing.

Q.1. (d) What kind of error is undetectable by checksum?

Ans. At least three types of error cannot be detected by the current checksum
calculation. First, if two data items are swapped during transmission, the sum and
the
checksum values will not change. Second, if the value of one data item is increased
(intentionally or maliciously) and the value of another one is decreased
(intentionally
or maliciously) the same amount, the sum and the checksum cannot detect these
changes.
Third, if one or more data items is changed in such a way that the change is a
multiple
of 216 — 1, the sum or the checksum cannot detect the changes.
2-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

Q.1. (e) What is the difference between baseband transmission ang

broadband transmissions?

Ans. Baseband:

* Digital signals ure used

° Frequency division multiplexing is not possible

Baseband is bi-directional transmission
Short distance signal travelling
Entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single signal in a baseband
transmission

= bapa

nalog sighals are used

¢ Transmission of data is unidirectional

¢ Signal travelling distance is long

¢ Frequency division multiplexing is possible

¢ The signals are sent on multiple frequencies and allow all the multiple signals
are sent simultaneously in broadband transmission.

Q.2. (a) What is MAC layer? How is it different from Data Link Layer? (5)

Ans. The Media Access Control Layér is one of two sublayers that make up the
Data Link Layer of the OSI model. The MAC layer is responsible for moving data
packets to and from one Network Interface Card (NIC) to another across a shared
channel.

In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of communication, the Media

Access Control! layer is one of two sublayers of the Data Link Control layer and is
concerned with sharing the physical connection to the network among several
computers.
Each computer has its own unique MAC address. Ethernct is an example of a protocol
that works at the Media Access Control layer level.

The Data-Link layer is the protocol layer in a program that handles the moving of
data in and out across a physical link in a network. The Data-Link layer is layer 2
in the
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) mode! for a set of telecommunication protocols. The
Data-Link layer contains two sublayers that are described in the IEEE-802 LAN
standards:

Media Access Control (MAC)

Logical Link Control (LLC)

The Data-Link layer ensures that an initial connection has been set up, divides
output data into data frames, and handles the acknowledgements from a receiver that
the data arrived successfully. It also ensures that incoming data has been received
successfully by analyzing bit patterns at special places in the frames.
Q.2. (b) A voice grade channel of the telephone network has a bandwidth of
3.4 kHz. Calculate the information capacity of the telephone channel for a signal-
to-noise ratio of 50dB? (5)

Ans.

C = Blog,(1+S/N)
= 3.4x 10°x Log, (1 + 50)
a = 3400 x 5.66
- = 19244 kbit/s
Q.3. (a) Explain the frame format of IIDLC. (5)
Ans. Refer Q.4. (b) of End Term Examination 2016
[.P University-B.Techi-AB Publisher 2016-3

(3. (b) Show that the hamming code can correct oie bil error in the following
Case:

Transmitted code is 0101 and the received at the receiver is 1100101.

Specify which bit has an error and correct it.

Ans. Transmitted code : 0101

Received code ; 1100101

We know that 2? >n+r41

where n = code words of length n

r = parity bits

ifr = 3 there eqn (1) will be satisfied

23>44+1+4+1

ss

Table for Hamming code (Assume even parity)

Bit Position

4
P4

(a

ok |

6 7_| Evert | Even

P1 P2 q

parity | symbol
check

om
ae)
oa

Code word 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

First 1 an 0 = 1
Parity

Bit check
(P,, 3,5, 7)

Seoond _ 1 0 ae A 0 1
parity

Bit
check

(P,, 3,6, 7)

— 1 Fail --]

pass -01

Third _ oo a 0 1 0 1 Pass 001

parity
check

(P,, 5,6, 7)

Thus the first bit position is in error.

The correct code data is 0100101.

QA. Write a short note on: (Attempt any four)

Q.4.(a) DTE-DCE interface (2.5)

Ans. A data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) is a device that sits between the
data terminal equipment (DTE) and a data transmission circuit. It is also called
data
cormmunication(s) equipment and data carrier equipment. Usually, the DTE device is
the terminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem. ;

Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that converts user information
into signals or reconverts received signals. These can also be called tail
circuits. A DTE
device communicates with the data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE). The DTE/
DCE classification was introduced by IBM. ‘

V.35 is a high-speed serial interface designed to support both higher data rates
and
connectivity between DTEs (data-terminal equipment) or DCEs (data-communication
equipment) over digital lines.
4—2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

ch end of the interep :

Two different types of devices are assumed on ea : : ns
for a case of simply adding DTE to the topology (e g. toa hub, DCE , Which also
brings
less trivial case of interconnection of devices of the same type: DTE-DTE or DCE. ‘
Such cases need crossover cables, such as for the Ethernet or null modem for RS 295

Q.4. (6) Guided and Unguided media.

Ans. Guided media are more commonly known as wired media, or those Media ;
which electrical or optical signals are transmitted through a cables or wires.
Ungui
media are more commonly known as wireless media, in which electromagnetic si
are sent through space with no direction. Both types of media can be used for long.
distance and short-distance communication.

Guided transmission media:

1. Twisted pair cable

2. Co-axial cabfe

3. Fiber-optic cable
Unguided transmission media:

1. Infrared

2. Microwaves

3. Satellite

Q.4. (c) PPP Stack. (2.5)

Ans. PPP (Point-to-Point Protoeo!) 13 @ protocol for communication between two

computers using a serial interface, typically a personal computer connected by
phone
line to a server. For example, your Internet server provider may provide you with a
PPP
connection so that the provider's server can respond to your requests, pass them on
to
the Internet, and forward your requested Internet responses back to you. PPP uses
the
Internet protocol (IP) (and is designed to handle others). It is sometimes
considered a
member of the TCP/IP suite of protocols. Relative to the open systems
interconnection
(OSI reference model, PPP provides layer 2 (data-link layer) service. Essentially,
it
packages your computer’s TCP/IP packets and forwards them to the server where they
can actually be put on the Internet. PPP is a full-duplex protocol that can be used
on
various physical media, including twisted pair or fiber optic lines or satellite
transmission. It uses a variation of high speed data link control (HDLC) for packet
encapsulation.

Layer 7 Application E-mail encryption

Layer 6 Presentation
Layer 5 Session Secure socket layer
Layer 4 Transport

Layer 3 Network IP secunty

Layer 2 Oata tink PPP and PPTP

Layer 1 Physical

i 5 ial Line Internet

i ferred over the earlier de facto standard Seria
valet siner gn it can handle synchronous as well as asynchronous
rare Aah PPP can share a line with other users and it has error detection that
co .

SLIP lacks. Where a choice is possible, PPP is preferred.

LP University (1 Tech) AD Publisher 2016-4

Q.4. (dt) CSMA (2.5)

Ana. Carrier senso mulliple acceaa (CHMA) ia a media access control (MAC) protixol
in which a nede verifies the absence of other traffic befare trananutting on «
shared
transmission medium, euch as an electrical bua, or a band of the electromagnetic
spectrum

A transmitter attempts to determine whether another transmission ts in progress

before initiating a (ranamisaion using a carrier sense mechaniam That ja, it trina
to
detect the presence of a carrier signal from another node before attempting to
tranemit.
If a carrier ia nenaed, the node waits for the transmission in progress to end
before
initiating tts own tranaminaion, Uaing CAMA, multiple nodes may nend and receive on
the samo medium, Transmissions by one node are generally received by all other
nodes
connected to the medium,

Vaniations on basic CSMA include addition of collision avoidance, collision

detection
and collision resolution techniques,

There Are Three Different Type of CSMA Protocols

(i) I-persistont CSMA: In this method, station that wants to transmit data
continuously senses the channel to check whether the channel is idle or buay.

* Ifthe channel is buay, the station waits until it becomes idle,

* When the station detects an idle-channel, it immediately transmits the frame

with probability 1, Hence it is called |-persistent. CSMA.

(ii) Non-Persistent CSMA: In this scheme, if aetution wants to transmit 4 frame

and it finds that the channel is bugy (some other station is transmitting) then it
will
wail for fixed interval oftime,

* After this time, it again checks the status of the channel and if the channel js
free
it will transmit.

* Astation that has a franie togend senses the channel.

¢ If the channel is idle, it sends immediately.

° If tho channel is busy, {t waits a random amount of time and then senses the
channel again.

* In non-persistent CSMA the station does not continuously sense the channel for
the purpose of capturing it when it detects the end of previous transmission.

(iti) p-persiatent CSMA; This method is used when channel has time slots such
that the time slot duration is equal to or greater than the maximum propagation
delay
time.
¢ Whenever a station becomes ready to send, it senses the channel.

¢ If channel is busy, station waits until next slot.

¢ If channel is idle, it transmits with a probability p.

¢ With the probability q =/- p, the station then waits for the beginning of the
next
time slot.

e If the next slot is also idle, it either transmits or waits again with
probabilities
p and q.

* This process is repeated till either frame has been transmitted or another
station
has begun transmitting.

¢ In case of the transmission by another station, the station acts as though a

collision has occurred and it waits a random amount of time and starts again.

Q.4. (e) Difference between FDMA and TDMAT.

Ans.4 (e) Refer Q.No 2 of Few Important Questions

—s
ie,

SECOND TERM EXAMINATION [APRIL-2016,

SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]
DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKg
[ETEC-310]

Time : 1.30 Hrs, MLM. 149

Note: Attempt Q-1 and any 2 other.
Q.1. (a) What is the frame format of FDDI? (10 Marky)

Ans. The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token Ring frame. Th...
one of the areas where FDDI borrows heavily from earlier LAN technolo

Token Ring. FDDI frames can be as large as 4,500 bytes. Figure shows the
of an FDDI data frame and token.

BCs, such a,
frame format

Data frame

Preamble| Start Frame |Destination

Source : End | Frame

delimiter | Control | address | >. Data | Oe

'
address Delmiter | status
“SS ay Y oe
~
“ bre a “4
. . ra at
~ af A
We, “3 Pa s
~~ ‘x s Je
s ~ ¢ ¢
s s , -
Se Token si ?

Start) Frame | End

Prearrble Delimiter} contro! | Delimiter

Fig.: FDDI frame format’

FDDI Frame Fields: The following descriptions summarize the FDDI data frame
and token fields illustrated in Fig.

PreambleyA unique sequence that prepares each station for an upcoming frame.
Start Delimiter: Indicates the beginning of a frame by employing a signaling
pattern
that differentiates it from the rest of the frame.

Frame Control: Indicates the size of the address fields and whether the frame
contains asynchronous or synchronous data, among other control information.

Destination Address: Contains a unicast (singular), multicast (group), or broadcast

(every station) address. As with Ethernet and Token Ring addresses, FDDI
destination
addresses are 6 bytes long.

Source Address: Identifies the single station that sent the frame. As with Ethernet
and Token Ring addresses, FDDI source addresses are 6 bytes long.
Data: Contains either information destined for an upper-layer protocol or control
information. oa hotel ; wae
Frame Check Sequence (FCS): Filed by the source station with a calculated cyclic
redundancy check value dependent on frame contents (as with Token Ring and
Ethernet).
The destination address recalculates the value to determine whether the frame was
i i is discarded.
damaged in transit. If so, the frame is
: Bid Delimiter: Contains unique symbols, which cannot be data symbols, that
indicate the end of the frame.
arate Status-—Allows the source station to determine whether an error occured
and whether the frame was recognized and copied by a receiving station.
1.P Umversity4 B-fech+ARB Publisher 2016-7

Q.1. (6) What is process to process delivery?

Ans. The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery. Real

communication takes place between (wo provesses. So that we need process-to-process
delivery. However, at any moment, several processes may be running on the source
host
and several on the destination hast. To complete the delivery, we need a mechanism
to
deliver data from one of these processes running on the source host to the
corresponding
process running on the destination hast.

Q.1. (c) What is the use of Classless addressing?

Ans. Use of classless addressing: Classless addressing is a way to allocate and

specify the Internet addresses used in inter-domain routing more flexibly than with
the
onginal system of Internet Protocal (IP) address classes. What happened in classful
addressing is that if any company needs more than 254 host machines but far fewer
than the 65,533 host addresses than the only option for the company is to take the
class
B address. Now suppose company needs only 1000 IP addresses for its host computers
then in this (65533-1000 <61533] IP addresses get wasted. For this reason, the
Internet
was. until the arnval of CIDR, running than necessary. Classless addressing
effectively
salved the problem by providing a new and more flexible way to specify network
addresses
in a router

Q.1.(d) Deference between hub and switch ?

Ans. Refer Q.No 3 of Few Important Questions ‘

Q.1.(e) What is the difference between 1PV4 and 1PV6?
Ans,
IPva IPv6
The Address Space is 32 bits. The space is 128 bits.
The length of header is 20 bytes The length of header is 40
4 bytes for each adress in the header | 16 bytes for each addressing the header
The number of Header field 12 The number of header field 8
Checksum field, used to measure Checksum field eliminated from header
error in the header, required as error in the IP header are ot very crucial
Internet protocol security (IPSec) Internet Protocol Security (IpSec) with
with repect to network security respect to network security is mandatory
is optional

No identification to the packet flow | The flow level field on the header portion
(Lack of QoS handling). identifies the packet flow and directs to
to router (Efficient QoS handling)

The Fargmentation is done both The fragmentation is done both by sending

and routers there is no role of the routers.

No identification to the packet flow | The flow level field on the header portion
(Lack of Qos handing). identifies the packet flow and directs to
router (Efficient QoS handling)
Clients have approach Dynamic Clients do not have to approach any such
Host Configuration server (DHCS) server as they are permanent adresses.
whenever they connect to an network.
8-2016 Sixth Sembater; Data Communication and Networkg

Q.2. (a) Explain congestion control algorithm.

Ans. Main Congestion Control Algorithms are:

1. Leaky Bucket Algorithm

* It is a traffic shaping mechanism that controls the amount and the rate
traffic sent to the network. ‘

* Aleaky bucket algorithm shapes bursty traffic into fixed rate traffic by ave
the data rate.

* Imagine a bucket with a small hole at the bottom.

* The rate at which the water is poured into the bucket is not fixed and can va
it leaks from the bucket at a constant rate. Thus (as long as water is present in
bue

the rate at which the water leaks does not depend on the rate at which the water is
in, ty
to the bucket. 4

Th,

Tap

a Burst flow
i G——$—. Packers
ine interface oy Ud “gg! Anopme
j low
containing
leaky } |
Bucket
} Bucets
— 3 De << holds
3 | pockets
$ Fined flow *
(constant @ 4——Reguiated
tate) i flow
Network
to) A footy Bucket with woter (b) A leaky Bucket with packets

¢ Also, when the bucket is full, any additional water that enters into the bucket
spills over the sides and is lost.

¢ The same concept can be applied to packets in the network. Consider that data is
coming from the source at variable speeds. Suppose that a source sends data at 12
Mbps for 4 seconds. Then there is no data for 3 seconds. The source again transmits
data at a rate of 10 Mbps for 2 seconds. Thus, in a time span of 9 seconds, 68 Mb
data
has been transmitted.

Ifa leaky bucket algorithm is used, the data flow will be 8 Mbps for 9 seconds.
Thus
constant flow is maintained.

2. Token bucket Algorithm ;

° The leaky bucket algorithm allows only an average (constant) rate of data flow.
Its major problem is that it cannot deal with bursty data.
* Aleaky bucket algorithm does not consider the idle time of the host. For exam
ple,

; it is willi ta at a very high speed

i dle for 10 seconds and now it is willing to sent da
towne ae ects the total data transmission will be divided into 20 seconds and

average data rate will be maintained. The host is having no advantage of sitting
idle for

nds. ;
¢ ie overcome this problem, a token bucket algorithm is used. A token bucket

algorithm allows bursty data transfers.

lll
1 P University B Tech}+AB Publisher 2016-9
® Atoken bucket algorithm 18 a modification of leaky bucket in which leaky bucket
contains tokens

¢ In this algorithm, a token(s) are generated at every clock tick. For a packet to
be
transmitted, system must remove token‘s) from the bucket.

* Thus, a token bucket algorithm allows idle hosts to accumulate credit for the
future in form of tokens.

¢ For example, if a system generates 100 tokens in one clock tick and the host is
idle for 100 ticks. The bucket will contain 10,000 tokens.

Now, if the host wants to send bursty data, it can consume all 10,000 tokens at
once
for sending 10,000 cells or bytes.

Thus a host can send bursty data as long as bucket is not empty.

4 \ss
One token added\ (> c—>
per tick ea

One token removed and

discarded per cell
transmission

No eo
Arrival |

Processor Departure
FIFO Quene
Yes
Discard
Token bucket algoritm
Q.2. (6) Write a note on the various classes of IP address. (5)

Ans. Process of dividing an IP network in to sub divisions is called subnetting.

Subnetting divides an IP address in to two parts as the network (or routing prefix)
and
the rest field (which is used to identify a specific host). CIDR’notation is used
to write
a routing prefix. This notation uses a slash (/) to separate the network starting
address
and the length of the network prefix (in bits). For example, in IPv4,
192.60.128.0/22
indicates that 22 bits are allocated for the network prefix and the remaining 10
bits are
reserved for the host address. In addition, routing prefix can also be represented
using
the subnet mask. 255.255.252.0 (11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000) is the subnet
mask for 192.60.128.0/22. Separating the network portion and the subnet portion of
an
IP address is done by performing a bitwise and operation between the IP address and
the subnet mask. This would result in identifying the network prefix and the host
identifier.

Supernetting is the process of combining several IP networks with a common network

prefix. Supernetting was introduced as a solution to the problem of increasing size
in
routing tables. Supernetting also simplifies the routing process. For example, the
subnetworks 192.60.2.0/24 and 192.60.3.0/24 can be combined in to the supernetwork
denoted by 192.60.2.0/23. In the supernet, the first 23 bits are the network part
of the
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10-2016

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na GE “ eu natel 192 da 223 in decimal ee border gateway protoco}
\addresses beginning Examples of such protoca!s © sh 6 exterior gatews (
support supernetn % OSPF) But, protocols sl upport supernetti Y Prot,’
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(EGP) and the routing ¥

sformation pre ‘
0
Q.3. (a) Explain the frame format imple message format desl a
Ans. The Address Reso

ocol uses 4 ¥ ,
ee einen The size of the gar rents depend,’
ddress resolution reques SPs hal iven 1e type
a se oe te <a Sear address sizes. which are 61 : Jolie as a network
protocol (usually IPv4) inu z

al rdware ©
se and the type of ha ;
, . specifies these ty

upper layer protocol is running on, The message header SP YPES, AS We}
the size of addresses of each The message

header 18 completed with the operation

fur request | 1) and reply (2). The payload of the packet ete of four addresseg,
the
hardware and protocol address of the sender and receive .

The principal packet structure of ARP packets is shown in the following table Which

_Inthis scenario, th
Jlustrates the case of IPv4 networks running on Ethernet. Int , the pag
es Lhe case ddress (SHA) and target hardware wal

has 48-bit fields for the sender hardware a

ding sender and target protocol addresse,

(THA), and 32-bit fields for the correspon

‘SPA and TPA). Thus, the ARP packet size in this case is 28 bytes.
9 8 15.16 31
Hardware Type Protocol type
HLEN PLEN Operation

Sender HA (Octets 0.3)

Sender IP (octets 0-1)

Sender HA (octets 45)

Sender HA (octets 2-3) Target HA (octets 0-1)

Target HA (octets 2-5)

Target IP (octets 0-3)

Fig. Structure of ARP packet

Hardware type (HTYPE): Thi i

Bsr 29 ): This field specifies the network protocol type. Example:
p ae j
we Login “ (PTYPE): This field specifies the internetwork protocol for which
ree ate quest is intended. For IPv4, this has the value 0x0800. Th itted PT YP
! en sare a numbering space with those for Ether Type Wishence '
rdware length (HLEN): i
ee Length (in octets) of a hardware address. Ethernet
Protocol length (PLEN): Length (i
: : (in octets i
anos ihe upper layer protocol specified in PIYPE)Ione a rk ee —
Me Segre Specifies the operation that the send ri 2 ip od
. oy er is performing: 1 for request!
Sender hardware address (SHA): Media address
of the sender. In an ARP requ

this field is used to indicate the add s of the hos

: th res
reply this field is used to indicate the addre : ing t request. I
y ding the est. In an

for. (Not necessarily address

that switches do mm pay eal hein replyi t the request was |
8
The ARP PDU ts encapsulated in Ethernet frame, and that is what Layer 2 devices
examine

Sender protocol address (SPA): Internetwork address of the sender.

Target hardware address (THA): Media address of the intended receiver. In an

ARP request this field is ignored. In an ARP reply this field is used to indicate
the
address of the host that originated the ARP request,

Target protocol address (TPA); Internetwork address of the intended receiver.

Q.3. (b) An organisation is granted the block 211.17.180.0/24. The

administrator wants to create 32 subnets. (5B)

(¢) Find the subnet mask.

(ii) Find the number of addresses is each subnet,
(iii) Find the first and last addresses in subnet 1

Ans. (i) This is a Class C network. We require a mask that provides 32 subnets. /
24 has no subnets,

So we increase it until 32 . Thus the mask is /29 = 255.255.255.248.

(ii) There are 3 host bits remaining and 23 = 8. Two addresses are not available
hence a maximum of 6 hosts can be used.

(iii) Find the first and last allocatable addresses in subnet 1. The first
allocatable

address in subnet 1 will be 211.17.180.1 , the last allocatable address in subnet 1

will
be 211.17.180.

Q.4. Write a short note on: (Attempt any four) (10)

(i) RARP (ii) ICMP (iii) FTP
(iv) Domain Name System (DNS) (v) Quality of service

Ans.(i) Reter Q.No.6(a) of Pnd Term-Fxam 2017

(ii) ICMP: The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a supporting protocol
in the Internet protocol suite. Itis used by network devices, like routers, to send
error
messages and operational information indicating, for example, that a requested
service
is not available or that a host or router could not be reached. ICMP differs from
transport
protocols such as TCP and UDP in that it is not typically used to exchange data
between
systems, nor is it regularly employed by end-user network applications (with the
exception of some diagnostic tools hke ping and traceroute).

(iii) FTP: The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to
transfer computer files between a client and server on a computer network.

FTP is built on a client-server model architecture and uses separate control and
data connections between the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate
themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username
and
password, but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. For
secure
transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP
is often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS). SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is
sometimes
alwo used instead, but is technologically different.

The first FTP client applications were command-line programs developed before
operating systems had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most
Windows, Unix, and Linux operating systems. Many FTP clients and automation
utilities
have since been developed for desktops, servers, mobile devices, and hardware, and
FTP has been incorporated into productivity applications, such as web page editors.

(ic) DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical decentralized naming
system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the [nternet.or a
private
network. It associates various infurmation with domain names assigned to each of
the
12-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

ure readil ‘

mets pera Pesce ase ne

names to the numerical IP addresses needed fo deny

i ith the underlying network protocols. By pro: Yin,

computer services and devices with t Sve SY prov; ne
worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name ystem is an Caen,
component of the functionality of the Internet, and has been in use Since the 1989,
:
w in 1983 by Paul Mockapetris. vs Be:

. itaek Salice System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain Nang,

and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating authoritative
Servers for each domain. Network administrators may delegate authority
domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanis
distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a single la
database, ‘

The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the data
service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed Specification
of
data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS, as Part of the
Internet Protocol Suite. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were
sealable to large or global directories as they were originally based on text
files,
prominently the HOSTS. TXT resolver.

(v) Quality of Service (QoS): Refers to the capability of a network to Provide

better service to selected network traffic over various technologies, including
frame
Relay, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM ), Ethernet and 802.1 networks, SONET, and
IP-routed networks that may use any or al) of these underl ying technologies. The
Primary
g0al of QoS is to Provide priority including dedicated bandwidth, controlled jitter
and
latency (required by some real-time and interactive traffic), and improved logs
characteristics. Also importantiis making sure that providing priority for one or
more

Over
™ prog;
Tge Centra
—_--~~~——

END TERM EXAMINATION [MAY-JUNE-2016]

SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]
DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKS
{ETEC-310]

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ality, It provides a way to deliver the end.tg

ions require by explicitly managin

t streams (flows). It uses “resourgy

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14-2016

visualization, and virtual re

(QoS) that real-time applicat
QoS to specific user packe
isms as

conferencing.
end Quality of Service
network resources to provide P
reservation” and “admission control” mechan
and maintain QoS. i
~ tion Protocol (RSVP) to explicitly signal the Qog
devices in the end-to-end path through the
ath can reserve the necessary bandwidth,

IntServ uses Resource Reserva

needs of an application’s traffic along the
network. Ifevery network device along the p th
the originating application can begin transmitting.

Resides end-to-end signaling, IntServ requires several functions on

switches along the path:

Admission Control: Determine whether a new flow can be granted the requested
QoS without impacting existing reservations

Classification: Recognize packets that need particular levels of QoS

Policing: Take action, including possibly dropping packets, when tr affic does not
conform to its specified characteristics .

Queuing and Scheduling: Forward packets according to those QoS requests that
have been granted.

Q.1. () What is meant by circuit switching? Discuss. (4)

routers and

Ans. Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunications network

in which two network modes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit)
through the network before the nodes may communicate. The circuit guarantees the
full
bandwidth of the channel and remains connected for the duration of the
communication
session. The circuit functions as if the nodes were physically connected as with an
electncal areuit.

The defining example of a cireuit-switched network is the early analog telephone

network. When a call is made from one telephone to another, switches within the
telephone exchanges create a continuous wire circuit between the two telephones,
for as
long as the call lasts.

Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching which divides the data to be
transmitted into packets transmitted through the network independently. In packet
switching, instead of being dedicated to one communication session at a time,
network
links are shared by packets from multiple competing communication sessions,
resulting
in the loss of the quality of service guarantees that are provided by circuit
switching.

Q.1. (g) Explain IP4 packet format. (4)

Ans. Internet Protocol being a layer-3 protocol (OSI) takes data Segments from

layer-t (Transport) and divides it into packets. IP packet encapsulates data unit
received
from above layer and add to its own header information. ;

IP Header Layer - 4 Data

(1? Encapsuiation)

The encapsulated data is referred to ag IP Payload. IP header contains all the

necessary information to deliver the packet at the other end.

meen, See
IP University (HH Teeh/ AL Publisher 2016-15

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IP header includes many relevant information including Version Number, which, in

thia context, is 4. Other details are as follows:

Version: Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).

TUL: Internet Header Length; Length of entire ] P header.
DSCP; Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.

ECN: Exphcit Congestion Notification; Mt carries information about the congestion

seen in the route.

Total Length: Length of entire 1P Packet (including IP header and IP Payload).

Identifications If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the

fragments contain same identification number. to identify original IP packet they
belong
to

Flags: As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle,

these ‘flags’ tells ifthey can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, the MSB is
always
eet to 0"

Fragment Offset: This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the
original
IP Packet.

Time to Live: To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with some TTL
value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this packet can cross.
At

each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the value reaches zero, the
packet is
discarded

Protocol: Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this
packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of
ICMP is
1, TCP ts 6 and UDP is 17
Header Checksum: This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header
which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.

Source Address; 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
Destination Address: 52-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.

Options: This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater than
5.

These options may contain values for options such as Security, Record Route, Time
Stamp, etc
16-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communicabon and Networks
UNIT-I
Q).2. Explain the ISO/OSI Network model with neat diagram. (12.5)

Ans. ISO/OSI Model in Communication Networks:

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over thy
world. So to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems Must be
developed which are compatible to communicate with each other ISO has developeg
this. ISO etands for International organization of Standardization This is called g
model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and js commonly known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a eeven layer architecture It defines seven layers or levels
in
a complete communication system.

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Feature of OSI Model :

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI

model.

2. We see how hardware and software work together.

3, We can understand new technologies as they are developed.

4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.

5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

Functions of Different Layers :

Layer 1: The Physical Layer:

1 It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2 It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data

over network.

4, Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical
layer.

5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.

G6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

{
IP. UniversityB.Tech)}-AB Publisher 2016-17

Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

1. Data link Jayer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the
physical layer.

2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from
one node to another, over the physical layer.

3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.

4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by
this layer.

5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes ard also manages the

Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop,
when
the frame buffers are full.

Layer 3: The Network Layer:

1. It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controlier. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.

4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets
into messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer :

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by

this layer

3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into
smaller units and passes it/on to the Network layer.

4.Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.

Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer. :

Layer 5: The Session Layer :

1. Session layer manages.and synchronize the conversation between two different

applications.

2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are
marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not
cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver
will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.

2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for
the application layer. ie

3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under

this condition presentation layer plays a role of translator. Me

4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer:

1. It is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this
layer.
Mail services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided by
application
layer.

3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be
sent data.

———————

:
i
i
i
18-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Commuracation and Networks

Merits of OSI reference model:

1.051 model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and piers
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changea,
4. Supports connection oriented services aa well a9 connectionlews servies
Demerits of OSI reference model:
1. Model waw devised before the invention of protocols,

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.

3.1t is just used as a reference model

Q.3.(a) Discuss the different signal encoding techniques. 6

Ans. In order to transport digital bits of data across carrier waves, enciing
techniques have been developed each with their own pros and cons. This documergy
briefly describes some of the more common techniques.

Manchester Phase Encoding (MPE)

802.3 Ethernet uses Manchester Phase Encoding (MPE). A data bit ‘1’ from the
level-encoded signal (i.e. that from the digital eireuitry in the host machine
sending
data) is represented by a full cycle of the inverted signal from the master clock
which
matches with the ‘0’ to ‘1’ rise of the phase-encoded signal (linked to the phase
of the
carrier signal which goes out on the wire). i.c.-V in the first half of the signa]
and +V in
the second half.

The data bit ‘0’ from the level-encoded signal is reprezented by a full normal
cycle of
the master clock which gives the ‘1’ to ‘0’ fall.of the phase-encoded signal. ie.
+V in the
first half of the signal and -V in the second half.

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The above diagram shows graphically how MPE operates. The example at the
bottom of the diagram indicates how the digital bit stream 10110 is encoded.

A transition in the middle of each bit makes it possible to synchronize the sender
and receiver. At any instant the ether can be in one of three states: transmitting
a0 bit
(-0.85¥), transmitting a 1 bit (0.85v) or idle (0 volts). Having a norma} clock -
well as an inverted clock signal leads to regular transitions which means
LP. University4B.Tech-AB Publisher 2916-19

synchronisation of clocks is easily achieved even if there are a series of ‘0's or

‘I's. This
results in highly reliable data transmission. The master clock speed for Manchester
encoding always matches the data speed and this determines the carrier vignal
frequency,
so fur 1OMbps Ethernet the carrier is 1OMHz.
Differential Manchester Encoding (DME)

A ‘I’ bit is indicated by making the first half of the signal, equa! to the last
half of
the previous bit's signal i.e no transition at the start of the bit-time. A 0’ bit
is indicated
by making the first half of the signal opposite to the last half of the previous
bit’s signal
i.e. a zero bit ia indicated by a transition at the beginning of the bit-time. In
the middle
of the bit-time there is always a transition, whether from high to low, or low to
high.
Each bit transmitted means a voltage change always occurs in the middle of the bit-
time to ensure clock synchronisation. Token Ring uses DME and this is why a
preamble
is not required in Token Ring, compared to Ethernet which uses Manchester encoding.
Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

NRZ encoding uses 0 volts for a data bit of ‘0’ and a +V yolts for a data bit of
‘1’. The
problem with this is that it is difficult to distinguish a series of ‘1's or ‘0's
due to clock
synchronisation issues. Also, the average DC voltage is. 1/2V 80 there is high
power
output. In addition, the bandwidth is large i.e. from OHz to half the rate because
for every full signal wave, two bits of data can be transmitted (re that with
MPE the data rate equals the bit rate whichis even more inefficient) ie. two bitswf
information are transmitted for every cycle (or hertz).

Afler 50m of cable attenuation the signal amplitude may have been reduced to
100mV giving an induced noise tolerance of 100mV.

Return to Zero (RZ)

With RZ a ‘0’ bit is represented by 0 volts whereas a'‘l’ data bit is represented
by +V
volts for half the cycle and 0,volts for the second half of fhe cycle. This means
that the
average DC voltage is reduced to 1/4V plus there is the added benefit of there
always
being a voltage change even if there are a series of ‘1's. Unfortunately, the
efficiency of
bandwidth usage decreases if there are a series of ‘1's since now a‘1’ uses a whole
cycle.
Non Return to Zero Invertive (NRZ-I)

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20-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

With NRZ-I a ‘1’ bit is represented by 0 volts or +V volLs depending «

level. If the previous voltage was 0 volts then the ‘I’ bit will be represented
bres
however if the previous voltage was +V volts then the “]’ bit will be vassal Vag
volts. A ‘O’bit is represented by whatever voltage level was used previously That
1%
that only a ‘1’ bit can ‘invert’ the voltage, a ‘0’ bit has no effect on the
voltage it Rita
the same as the previous bit whatever that voltage was. iti.

This can be demonstrated in the following examples for the binary pallerns
and 111)1: i

Note how that a ‘1’ inverts the voltage whilst a ‘0’ leaves it where it is This
that the encoding is different for the same binary pattern depending on the vd

starting point.
The bandwidth usage is minimised with NRZ-I, plus there are frequent Voit
changes required for clock synchronisation.

With fibre there are no issues with power output 80 a higher clock frequency is ¢
whereas with copper NRZ-I would not be acceptable,
4B/5B .

_ 4BY5B encoding is sometimes called ‘Block coding’. To get around this problem, ,
intermediate encoding takes place before the MLT.3 encoding. Each 4-bit ‘nibbi¢,
received data has an extra 5th bit added. if input data is dealt with in 4-bit
nibbs
there are 24 = 16 different bit patterns. With 5-bit ‘packets’ there are 25 = 32
differe
bit patterns. Asa result, the 5-bit patterns can always have two‘l’s in them even
if 6
data is all ‘0's a translation occurs to another of the bit patterns. This enables
cl
synchronisations required for reliable data transfer.

Notice that the clock frequency is 125MHz. The reason for this is due to the 4B
encoding. A 100MHz signal would not have been enough to give us 100Mbps, we need
125MHz clock.
5B/6B

Same idea as 4B/5B but you ean have DC balance (3 zero bits and 3 one bits in ea
group of 6) to prevent polarisation. 5B/6B Encoding is the process of encoding th
scrambled 5-bit data patterns into predetermined 6-bit symbols. This creates,
balanced data pattern, containing equa] numbers of 0’s and 1’s, to provide
guarantee
clock transitions synchronization for receiver circuitry, as well as an even power
valu
on the line.

5B6B encoding also provides an added error-checking capability. Invalid symbd

and invalid data patterns, such as more than three 0’s or three 1’s in a row, are
east
detected

For 100VG-Any LAN for instance, the clock rate on each wire is 30MHz, therefer
30Mbits per second are transmitted on each pair giving a total data rate of 120Mbau
sec. Since each 6-bits of data on the line represents 5 bits of rea] data due to
the 5B
encoding, the rate of real data being transmitted is 25Mbits/sec on each pair,
giving!
total rate of real data of 100Mbits/sec. For 2-pair STP and fiber, the data rate ®
120Mbits/sec on the transmitting pair, for a real data transmission rate of 1003s
BEC.
8B/6T |

8B/6T means send 8 data bits as six ternary (one of three voltage levels) signals.
3
4 (6/8) wave transitions transitions per bit i.e. the carrier just needs to be
running #3
4 of the speed of the data rate. a

The incoming data stream is split into 8-bit patterns. Each 8-bit data pattero we
two voltage levels 0 volts and V volts is examined. This 8-bit pattern is then con
into a 6-bit pattern but using three voltage levels -V, 0 and V volts, so each 8-
bit part

ee ee RE NT
LP University B Tech AB Publoher 2516-21

nas a uniquo 6T code. For example the bit pattern 0000 0000 (0x00) uses the cade +
20+ and 0000 1110 (OE) uses the code -+0-0+. There are 36 « 729 penaible patterns
symbols) The rules for the symbols are that there must be at least two voltage
Transitions (to maintain clock synchronisation) and the average DC voltage must be
teru (this ts called “DC balance’ that 1s the overall DC voltage is summed up to
Ov, the
+V and -V transitions are evenly balanced either side of OV) hich ktops any
polarisation
on the cable

The maximum frequency that the 6T codes could

FCC rules do not allow anything above 30MHz one
ullow anything above 16MHz (which is what 100BaseT4 wag designed for). The
100 BaseT4 standard uses 8B/6T encoding on three pairs in a round robin fashion
such

that the maximum carrier frequency on any single pair is 37.5/3 = 12.5MHz.
3310B

Each octet of data is examined and assigned a 10 bit code group. The data octet ia
split up into the 3 most significant bits and the 5 least significant bits. This is
then
represented as two decimal numbers with the least significant bits first e.g for
the
actet 101 00110 we get the decimal 6.5. 10 bits are used to create this ende group
and
the naming convention follows the format /D6 5/ There are also 12 special code
groups
which follow the naming convention /Kay/.

The 10 bit code groups must either céntain five ones and five zeros, or four ones
and
sIX Zeros, or six ones and four zeros. This ensures that not too many consecutive
ones
and zeros occurs between code groups thereby maintainirig clock synchronisation.
Tao
commas’ are used to aid in bit synchronisation, these ‘coramas’ are the 7 bit
patterns
9011111 (+comma)and 1100000 (-comma).

In order to maintain a DC balance, aicaleulation called the Running Disparity

calculation is used to try to keep the number of ‘0's transmitted the same as the
number
of ‘1's transmitted.

This uses 10 bits for each 8 bits of data and therefore drops the data rate speed
relative to the line speed, for instance in order to gain a data rate of 1Gbps the
line
speed has to be 10/8.x 1 = 1 25Gbps.

Q.3. (6) Explain in detail the error detection and error corrections. (6.5)

Ans. Error detection is the detection of errors caused by noise or other

impairments
during transmission from the transmitter to the receiver.

Error correction is the detection of errors and reconstruction of the original,

error-
free data.

Error detection schemes:

Error detection is most commonly realized using a suitable hash function (or
checksum algorithm). A hash function adds a fixed-length tag to a message, which
enables receivers to verify the delivered message by recomputing the tag and
comparing
it with the one provided.

There exists a vast variety of different hash function designs. However, some are
of
particularly widespread use because of either their simplicity or their suitability
for
etecting certain kinds of errors (e.g., the cyclic redundancy check’s performance
in
tecting burst errors).

A random-error-correcting code based on minimum distance coding can provide a

trict guarantee on the number of detectable errors, but it may not protect against
a
eimage attack. A repetition code, is a special case of error-correcting code:
although
ather inefficient, a repetition code is suitable in some applications of error
correction
nd detection due to its simplicity.
1. Parity bits: A parity bit is a bit that is added toa group of source bits to
ensure
that the number of set bits (i-e., bits with value 1) in the outcome is even or
odd. It is a

generate on one carner ia 37 SMH z.

ables and Category 3 cable does nat
22-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

v simple scheme that can be used to detect single or any other oda
hain reac etc.) of errors in the output. An even number of flipped hits will bez
parity bit appear correct even though the data is erroneous.

2. Checksums: A checksum of a message is a modular arithmetic fum of |

code words of a fixed word length (e.g., byte values). The sum may be negated by
of a ones'-complement operation prior to transmission to detect errars resulting ie
zero Messages. - Be

Checksum schemes include parity lfts, check digits, and longitudinal] redunda,,
checks, Some checksum schemes, such as the Damm algorithm, the Lukn algerie
and the Verhoeff algorithm, are specifically designed to detect errors comme
introduced by humans in writing down or remembering identification numbers,

3. Cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) : Acyclic redundancy check (CRC) isa te

secure hash function designed to detect accidental changes to digital data in com
networks; as a result, it is not suitable for detecting maliciously introduced
errors.
characterized by specification of what is called a generator polynomial, which is
used,
the divisor ina polynomial long division over a finite field, taking the input data
ast
dividend, such that the remainder becomes the result. |
A cyclic code has favorable properties that make it well suited for detecting bur
errors. CRCs are particular! y casy to implement in hardware, and are therefore
commezx:;

used in digital networks and storage devices such as hard disk drives.
Even parity isa special case o

f a eyclic redundancy check, where the single-bit CR

is Generated by the divisor x + 1.

Codes with minimum Hamming distance d =

correcting codes, and can be used to detect single e

a Single-error-detecting code.

2 are degenerate cases of err:

trors. The parity bit is an example ¢

UNIT-II
Q.4, Explain about the data link protocol architecture with the neat

Ans. The data link layer is concerned

on the same LAN_ Data-link frames, as t
the boundaries of a local network.

The data link layer has two sublayers: logical link control (LLC) and media
control (MAC).

with local delivery of frames between

hese protocol data units are called, do not

logical link control

media access control
The uppermost sublayer, LLC, multiplexes protocols running atop the data hi

layer, and optionally provides flow control, acknowledgment, and error

notificaticn.

LLC provides addressing and control of the data link. It specifies which i 2

are to be used for addressing stations over the transmission medium and for

the data exchanged between the originator and recipient machines.

MAC may refer to the sublayer that determines who is allowed to access the

at any one time (e.g. CSMA/CD). Other times it refers to a frame structure

based on MAC addresses inside.

There are generally two forms of media access control: distributed and

these may be compared to communication between people. In a network

IP UmversityB Tech -AB Publisher mien

up of people speaking. 1 e. a conversation, we lock for chaes from our fel talkers
ewe
ifany of them appear to be about to speak Iftwo people era at the same time, they
will each pause a random amount cf time aad then attempt to speak again, efectitaly
establishing a long and elaborate game of saying “ns, yoo firit”

Data link protecols may provide any of the fuilowing servicea:

Framing: Data is broken up into frames that are transcutted as independent

umuts. Iferrors are detected in a frame, it is only necesaary to retransmit that
fame.

Session setup and termination: For reliable services, season contrsl messages
are used by end systems to exchange status informatuon aboot the seanon.

Error detection: Determices whether a frame has been delivered acourwaly A

checksum is calculated cn a frame by the sender, and the receiver must perfume the
game calculation and come up with the same checksum. [/ ect, the frame w comsidersd
corrupted. If reuable services are be:ng used, the frame a retrancsmmtted. Far
eemrailadie
services, the frame is dropped and upper-layer protocols are relied on ta handle
the
problem.

Addressing on a multipoint medium such a3 a LAN Acompoter’s address is couaily

the hardwired address of the NIC (network interface card).

Flow control: A tech que that prevents the sender fom sending more, overfowaug
the receiver with more data than it can handle.

Coemmen Data Link Protocc!s are SDLC (Syachzcaeus Data Link Protece!) , HDLC
(High-level Data Link Control), PPP ( Paimt-to-Peant Protsenl) ete.

Q.A. (6) Discuss in detail about HDLC. (SS

Ans. High-Level Data Link Central. also know as HDLC, ig a it cmented, switched

and nen-switched protocol. It is a data link controt protecnl, and falls withun
layer 2, the

Data Link Layer, of the Open Systems [cterfaceyOSI) model

HDLC is a protocol developed by the International Organization fer

Standardization( ISO» It fal’: under the [SO standards ISO 3309 and [80 4315. Ik
found itself being used throughout the world. It hasbeen so widely umplemenced
because
it supports both half du p'ex and fu!! duplex eommunicatcn Loes, point te pound
peer te
peer) and multi-poir.t networks, and switched cr non-switched channels. The
procedures
outlined in HDLC are desigmed to permit synchronous, code-tramsparent data
transmission Other benefits of HDLC are that the control infermauen is always im
the
same position, and specific bit patterns used for control dSerdramancally Som those
in representing data, which reduces the chance of errors
HDLC STATIONS AND CONFIGURATIONS

HDLC specifies the following three types of stations fer data link comtrel:
(a) PRIMARY STATION: Within a network using HDLC as it’s data link protseni,
if a configuration is used in which there is a primary station. 1t is used as the
coutroiling
station on the link. It has the responsibility of controlling all other statielia
om the
Kink‘ usually secondary stations) Despite this impertant aspect ef being om the
ink, the
primary station is also responsible for the organization of data flow oa the bos [t
alse
takes care of error recovery at the data link leveli layer 2 of the OST model

(6) SECONDARY STATION: If the data link protecol being used ws HDLC, anda
primary station is present, a secondary station must also be preset ca the data Lok
The secondary station is under the control of the primary station. It has no abate
or
direct responsibility for controlling the ink. Itis only activated when requested
by tha
primary station. It only responds to the primary station The secondary station's
Games
are called responses. It can only send response frames when requested by the
primary
24-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

(c) COMBINED STATION. Acombined station is a combination of a Primary E

secondary «tation. On the link, all combined stations are able to send ang ang
commands and responses without any permission from any other stations on ean
Each combined station is in full control of itself, and does not rely on any other
sual
on the link. No other stations can control any combined station.

(a) UNBALANCED CONFIGURATION: The unbalanced configuration jn ia!

HDLC link consists of a pnmary station and one or more secondary stations. The
unbalanced oceurs because one stations controls the other stations. In a unbalaneeg
configurations, any of the following can be used

1 Full - Duplex or Half- Duplex operation

2. Point to Point or Multi-point networks ;

(b) BALANCED CONFIGURATION. The balanced configuration in an HDL

link consists of two or more combined stations. Each of the stations have equal ang
complimentary responsibility compared to cach other Balanced configurations can
used only the following:

1. Full - Duplex or Half - Duplex operation

2. Point to Point networks

(c) HDLC Operational Modes: HDLC offers three different modes of operation.
These three modes of operations are:

(i) Normal Itesponse Mode. This ia the mode in which the primary station initiates
transfers to the secondary station. The secondary station can only transmit a
response
when, and only when, it is instructed to do so by the primary station. In other
words, the
secondary station must receive expliat permission from the primary station to
transfer
a response. After receiving permission from the pmmary station, the secondary
station |
initiates it’s transmission. This transmission from the secondary station to the
primary
station may be much more than jusban acknowledgment of a frame. It may in fact be
more than one information frame: Once the last frame is transmitted by the
secondary

station, it must wait once again from explicit permission to transfer anything,
from the
primary station. Norma! Response Mode is only used within an unbalanced
configuration.
(ii) Asynchronous Response Mode In this mode, the primary station doesn?
initiate transfers to the secondary station. In fact, the secondary station does
not have ~
to wait to receive explicit permission from the pnmary station to transfer any
frames, —
The frames may be more than just acknowledgment frames. They may contain data, or
control information regarding the status of the secondary station. This mode can
reduce {
overhead on the link, as no frames nced to be transferred in order to give the
secondary —
station permission to initiate a transfer However some limitations do exist. Due to
the -
fact that this mode is Asynchronous, the secondary station must wait until it
detects —
and idJe channel before it can transfer any frames. This is when the ARM link is
operating
at half-duplex. If the ARM link is operating at full-duplex, the secondary station
can ~
transmit at any time. In this mode, the primary station still retains
responsibility for |
error recovery, link setup, and link disconnection.
(iii) Asynchronous Balanced Mode: This mode uses combined stations. There #
no need for permission on the part of any station in this mode. This is because
combi
stations do not require any sort of instructions to perform any task on the link.
Normal Response Mode is used most frequently in multi-point lines, where
primary station controls the link. Asynchronous Response Mode is better for pow
point links, as it reduces overhead. Asynchronous Balanced Mode is not used
today.
The “asynchronous” in both ARM and ABM does not refer to the format of the ¢
on the link. It refers to the fact that any given station can transfer frames WH"

explicit permission or instruction from any other station.

IV Unsveraty 40 Tecns-AB Publisher 2916-26

HDLC Non-Operational Modes

HOLS ales defines three netstat atvciel mates Then Ubree nen operetacnal modes
are’

1 Normal Disconnected Mediet 817%,

2 Asyochroncus Diacotinerted Made ADM

4 Ieitializatian Mode IM,

HDLC frame format: The contents of an HOLE frame ere shown in the following
table

TABLE: ee Format of DLC

- —

[ Flag Address aig Conies intonmelion / ¥CSB | Ls

a ; i i Flag
the | hone. |. Jeo) a | 8 bits
1G bits | length, n*
|

hita
% hits hits

Note that the end flag — frame nay te (hut docs not have ta be) the begunning
(start) flag of the nezt frame

Data ia usually sent in multiples of 6 bits, but only eome variaats require this;
othera thesretically permit data alignmerita on other than &-bit boundariet.

The frame check sequence (FCS) ia 16-611. CRCCCITT or a 82-bit CRC-32

computed over the Address, Contro|, and Information ficlds. It provides a means by
which the receiver can detect errors that may have Leen duced dunng tne
transmission
of the frame, such aa lost bita, lipped bits, andeztrancens bits. However, given
that the
algorithms used to calculate the PCS are euch that the probability of certain types
of
traristniasion errors going undetected increas with the length of the data being
checked
for errors, the FCS can implicitly lim:t the practical size of the frame.

Ifthe receiver's caleulation of the PCS does not match that of the sender's,
indicating
that the frame contains errors, the receiver can either send a negative acknowledge
packet to the sender, or send nothing. After either receiving a negative
acknowledge
packet or timing out waiting for a positive acknowledge packet, the sender can
retranamit the failed frame.

The FCS was implemented because many early communication links had a
relatively high bit error rate, and the FCS could readily be computed by simple,
fast
circuitry or software. More effective forward error correction schemes are now
widely
used by other protocols.

Q.5. (a) Discuss sliding window flow control in data link control? (6)

Ans. The Sliding Window Flow Control: With a simple stup-and-wait protocol,
the sender waits for an acknowledgment after transmitting each frame. As a result,
there is at most a eingle outatanding frame on the channel at any given time, which
may

be far Jexs than the channel's capacity. The network will be empletely idle during
times
that machines delay responses (e.g while machines compute routes or checksums). If

we imagine a network with high transmission delays, the problem becomes clear

A simple positive acknowledgement protocol wastes a eubstantia] amount of

network bandwidth because it must delay sending a new packet until it receives an
acknowledgement for the previous packet.

The key feature of the eliding-window protocol is that it permits streamed

communication It allows the sender to transmit multiple packets before waiting for
ar
acknowledgement. The transtnigsion of 3 packets can look like this:

a
26-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks 4

S$ ender Network Recelver

Send packat? |

Send packet? | _ oy) Receive packet 1

Sena packet? |__ oe Send ACK
va

en — gt Receive packet 2

Receive ACK1. Ho Send ACK?

* a Recelve packet?
Receive ACK? —_——1 Send ACK)

Receive ACK}

——
|

How sliding window works

The sliding-window algorithm works as follows. Sequence and acknowledgemen,

numbers used in the sliding window algorithm, are the values of sequence number ang
acknowlegdement number fields in theTCP headers of the packets involved in the
transmission.
The Sender's point of view

The sender assigns a sequence number to each frame, ranging from 0 up to some
maximum number. At any instant of time, the sender maintains a list of consecutive
sequence numbers corresponding to frames it is permitted to send. This list, termed
the
sending window, represents frames sent but not yet acknowledged. When an
acknowledgment arrives, the lower edge of the window is advanced to the
corresponding
sequence number, thereby allowing the sender to transmit new frames. (Note that
wnen
the atk. sends an acknowledge for frame s, this is understood to mean that all
frame§ up to and including s have been received.)

Let SWS be the maximum sender window size.

Let LAR be the sequence number of the last acknowledgment received.

Let LFS be the sequence number of the last frame sent.

The sender maintains a sliding variable:

LFS - LAR +1 <= SWS.

Since frames currently within the sender’s window may ultimately be lost or |
damaged in transit, the sender must keep all these frames in its memory for
possible |
retransmission. Thus, the sender must have a buffer large enough to hold as many
frames as there are in its window. The sender records the time at which every
packet is
sent. If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment for a packet before the
timeout
period elapses, it retransmits the original frame.
The Receiver’s point of view

The receiver also maintains a receiving window, corresponding to the number of

out-of-order frames it is permitted to accept. Any frames falling outside the
window are
discarded without comment.

Let RWS be the maximum receiver window size.

Let HFA be the highest-numbered frame that will be accepted.

Let NFE be the next frame expected.

The receiver maintains a sliding variable:

HFA-NFE+1< = RWS,

When a frame with sequence number s arrives, the receive

action. If s< NFE ors > HFA, then the frame is outside the receiver's window
is discarded. If NFE <=s <= HFA, then the frame is accepted.

An acknowledgment for s is sent if the following conditions are met:

r takes the followins

and soit
1P Univervity=B Tech+AB Publisher 2016-27

1) 6 has not yet heen acknowledged.

2) wl frames in the range from NFE to s have been received.

Jn thes way, the acknowledgments are cumulative: Whenthe acknowledgment is

sent, the rece ver eets NFE #5 + 1 and HFA « 6 + RWS.

Q.5. (§) Describe LAN architecture along with Bus andT topologies?

4 (6.5)

Ans. The architecture on which you chouse to base your network is the single most
important deciwen you make when setting up a LAN. The architecture defines the
tpeed of the network, the medium acours control mechanism it uses (fer example,
collision
devecucn toler: paswing, and 6 on), the types of cables you can use, the network
interface
adapters you must buy. and the adapter drivers you install
_ The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has defined and
documented a vet of standards for the physical charactenstics of both cullision-
detection
and tehen-parsing networks. These standards are known as IEEE 802 3 (Ethernet)
and IEEE 6025 (Token-Ring), respectively. [EEE $02.1] (Wi-Fi) defines wireless
vermane of Ethernet.

The must commen choice today fer new networks is Ethernet (both wired and
wireless In rare cases, you may encuunter a Token-Ring or ARO net network

jo ;O ja
io

ys boon

Figure: Bus and Tree toplogy

Above figure cursiieta of two topologies: Bus and Tree toplogy. In bus topology
signal
fee the somuroe as broadeased and it travels to all workstations connected to bus
cable.
Although the mewsace us broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC
nddress or IP addressmatches, accepts it. If the MAC IP address of machine doesn’t
ates, xvth the intended address, machine discards the signal. tree topology is one
of
thy must common network setups that is similar to a bus topology and a star
topology.
A tree Lopology connects one etar network to other etar networks.
Three major components of LAN are:

{ Mediam access control (MAC) protocsl

2 Network Tepology

2 Network Operating System Software

UNIT-III

Qs. (a) Discuss in detail the various aspects of IPV6. (6.5)

Ans. The mort obvious improvement in IPV6 over |Pv4 is that IP addresses are
lengthened Crum 22 bits to 12% bits. This extension ar.licipates considerable
future
growth of the Internet and provides, relief for what was perceived as an impending
vhortage of network eddreeses. IPO also supports auto-configuraticn to help correct
mnt of the shortcomings in vermon 4, and it has integrated security and mebility
Sew ree [Py6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing
space.
28-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

In particular, it permits hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate :

aggregation across the Internet, and thus limit the expansion of routing tables.
The.
of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and provides additj
optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and
configuratj"
aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol. ™

IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits with the
groups being separated by colons, for example 2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:802e:0979.
7334, but methods to abbreviate this full notation exist. :
IPv6 features include:

1. Supports source and destination addresses that are 128 bits (16 bytes) long.

2. Requires IPSec support.

3. Uses Flow Label field to identify packet flow for QoS handling by router.

4. Allows the host to send fragments packets but not routers.

5. Doesn't include a checksum in the header.

6. Uses a link-local scope all-nodes multicast address.

7. Does not require manual configuration or DHCP.

8. Uses host address (AAAA) resource records in DNS to map host names to IPv6
addresses.

9. Uses pointer (PTR) resource records in the IP6.ARPA DNS domain to map IPv6
addresses to host names.

10.Supports a 1280-byte packet size (without fragmentation).

11. Moves optional data to IPv6 extension headers.

12. Uses Multicast Neighbor Solicitation messages to resolve IP addresses to link-

layer addresses.

13. Uses Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) messages to manage membership in

local subnet groups.

14. Uses IGMPv6 Router Solicitation and Router Advertisement messages to
determine the IP address of the best default gateway.

Q.6. (6) Discus the various design issues in network layer. (6)

Ans. Network Layer Design Issues :

1. Store-and-Forward Packet Switching

The major components of the system are the carrier’s equipment (routers connected
by transmission lines), shown inside the shaded oval, and the customers’ equipment,

shown outside the oval.

* Host H1 is directly connected to one of the carrier’s routers, A, by a leased

line. In
contrast, H2 is on'a LAN with a router, F, owned and operated by the customer. This
router also has a leased line to the carrier’s equipment.

* We have shown F as being outside the oval because it does not belong to the
carrier, but in terms of construction, software, and protocols, it is probably no
different
from the carrier's routers.

* This equipment is used as follows. A host with a packet to send transmitsit tothe
nearest router, either on its own LAN or over a point-to-point link to the carrier.
.
packet is stored there until it has fully arrived so the checksum can be verified.

* Then it is forwarded to the next router along the path until it reaches the 4
destination host, where it is delivered. This mechanism is store-and-forward we

switching.
IP. University-{B.Tech)-AB Publisher 2016-29

Router Carrier's equipment

/

——

: PR >
* @| f (3 Process P2
So : sd we
Process P1 Pedal ae

Fig. The environment of the network layer protocols.

2. Services Provided to the Transport Layer

° The network layer provides services to the transport layer at the network layer/
tranaport layer interface. An important question is what kind of services the
network
layer provides to the transport layer.

* The network layer services have been designed with the following goals in mind.

(a) The servites should be independent of the router technology.

(6) The transport layer should be shielded from the number, type, and topology of
the routers present. Me

(c) The network addresses made available to the transport layer should use a
uniform numbering plan, even across LANs and. WANs.

3. Implementation of Connectionless Service

Two different organizations are possible, depending on the type of service offered.
If
connectionless service is offered, packets are injected into the subnet
individually and
routed independently of each other. No advance setup is needed.

In this context, the packets are frequently called datagrams (in analogy with
telegrams) and the subnet is called a datagram subnet. If connection-oriented
service is
used, a path from the source router to the destination router must be established
before
any data packets can be sent.

This connection is called a VC (virtual circuit), in analogy with the physical

circuits
set up by the telephone system, and the subnet is called a virtual-circuit subnet.
In this
section we will examine datagram subnets; in the next one we will examine virtual-
circuit subnets.

4. Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service

For connection-oriented service, we need a virtual-circuit subnet. The idea behind

virtual circuits is to avoid having to choose a new route for every packet sent.

Q.7. Describe the following:

(a) ARP (6)
Ans. Refer Q.2. (b) Second Term Examination 2016

Q.7.(b) ICMP (6.5)

Ans. . Refer Q.No 1 of Few Important Questions

Q.8. (a) With neat architecture, explain UDP in detail, (6)

Ans. UDP uses a simple connectionless transmission model with a minimum of

protocol mechanism. UDP provides checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for
addressing different functions at the source and destination of the datagram. It
has no
handshaking dialogues, and thus exposes the user’s program to any unreliability of
the
underlying network and so there is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate
protection. If error correction facilities are needed at the network interface
level, an
application may use the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.

ss
s

50-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

UDP is suitable for purposes where error checking and correction i

a Ctthey ,
necessary or is performed in the application, avoiding the overhea

d of such proep

‘ ie
at the network interface level. Time-sensitive applications often use Ubp becagg
dropping packeta is preferable to waiting for delayed packets, which MAY Not be ra
option in a real-time system
UDP Message Format

0 4 i} 1? 16 79 a4 2 y

N N 1 { i j 4
Saute Post Destinatin Pots
Leng Corthian
i ps
I Oata =
Figure ;: UDP Message Format
Different Field of UDP Message
Source Port: The 16-bit port number of the process that originated the UDP

message on the source device Thi

Destination Port: The 16-bit port number of the process that is the ultimate

intended recipient of the message on the destination device. This wil] usually be a
we!l)-
knowr/registered (server) po

rt number for a client request, ar an ephemeral (clien

number for a server reply

Length: The length of the entire UDP datagram, including both header and Data
fields,

t) port

Checksum: An optional 16-bit checks

plus a special “psetido header” of fields. §
Data: The encapsulated high
Q.8. (b) Discuss about con

um com puted over the entire UDP da tagram

ee below for more information
er-layer message to be sent.

gestion control and traffic management,

Ans. Network congestion in data networking and queueing theory is the reduced

quality of service that occurs when a network node is carrying more data than it
can
handle. Typical effects include
, packet loss or the blocking of new
connections. A consequence of co

ngestion is that an incremental increasé in offered load

leads either only to a small increase or even a decreas
Network

e in network throughput.
protocols that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet
loss due to congestion can increase congestion, even after the initial load hag
been
reduced to a level that would not normally have induced network congestion. Such
networks exhibit two stable states under the same level of load. The stable state
with
low‘throughput is known as congestive collapse.

Networks use con oidance techniques to try to

avoid collapse. These include: ex tocols such as 802.11 CSMA/
, and fair queueing in devices
thod is to implement priority schemes, transmitting some
T priority than others. A third avoidance method is the explicit
tk resources to Specific flows. -One example of this is the use of
ansmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T G.hn standard,

MF “ee eee
eet

(6.5)

such as routers. Another me

packets with highe
allocation of netwo
Contention-Free Tr
LP. University4B.Tech}-AB Publisher 2016-31

which provides high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area networking over varying wires
(power lines, phone lines and coamal cables).
Among the ways to classify congestion control algorithms are:

1 By type and amount of feedback received from the network: Loss; delay, single-
bit or multi-bot explicit exygmals

2 By incremental deployalnlity: Only sender needs modification: sender and receiver

peed madification.pnly reuter needs modification: sende r, receiver and routers
need
modification.

3 By performance aspect: high bandwidth-delay product networks; lossy links,

fairness; advantage to short flows; vanable-rate links

4. By fairness cntenon. max-min, proportional, “minimum potential delay”

In computer networking, network traffic control is the process of managing,

controlling or reducing the network traffic, particularly Internet bandwidth, e.g.
by the
network scheduler Itts used by network administrators, to reduce congestion,
latency
and packet loss. This ts part of bandwidth management. Traffic management ts set of
pelsoes and mechamems that allow a network to efficiently satisfy a diverse range
of
service requests Traffic management 1s necessary for providing Quality of Service
(QoS).

Q.9, Explain the SMTP and HTTP. Give their uses, state strengths and
weaknesses. (12.5)

Ans. SMTP ts part of the applicatzondayer of the TCP/IP protocol. Using a process
called “store and forward,” SMTP moves your emailen and across networks. It works
clasely with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to send your
communication
to the nght computer and email inbox.

SMTP spells out and directa how our emai! moves from your computer's MTA to an
MTA cn another computer. and even sev cral computers. Using that “store and
forward”
feature mentioned before, the meseace can move in steps from your computer to its
destination At each step, Sityphe Mail Transfer Protocol is doing its job. Lucky
for us,
this all takes place behind the seencs, and we don’t need to understand or operate
SMTP

Atmost all ef yeur onkne activity is made possible through the help of pretocols—
the epecial netwerking-software rules and guidelines that allow your computer to
link
up to networks everywhere so you can shop, read news, send email and more (Your IP
address, which stands fur Internet Protocol, is yust one of many )

The protocols are vital to your networking activity and, fortunately for you, you
don't need to manage, instal] er even think about them They're built in to the
networking
coftware on your computers. Thank goodness fer advanced technology and IT geniuses!
Shl. every ence in a while, you may find yourself having to learn about a pratocol—
pach as your IP address. That's the case with a term that affects every email
you've ever
beat cut in your entre life—Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, or SMTP. Without it,
your
mada would go nowhere.

What is SMTP?

SMTP is part of the application layer of the TCP'1P protocol. Using a proceys
called
*etore and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and across networks. It works closely
with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to send your communication to
the right computer and email inbex.

SMTP epetis out and direvts how your email moves from your computer's MTA to an
MTA cn another computer, arc even several computers. Using that “store and forward"
foatare mentvoned before, the message can move in steps from your computer to its
devtination At each step, Simple Maal Transfer Protocol is dowg ita job. Lucky for
us,
thos 2 takes place behund the scenes, and we don’t need to understand or operate
SMTP
a

492-2016 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

SMTP at work

SMTP provides a set of codes that simplify the communiestion of emai)

between emai) ververs (the network computer that handles email Coming to r %
going out) It's a kind of shorthand that allows a server to break up diferent
paris.
nessage into categones the other server can understand. When you send a Mesey,
it's Lurned into strings of text that are separated by the code words (or np
identify the purpose of each section.

SMTP provides those codes, and email server software is designed to up, (
what they mean. As each meesage travels towards its destination, it sometimes pa
through a number of computers as well a their individual MTAs As it does, it's by

stored before it moves on to the next computer in the path. Think of it a3 a letter
Brey
through different hands as it winds its way to the nght mailbox.

the Internet standard for ¢-mail is the Simple Mai] Transport Protocol (Sappp
SMTP is the appheation-level protocol that handles message serviors over TCP
networks SMTP was defined in 1982 by the Internet Engineering Task Force EQ
and is currently specified in RFCs 421 and 822 SMTP uses TCP port 25

Although SMTP is the most prevalent of the e-mail protocols, it lacka some of ¢4

rich features of X 400. A pnmary weakness of standard SMTP is the lack of s upport
fg
non-text messages.

Besides SMTP, there are two oth

These are POP3 and IMAP4.
HTTP:

HTTP is short for HyperText Transfer Protocol. HTTP is the underlying proton
used by the World Wide Web and this protocol defines how messages are formatted am

transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in Teaponse ti
Various commands. =

Por example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTT)
command to the Web server directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page
The other mainstandard that controls how the World Wide Web works is HTML, whi
covers how Web pages are formatted and displayed.

HTTP is’ called a stateless protocol because each command is executed

independently, without any knowledge of the commands that came before it. This is
the
main reason that it is difficult to implement Web sites that react intelligently to
usex
input. This shortcoming of HTTP is being addressed in a number of new technologies
including ActiveX, Java, JavaScript and cookies.

Advantages of HTTP:
1.Platform independent- Allows Straight cross platform porting.
2. No Runtime support required to run properly.
3. Usable over Firewalls ! Gloval applications possible.

4.Not Connection Oriented - No network overhead to create and maintain sessiad

state and information.

Disadvantages of HTTP:
1. Not optimized for mobile.
2. Only point-to-point communication.
3. (Partly) too complex for simple data.
4. Too verbose.
5. No reliable exchange (Without retry logic).
6. No Push Capabilities. :

smber)

er protocols for delivering mail to workstation

FIRST TERM EXAMINATION [FEB. 2017]
SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH] _
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS
[ETEC-310]

Time : 1.5 Hrs. M.M. : 30

Note: Q. No. I is com pulsory. Attempt any two more Questions from the rest.

Q.1. (a) What is the difference between guided and unguided media? (2)

Ans. Guided media are more commonly known as wired media, or those media in
which electrical or optical signals are transmitted through a cables or wires.
Unguided
media are more commonly known as wireless media, in which electromagnetic signals
are sent through space with no direction. Both types of media can be used for long-
distance
and short-distance communication.

Guided transmission media:

1. Twisted pair cable 2. Co-axial cable 3. Fiber-optic cable

Unguided transmission media:

1. Infrared 2. Microwaves 3. Satellite.

Q.1. (b) What is the relationship between services and protocols?

Explain. (2)

Ans. Protocol is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication
connection use when they communicate. In other words Protocol is an agreed-upon

format for transmitting data between two devices. The protocol determines the
following:

the type of error checking to be used data compression method, if any how the
sending
device will indicate that it has finished sending a message how the receiving
device will
indicate that it has received a message Service is a program, routine, or process
that
performs a specific system function to support other programs, particularly at a
low
(close to the hardware) level.

A service is a program on the computer that provides a function for your software,
such at the NetBIOS service that connects windows workgroup machines, or the DHCP
Client that acquires a network address for your computer when you connect to the
internet. A protocol is a language the computer uses to exchange information. For
example, TCP/IP is used to negotiate connection and transfer data over the
Internet,
and HTTP is a protocol that handles transferring data between WWW servers, and

clients.
Q.1. (c) What is bit stuffing. . (2)
Ans. Bit stuffing is the insertion of one or more bits into a transmission unit as
a

| way to provide signaling information toa receiver. The receiver knows how to
detect and
remove or disregard the stuffed bits.

For example, the timing or bit rate of T-carrier system signals is constantly
synchronized between any terminal device and an adjacent repeater or between any
two repeaters. The synchronization is achieved by detecting the transition in
polarity
for 1 bits in the data stream. (T-1 signalling uses bipolar signaling, where each
successive
bit with a value of 1 is represented by voltage with a reverse polarity from the
previous
bit. Bits with a value of 0 are represented by a no-voltage time slot.) If more
than 15
bits in a row are sent with a 0 value, this “lull” in 1 bits that the system
depends on for
synchronization may be long enough for two end points to become out of
synchronization.
To handle this situation (the sequence of more than 15 0 bits), the signal is
“stuffed”
2-2017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

ique bi ich i 1 bits) that is recogni,

ique bit pattern (which includes some ed d
her a ie The receiving end removes the stuffed bits and restores the
stream to its original sequence.

In another example of bit stuffing, a standard HDLC packet begins and ends y.

. wi
01111110. To make sure this sequence doesn't appear again before the end of the
Pack
a0 is inserted after every five consecutive Ls.

Bit stuffing is defined by some to include bit padding, which is the addition ofp.

to a tranmission to make the transmission unit conform to a standard size, but

distinct from bit robbing, a type of in-band signaling.

Q.1. (d) What kind of error is undetectable by checksum.

(
Ans. At least three types of error cannot be detected by the current checksy
calcula

| tion. First, if two data items are swapped during trarlsmission, the sum and t}
: um values will not change. Second, if the value of one data item is increag,
(intentionally or maliciously) and the value of another one is decreased
(intentional
or malicously) the same amount, the'sum and the checksum cannot détect these change

if one or more data items 1s changed in such a way that the change is a multip
of 216-1, the sum or the checksum cannot detect the changes.
Q.1. (e) Which layer is responsible for:

(2
* Dialogue Control ¢ Compression
* Translations

* Flow control
Ans, Session layer,Presentation layer, Presentation layer, Data link and transpor
layer.

Q.2. (a) Explain the channel allocation problem.

Ans, We have

(8
a limited resource transmission s
several users. Unlik

pectrum, that must be shared b

€ wired communications which benefits from isolation provided b
cables, wireless users within close Proximity of one another can cause significan
interference to one another. To address this issue, the concept of cellular
communications
was introduced around in 1968 by researchers at AT and T Bell Labs. The basic
concept
being that a given geography is divided into polygons called cells.
Each cell is allocated a
portion of the total fre
a given cell, they are then

quency spectrum. As users move inty

permitted to utilize th

e channel allocated to that cell.

Channel-allocation schemes follow one

of two types of strategy:

1. Fixed: FCA, fixed channel allocation: manually assigned by the network operatat
2. Dynamic:

1. DCA, dynamic channel allocation

2. DFS, dynamic frequency selection
3. Spread spectrum .

In Fixed Channel Allocation or F ixed Channel Assignment (FCA) each cell is given
a predetermined set of frequency channels, F

CA requires manual frequency planning,

is an arduous task in TDMA and FDMA based systems, since such systems aft
highly sensitive to co-channel interference from nearby cells that are reusing the
same
channel. Another drawback with TDMA and FDMA systems with FCA is that the numbef
of channels in the cell remains

constant irrespective of the number of customers in thal

cell. This results in traffic congestion and some calls be

ing lost when traffic gets heav)

in some cells, and idle capacity in other cells. :

Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) may be applied in wireless networks with

several adjacen:

t non-centrally controlled access points. The access points automatically

select frequency channels with low interference levels, DFS is supported by the
IEE5

' —
1.P. University-{B.Tech.}-AB Publisher 2017-3

802. 11h wireless local area network standard. DFS is also mandated in the 5470-
5725
MHz U-NII band for radar avoidance

Q.2. (b) A channel has a bandwidth of 8 kHz, what is channel capacity if

signal to noise ratio being 31. For same channel capacity, if signal to noise ratio
is increased to 61, then, what will be the new channel bandwidth? (5)

Ans. According to Shannon theorem-

C = B*LOG, (1+S/N)
C = 8000" LOG,(1+31)

= 40 Kbps
(ii) 40000 = B*LOG,(1+61)
B =6.7 KHz
Bagr (a) What is the difference between Selective Repeat and Go-back N
i (3)

Ans. Selective Repeat is part of the automatic repeat request (ARQ). With selective
repeat, the sender sends a number of frames specified by a window size even without
the need to wait for individual ACK from the receiver as in Go-Back-NARQ. The
receiver
may selectively reject a single frame, which may be retransmitted alone. this
contrasts
with other forms of ARQ, which must send every frame from that point again. The
receiver accepts out-of-order frames and buffers them. The sender individually
retransmits frames that have timed out.

+#— Timeout mterval ——»|

2H 3ih4i)sipelt7i| alfa] odfaol[al fralfralfral fast]

:
a7 Gay >
xe
0

% %
o SS
vy u
1 E } 31 4 54/64) 71) 84) 24] 91) 10)] 10) ]12)]) 13] 14
Me _S ae
Error Buffered by data lnk layer Messages 2-8 passed
to network layer
ina ——_—>

Deciding factors are bandwidth, complexity of protocol, types of links (noisy and
noisy less), window size, sorting, searching, storing.

Q.3. (b) Show that the hamming code can correct one bit error in the following
case.
Transmitted code is 11101 and the code received at the receiver is 110010100.
Specify which bit has an error and correct it. (5)
Ans. Transmitted code : 11101
received code : 110010190
we know that 2pow r > n¢r+1
where n = code word of length n and r = parity bits
80
ifr =4
then 2 power 4 > +441 r

2power 4= 10

for

a.
}\ we wil] check even parity sy

ade (1120 ag
Ogg the result a.et E244 pay

y_1_110_1
(2) second paruy check on the GER oot ahs
2.§.6,7.10,11, then the corresponding waar 6 be

bit wall be

wi_110_1
cage (111

_. will check even pd . :

(3) fourth panty check on the pvenc OL) we will check even panty cag
2 ng value will be 1 ©

4.5.6.7,12.13.14 then the correspon the msuit aher &

parity tut will be

wigii10_i ;

(4) eaghth parity check oa the piven code (11101) ae will check even panty ony

npieall be | so the resat after &

§.15.24.31,40, then the corresponding val

panty bit will be

201911091

this the code revived at receiver ¢

code is 110010100

if there is 1 bit error then the change wo

code (101011001 ) but there are multiple b
error in with multiple bit are change

Also Refer Q.3'b) of First Ter= 316

Q.4. Write a short note on: (24

(a) Ring Topology

Ans. A mng topology 1s 8 Bet ork configuranon

in which device connections create a
circular data peth. Each networked device 15s
connected to two others, like points on a circle
Together, devices in a ring topology are ref erred to 2s
anng network

In a ring network, packets of data travel from

ope device to the next until they reach their

destination. Most mng topologies allow packets to

travel only in one direction, called a unidirec-
tional ring network. Others permit data to move in
either direction, called bidirectional. ‘|
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is
that if any individual connection in the ring is broken,
the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide &
networks (WANs).
QA. (b) Circuit Switching Networks. (t
Ans. Circuit switching is a switching method in which a dedicated communia>
path in physical form between two stations within a network is established, mainta
and terminated for each communication session. It has basically three phases a3 cx
establishment, data transfer and circuit disconnect. 3
Once the connection is éstablished, the data transfer is transparent. The ©
: - feature of such a connection is that it provides a fixed data rate channel and
subscribers must operate at this rate. It is considered inefficient compared to

ad bet aoverding to the questio2 thea recery

] be in any bat in the corresponding recerm

+ error, so this is the case of worst h
°

1 P University B.Tech.}-AB Publisher 2017-6

gsaitching because channel capacity is completely dedicated for duration of

connection.
If there is no data at any moment of time, channel capacity goes wasted. Moreover,
sethng up ef connection takes time.
| Circuit switching has two types of transmissions.
Datagram transmissions - Datagram transmissions have individually addressed
Data-stream transmissions - Data-stream transmissions have a stream of data
for which address checking occurs only once. The routing in circuit switching may
have
ether static routing or dynamic routing. In case of static routing, this
methodology uses
the came approach all the time while dynamic routing allows alternate routing
depending
en traffic.

Q.4 (c) Piggybacking (2.5)

Ans. Definition: Piggybacking, in a wireless communications context, is the

unauthorized eccess of a wireless LAN. Piggybacking is sometimes referred to as
“Wi-
Fi squatting.” .

The usual purpose of piggybacking is simply to gain free network access rather
than eny malicious intent, but it can slow down data transfer for legitimate users
of the
network Furthermore, a network that is vulnerable to piggybacking for network
access
is equally vulnerable when the purpose 1s data theft, dissemination of viruses, or
some
other ilhat acouity.

It's quite simple to access an unsecured wireless network: All you have to do is
get
into the range of a Wi-Fi hotspot's signal and select your chosen network from the
options
presented However, unauthorized network actess, even to free Wi-Fi, may be illegal.
People have been fined for accessing hot spots from outside businesses, such as
coffee
shops, that provide free Wi-Fi for customers’ use.

To protect your network from piggybacking, ensure that encryption is enabled for
your router. Use Wireless Encryption Protocol (WEP) if that’s your only option, but
if

: sasible use Wireless Protected Access (WPA) or WPA2. Use a strong password for
your
encryption key, consisting of at least 14 characters and mixing letters and
numbers.

Q.4. (d) Cable Modem (2.5)

Ans. A cable modem is a hardware device that allows your computer to communicate
with an Internet Service Provider over a landline connection. It converts an analog
signal to a digital signal for the purpose of granting access to broadband
Internet. A
cable modem works by connecting a coaxial cable to a jack in the wall and then
a Cat5 (Ethernet) cord from the modem to a computer or a network router. Network
routers are used to share your Internet connection between multiple computers.

The picture is an example of a traditional stand alone cable modem from Motorola,
there are also all in one modems that have a modem and router built into one box.
If
your modem cnly has one coamal cable connection and one Cat5 connection, your modem
+s a stand alone modem and needs a router to share the connection.

Cable offers a significant speed increase in Internet performance when compared

to a dial-upeonnection and is one of the fastest broadband solutions

Q.4 (e) Virtual Circuits (2.5)

Ams. A virtual circuit is a circuit or path between points ina network that appears
to be a discrete, physical path but is actually a managed pool of circuit resources
from
which specific circuits are allocated as needed to meet traffic requirements.

A permanent virtual circut (PVC) is a virtual circuit that is permanently available

to the user yust as though it were a dedicated or leased line continuously reserved
for
that user. A switched virtual cireuit (SVC) is a virtual circuit in which a
connection
session is get up for a user only for the duration of a connection. PVCs are an
important
feature of frame relay networks and SVCs are proposed for later inclusion.
a
END TERM EXAMINATION [MAY 2017]
SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKs |

[ETEC-310] ,

Time :3 Hrs. MM.)

Nate: Q No. 1 is compulsory. Attempt! qny five more questions. Select one question
fny
oooh umat. Assume misang data suitably.

Q.1. Attempt all parts:

Q.1.(a) Define the three transmission modes and explain. (2,

Ans: Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices, It

also called communicatian mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of
informatig
There are three types of transmission mode. They are :

1. Simplex Mode 2. Half duplex Mode 3. Full duplex Mode

1. SIMPLEX Mode: In this type of transmission mode data can be sent oy

threugh one direction i.e communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a me
back to the eender. Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems.

Examples of simplex Mode 1s loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television ay

Temete. keyboard and moniter ete.

Simplex Transmission Mode in Computer Networks

2. HALF DUPLEX Mode: Half-duplex data transmission means that data canb
transm:tted in both directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time. For
example
on a loca! area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, on
workstatzen can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the lin
from the same direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-duple
transmussion implies a bidirectional hne (one that can carry data in both
directions
but data can be sent in only one direction at a time.

Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a tim
and messages are cnt in both the directions.

Half Duplex Transmission Mode in Computer Networks

3. FULL DUPLEX Mode: In full duplex system we can send data in both direction
26 jt is bidirectional. Data can be sent in both directions simultaneously. We can
sem:
ag we!] as we receive the data.

Example of Pull Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communicatia

between two persans by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at
tht
same time.

In fu!) duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the othe
for receiving data.

Q.1. (b) What are the responsibilities of transport layer ? Enlist. (2.5!

Ans. Transport protocols occupy layer 4 of the OSI protocol model. The protocols €
this level provide connection-oriented sessions and reliable data delivery
services. Th
transpart layer ests on top of layer 3 networking services. In the Internet
Protocol suite
TCP provides transport services, while IP provides network services. In Novell's
SPX
IPX protoce] eurte, SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange) provides transport services,

IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange) provides network services. Net BIOS is also#
transpert layer protocol, ; om

Transport layer protocols provide delivery guarantees that dre essential for
tranwfers and mission-critical applications. TCP uses JP, but adds the reliability
'
at (he eoet of more overhead and slightly reduced performance. These services OP"
I.P. University-[B.Tech.|-AB Publisher 2017-7

over a “virtual connection” that is established between sender and receiver. When a
session begins, the sender uses a handshaking technique to establish a connection
with
the receiver. During the session, sender and receiver engage in a dialog that
manages
the flow of data to prevent from overflowing the receiver and confirms the receipt
of TCP
segments. A communication session goes like this:

1, Establish a connection (virtual circuit),

2. Negotiate session parameters.

3. Manage data transfers and ensure that data is reliably delivered.

¢ Connection setup and multiplexing: The sender must contact the receiver
before its starts sending data packets. They engage ina three-way handshake
operation
to establish the connection, then start transmitting data. A single computer can
establish
multiple connections with multiple computers at the same time, a feature called
multiplexing (since the packets for these different connections are transmitted
over the
same network connection).

* Flow control mechanisms: While slow start and congestion control are used to
avoid network congestion, flow controls help prevent the sender from overflowing
the
receiver with too much data. These controls are essential because the receiver
drops
packets when it is overloaded and those packets must be retransmitted, potentially
increasing network congestion and reducing system performance. See “Flow-Control
Mechanisms.”

¢ Slow start and congestion control: Once a connection has been made, the
sender starts sending packets, slowly at first so it does not overwhelm the
network. If
congestion is not bad, it picks up the pace. This is‘called “slow start.” Later,
congestion
controls help the sender scale back if the network gets busy.

*Reliability services: These services are used to retransmit corrupt, lost, and
dropped packets. Positive acknowledgements confirm to the sender that the recipient
actually received a packet (failure to transmit this acknowledgement means “resend
the packet”). Sequencing is used to number packets so that packets can be put back
in
order and lost packets can be detected. Error checking detects corrupted packets.

Q.1. (c) What are the concerns of physical layer ? (2.5)

Ans. Physical layer isthe lowest layer of all. It is responsible for sending bits
from
one computer to another: This layer is not concerned with the meaning of the bits
and
deals with the physical connection to the network and with transmission and
reception
of signals.
This layer defines electrical and physical details represented as 0 or a 1, How
many
pins a network will contain, when the data can be transmitted or not and how the
data
would be synchronized.

FUNCTIONS OF PHYSICAL LAYER: \

1. Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits
must be encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e.
how
0’s and 1’s are changed to signal.

2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of
bits per second.

3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and

receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level.

4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between devices
and transmission medium.

5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to

Point configuration and Multipoint configuration.

6. Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh,
Star, Ring and Bus.
8-2017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

Fs
7. Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of ty B
between two devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex. ADeMiagy

8. Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.Physical Layer jn IS0q

Q.1. (d) How is repeater different from an amplifier and router ?

Ans: 1. Repeater - A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to rege
the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted
to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network. :
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do no amplify the signal.
A
the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
Origin,
strength. It is a 2 port device.

2. Routers - A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based
their IP addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally conng
LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based,
which they make decisions on routing the data packets, Router divide broadcast
domaj
of hosts connected through it.

_ %Amplifier - Amplifier (also shortened as amp) is an electronic circuit th

increases the power of an input signal. There are many types of amplifiers ranging
fra
voice amplifiers: to optical amplifiers at different frequencies. A transistor can
|
configured as a simple amplifier. The ratio between output signal power to input
sign
power called as the ‘gain’ of the amplifier. Gain may be any value depending on t
application. Usually gain is converted into decibels (a logarithmic scale) for
convenien

Bandwidth is another important parameter for amplifiers. It is the frequency ran

of the signal that is amplified in expected way 3dB bandwidth is a standard measu

for amplifiers. Efficiency, linearity and slew rate are some of the other
parameters to!
considered when designing an amplifier circuit.

Q.1. (e) What is the difference between simple bridge and transpare
bridge ? (2.

Ans. A bridge isa type of computer network device that provides interconnecti
with other bridge networks that use the same protocol.

Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the Open System Interconnect (O$
mode], connecting two different networks together and providing communication betwe
them. Bridges are similar to repeaters and hubs in that they broadcast data to eve
node. However, bridges maintain the media access control (MAC) address table as so
as they discover new segments, so subsequent transmissions are sent to only to tl
desired recipient. Bridges are also known as Layer 2 switches.

While A transparent bridge is a common type of bridge that observes incomit

network traffic to identify media access control (MAC) addresses. These bridges
operat
in a way that is transparent to all the network’s connected hosts.A transparent
brid
records MAC addresses in a table that is much like a routing table and evaluates th
information whenever a packet is routed toward its location. A transparent bridge
ms
also combine several different bridges to better inspect incoming traffic.
Transpare!
bridges are implemented primarily in Ethernet networks.

Q.1. (D) What is the function of gateway ? (2.5

Ans. Gateway is a device which is used to connect multiple networks and pass

packets from one packet to the other network. Acting as the ‘gateway’ between
differed
networking systems or computer programs, a gateway is a device which forms a lin
between them. It allows the computer programs, either on the same computer of @
different computers to share information across the network through protocols. A
rou!
is also a gateway, since it interprets data from one network protocol to another.
Others such as bridge converts the data into different forms between two networkia
systems. Then a software application converts the data from one format into anotn®
Gateway is a viable tool to translate the data format, although the data itself
rem@”
unchanged. Gateway might be installed in some other device to add its functi

-
LP. University-{B.Tech.}-AB Publisher 2017-9

Q.1. (g) What is the difference between polling and selecting ? (2.5)

Ans. In electronic communication, ‘polling’ is the continuous checking of other

programs or devices by one progam or device to see what state they are in, usually
to see
whether they are still connected or want to communicate.

Specifically, in nfultipoint or multidrop communication (a controlling device with

multiple devices attached that share the same line), the controlling device sends a
message to each device, one at a time, asking each whether it has anything to
communicate
(in other words, whether it wants to use the line).

While selecting involves the specific links interconnecting nodes At the highest
level, that 1s where the architecture ofthe network is derived. Thus a hierarchy
that
include a backbone as well as LAN’S may be defined. It is possible to permit the
backbone to be a mesh while the local access networks are constrained to be trees.
As
with node selection, the lowest level problem in link selection is determined of
the
specific number and types of links.

Q.1. (h) How do guided media differ from unguided media ? Which one is
more fast ? Give reasons. (2.5)

Ans. The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks the OSI Seven
layer model is dedicated to the transmission media. Due to the variety of
transmission
media and network wiring methods, selecting the most appropriate media can be
confusing-what is the optimal cost-effective solution.

When choosing the transmission media, what are the factors to be considered are-

Transmission Rate

° Distances

* Cost and Ease of Installation

¢ Resistance to Environmental Conditions

There are two types of transmission media:

* Guided

* Unguided

Guided Media:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

¢ Shielded Twisted Pair

¢ Coaxial Cable

¢ Optical Fiber
Unguided Media: Transmission media then looking at analysis of using them
unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air. They are not
guided or bound to a channel to follow. Following are unguided media used for data
communication:

¢ Radio Transmission

¢ Microwave

¢ Satellite Communication

Q.1. (i) Differentiate between UDP and TCP protocols. (2.5)

Ans.
TCP UDP
Acronym for Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram protocol or
universal datagram protocol
Connection TCP is a connection-oriented UDP is a connectionless protocol.
Function As a message makes its way UDP is also a protocol used in
across the internet from one message transport or transfer.
computer to another. This is This is not connection based
connection based. which means that one program
can send a load of packets to
another and that would be the end
of the relationship.
10-2017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

Usage TCP ia suited for applications UDP is suitable for applicags—~

that require high reliability that need fast, efficien i
and transmission time is transmission, such as gam.’
relatively less critical. UDP’s stateless nature jg a '

useful for ——- that answer i

small queries from huge Number, |

oh of clients. |
Use by other HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP. DNA, DHCP, TF TP, SNMP, RIP}
_ protocols Telent VOIP. ane
_ Orderning of TCP rearranges data packets UDP has no inherent order as alj
| data packets in the order specified. packets are independent of each |

other. If ordering is required, it hag i

: to be managed by the application

layer.
~ Speed of transfer) The speed for TCP is slower UDP is faster because there is no

be than UDP errorcheking for packets.

Reliability There is absolute gurantee that | There is no guarantee that the
the data transferred remains messages or packets sent would

intact and arrives in the same reach at all.

order in which it was sent.

Header size TCP header size is 20 bytes UDP HeadersizeisSbytes _—i

Common Header Source pert, Destinaticn port, ~ Source port, Destination port,

elds check sum check sum

Streaming of Data is read as a byte stream, Packets are sent individually and

data no ing indications are checked for integrity only

are transmutted to signal if they arrive. Packets have definite

message (segment) boundaneca. boundaries which are honoured

upon receipt, meaning a read

Operation at the recetver socket

will yield an entire message as it

Was originally sent.

Weight TCP is heavy-weight. TCP UDP is hght weight. There is no

requires threc packets to set ordernig of messages, no tracking
up a socket connection, before connections, etc. It is a small
any user data can be sent. transport layer designed on top of IP
TCP handles reliability and
congestion control.

Data flow TCP does flew control. TCP UDP does not have an option for

Control requires three packets to set flow control

up a socket connection, before
any user data can be sent.
TCP handles reliability and
congestzon control.

Error checking | TCP does error checking UDP does error checking, but no
recovery options.
Fields 1. Sequence Number, 2. AcK 1. Length
number, 3. Data offest, 2. Source port
4. Reserved, 5. control bit, 3. Destination port

6.WAndow, 7. Urgent pointer 4. Check sum

8 Options, 9. Padding,
10. Check sum, 11. Source
pert, 12. Destination port
icknowled-- | Acknowledgement segments No Acknowledgement

Handshake SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK No handshake (connectionless

protocol) an
Shecksum checksum to detect errora Bs
IP University-(B.Tech +AB Publisher 2017-11

Q.L @) Why is adaptive routing superior to non-adaptive routing ? (2.5)

Ans. Non-adaptive or static routing : Router uses a “static routing table” for
sending the data to the destination. Static routing means “every
destination_addresa

rul be mapped to some path to reach destinahen_device using a predefined table”

Adaptive : Router uses dynamuc routing table to send the packets to the
cestinathon.
Example protocols

RIP

OSPF

[8-IS

IGRP EIGRP.

Adaptive or dynammec routing means, “the routing table is updated with possible
paths.when a packet arrives at a router(or within a particular interval)”

UNIT-I
Q.2.(a) What is ISO-OSI model? Draw a block diagram and explain
functioning of each layer. (8)

Ans. [SO;OSI Model in Communication Networks:

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the
world So to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be
developed which are compatible to communicate with each other. ISO has developed
this. [SO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called
a
model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.

The [SO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture It defines seven layers or levels
in
a complete communication system.

T= Aa iadeaneammaasl

Feature of OSI Model :

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI
medel
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
_—

2017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

9. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.

4, Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relations
tions of Different Layers :

Layer 1: The Physical Layer:

1. It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw day

hips on different networks

network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical laye;

5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.

6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.
yer 2: Data Link Layer:
1. Data link layer synchronizes the information w
hysical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from
ne node to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer,
4. This layer sends and expects acknow!cdgements for frames received and sent
alga Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by
s layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the
rame traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop,
when
he frame buffers are full.
yer 3: The Network Layer :
1. It routes the signa! through different channels from one node to other.
2 It acts ag a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic

3. It decides by which route data should take.

4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets

hich is to be transmitted over ths

into messages for higher levels.

yer 4: Transport Layer:
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by

this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into

r units and passes it on to the Network layer.

complex, depending upon the network requirements.
data) into small units so that they are handled

smalle
4. Transport layer can be very
Transport layer breaks the message (
more efficiently by the network layer.
, Layer 6: The Session Layer:
1. Session layer manages an
applications.
2. Transfer of data from source
marked and are resynchronized properly,
prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receit

will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready it

d synchronize the conversation between two differest!

to destination session layer streams of data a

so that the ends of the messages are not c#
1.P. UniversityB.Tech.|-AB Publisher 2017-13

3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems, Under

this condition preventation layer plays a role of translator.

4. It perfroms Data compreasion, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer:
1. It is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this
layer.
Mail services, directory services, network resource ete are services provided by
application
layer.

3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be
sent data.

Merits of OSI reference mode}:

1.OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.

2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.

3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.

4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model:

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols,

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.

3.[t is just used as a reference model.

Q.2.(b) For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences
if a connection fails, (2)

Q. (i)Five devices arranged in a mesh topology

Ans. Mesh is high redundancy. Only one device would be disconnected if all the
connections were to fail for that device. You can have many connections to other
devices
thats why its less likely to fail. The only cause for failure at this point is
really the
power and if you just don’t have any. Even if one of the connections between two
devices
fail there is no effect on network and they can still communicate through other
channels.

Q. (ii)Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub)

Ans. Star runs to a central device like a switch, so if the switch itself fails
then the
whole network will be disconnected.

Q. (iii)Five devices arranged in a bus topology

Ans. Bus runs in a straight line from one network device to another. So if one gets
disconnect then the all the devices connected down the line get disconnect.

Q. (iv)Five devices arranged in a ring topology

Ans. Ring is like a bus except it connects back onto itself. So if one device fails
they
all fail. The exception is if there is a redundant inside ring like that used in
FDDI (fiber
ring) then if both get disconnect from one device then they all do.

Q.2. (c) Given a remainder of 111, a data unit of 10110011, and a divisor of
1001, is there an error in the data unit. (2.5)

Ans. No error because the remainder is 0

10100111
11

1001] 101100 1
1001b4
T7000
1001¥
T
1

5
1
10)

1001
1001

Ee" noError—» 9000

5

42017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

Q.3. (nA) Assume that a voice channel occuplos a bandwidth of 4kH,

anced to multiplex 10 voice channels with guard bands of 600 Hz using FP Ws
Valeulate the required bandwidth. mM
Ans. 10 channels of 4kHz = 40kH2
1 guard bands between them of 0.5kHz » 4.5kHz
Total = 40 + 4.6 » 44.5kiHz
Q.3.(b) Consider an n*k crossbar awitch with n inputs and k outputs,
(i)Can we any that awitch acts as a multiplexer if n>k?

Can we way that switch acts as a de-multiplexer If n<k? (2.8)

Ana, (1) Yes
(i)Yenu
n n
Total of -——
-_—— Total of
N inputs ! 4 N Output
n E= n
n oe
Stage 1 Stage 3
N/n n = k crossbars Stage 2 N/n k * n crossbars

k N/n nv crossbars

Q.3, (c) Compare tho circuit switching, packet switching and message

switching using suitable diagram. (8)

Ans. Message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where messages
were routed in their entirety, ono hop at a time.

Message switching systems are nowadays mostly implemented over packet-switched

or circuit switched data networks. Each message is treated as a separate entity.
Each
message contains addressing information, and at each switch this information is
read
and the transfer path to the next switch is decided. Depending on network
conditions,a
conversation of eeveral messages may not be transferred over the same path. Each
nessage is stored (usually on hard drive due to RAM limitations) before being
ransmitted to the next switch. Because of this it is also known as a’store-and-
forward
retwork. Emai! is a common application for message switching. A delay in delivering
mail is allowed, unlike real-time data transfer between two computers.

A mesvage switch is “transactional”, It can store data or change its format and bit
ate, then convert the data back to their original form or an entirely different
form #
he receive end. Message switching multiplexes data from different sources onto®
ommon facility. A message switch is one of the switching technologies.

© A meesage is a logical unit of information and can be of any length. 4

* In message switching, if a station wishes to send a message to another station,"

ret adds the destination address to the message. a
* Message ¢witching does not establish a dedicated path between mS |
sminunicating devices ie. no direct link is established between sender and rece”

° Each meseage is treated as an independent unit. i

LF Unwess ~ EB Tech AB Pobleher 2017-15
* be Teron Ewe euch TGA Tene: as Chen trannmuotted frum device to
arces LIES Lat work i. Tueskage as trenemutted from the sourve nude to
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ames not Wtmenatia the TETRA 1 te the next mode based on an aveclable free channe]
ent 1 Seog adeno Becwuse of tho reason meneage ewitched networks are
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_ ST Sere Finch emitire COrVersabon
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ch) wnig setup e|end increases

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Q4 «& Deseo siding window Pretocel in dsta link control? (8)

Acs Te Siig Wiedow Phow Contrek With a excople stop-and-wail protocol,

cae qemuder whos for eo eiiowecoment efter trenecccume each frame As a result,
er? sg Tost 2 mugen ag Semen the checme) at acy piven time, which may
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tecwork teow wise deren fo ome deley sending a new packet cot) it receives an
recto eceemecs Sor te preva packet

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samtereecur:. 23 aliows the semder te trememct muliople packets before waiting for
an

wimewerececn Te Secemuencn of 3 peckevs cen Jouk Lhe tins:

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The slituug-w dow alporvthos works at (oows. Sequence and acknowledgement

tombers wert use eldieg widow algorsth, are the values of sequence number and
1 L017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

acknowlegdement number fields in the TCP headers of the packets invalved |

“ty

transmission.

The Sender's point of view

The sender assigns a sequence number to each frame, ranging from 0 up |

maximum number. At any instant of time, the sender maintains a list of con St
sequence numbers corresponding to frames it is permitted to send. This list,
tornelil
sending window, represents frames sent but not yet acknowledged, Whe
acknowledgment arrives, the lower edge of the window is advanced to the corresp ve,
sequence number, thereby allowing the sender to transmit new frames, (Note that wnt
the receiver sends an acknowledge for frames, this is understood to mean t} he
frames up to and including 8 have been received.) “

Let SWS be the maximum sender window size,

Let LAR be the sequence number of the last acknowledgment received.

Let LFS be the sequence number of the last frame sent.

The sender maintains a sliding variable:

LFS - LAR + 1 <= SWS.

Since frames currently within the sender's window may ultimately be loat o
damaged in transit, the sender must keep all these frames in ita memory for
ponaibls
retransmission. Thus, the sender must have u buffer large enough to hold as many
frames as there are in its window. The sender records the time at which every
packet is
sent. If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment for a packet before the
timeout
period elapses, it retransmits the original frame,

The Recciver’s point of view

The receiver also maintains 2 receiving window, corresponding to the number a

out-of-order frames it is permitted to accept. Any frames falling outside the
window are
discarded without commeht.

Let RWS be the maximum receiver window size.

Let HFA be the highest-numbered frame that will be accepted,

Let NFE be the next frame expected.

The receiver maintains a sliding variablo:

HFA-NFE + 1l< = RWS.

When a frame With sequence number s arrives, the receiver takea the following

action. If s < NFE or #> HFA, then the frame is outside the receiver's window and
soit
is discarded. If NFE <= 8s <= HFA, then the frame is accepted,

An acknowledgment for s is sent if the following conditions are met;

(1) s has not yet been acknowledged.

(2) all frames in the range from NFE to s have been received. In this way, the

acknowledgments are cumulative. When the acknowledgment is nt, the receiver sett

NFE =s + 1 and HFA = 8 + RWS. .

Q.4.(b) Define and explain the Data link layer in IEEE Project 802, Why bb

this layer divided into sub layers? (4.8)

Ans. The Data-Link layer contains two sublayers that are described in the IEEE:

802 LAN standards:

¢ Media Access Control (MAC)
¢ Lagical Link Control (LLC)
The Data-Link layer ensures that an initial connection has been set up, divide?
output data into data frames, and handles the acknowledgements from a receiver a
the data arrived successfully. It also ensures that incoming data has been reel]
successfully by analyzing bit patterns at special places in the frames.The protocel
for LLC in IEEE 802 networks, such as IEEE 802.3'Ethernet (if the EtherType ce
LP. University-{B.Tech AB Publisher 2017-17

ysa't ased |, IEEE 892.5, and IEEE 802.11, and in some non-IEEE 802 networks such
as
FDDI, ws specified by the IEEE 802.2 standard.

Some non-lEFE 802 protocols can be thought of as being split into MAC and LLC
jgyers. For example, while HDLC epecifies both MAC functions (framing of packets)
sod LLC functions (protocol multiplexing, flow control, detection, and error
control
through 8 retransmussion of dropped packets when indicated), some protocols such as
Cusco HDLC can use HDLC-like packet framing and their own LLC protocol.

Another example of a Data Link Layer which is split between LLC (for flow and
error contrel) and MAC (for multiple access) is the ITU-T G_hn standard, which
provides
tugh-<peed local area networking over existing home wiring (power lines, phone
lines
end coaxial cables).

Q-5.\a) Discuss stop and wait ARQ errorcontrolin Datalink control. (8)

Ans. Aulomatc Repeat request (ARQ), also known as Automatic Repeat Query, is
a2 error-~contrel method for data transmission that uses acknowledgements (messages
semi by the receiver incheating that it has correctly received a data frame or
packet) and
timeouts i specified penods of time allowed to elapse before an acknowledgment is
to be

received) to achieve reliable data transmission over an unreliable service. If the

sender
dues not receive an acknowledgment before the timeout, it usually re-transmits the
Same packet until the sender receives an acknowledgment or exceeds a predefined
nucober of re-transmissions.

The types of ARQ protocols include

¢ Step-and-wait ARQ

* Go Back-NARQ

* Selective Repeat ARQ / Selective Reject

All three protocols usually use some form of sliding window protocol to tell the
transmutter to determine which (if any) packets need to be retransmitted.

These protocols reside in the Data Link or Transport Layers of the OSI model.

Ssop-and-wait ARQ, also referred to as alternating bit protocol, is a method in

telecommunications to send information between two connected devices. It ensures
that information is net lost due to dropped packets and that packets are received
in the
carrect order. It is the simplest automatic repeat-request (ARQ) mechanism. A stop-
and-wait ARQ sender sends ene frame at a time; it is a special case of the general
ching window proteco! with transmit and receive window sizes equal to one and
greater
than one respectively. After sending each frame, the sender doesn’t send any
further
frames enti] it receives an acknowledgement (ACK) signal. After receiving a valid
frame,
the recerver sends an ACK If the ACK does not reach the sender before a certain
time,
own 2s the timeout, the sender sends the same frame again. The timeout countdown
is reset after each frame transmission. The above behavior is a bisic example of
Stop-
pog-Wet. However, real-life implementations vary to address certain issues of
design.

Typically the transmitter adds a redundancy check number to the end of each
frame The receiver uses the redundancy check number to check for possible damage.
If
the receiver sees that the frame is good, it sends an ACK If the receiver sees that
the
frame is damaged, the receiver discards it and does not send an ACK—pretending that
the frame was completely lost, not merely damaged.

One problem is when the ACK sent by the receiver is damaged or lost. In this case,
the sender doesn’t receive the ACK, times out, and sends the frame again. Now the

recevver has two copies of the same frame, and doesn't know if the second one is a
ézplisate frame or the next frame of the sequence carrying identica] data.

Ansther problem is when the transmission medium has such a long latency that
the sender's timeout runs out before the frame reaches the receiver. In this case
the
sender resends the same packet. Eventually the receiver gets two copies of the same

a Se
a
bai

18-2017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

frame, and sends an ACK for each one. The sender, waiting for a single ACK feds
. 1

two ACKs, which may cause problems if it assumes that the second ACK is for the Vey
frame in the sequence. Nexy
To avoid these problems, the most common solution is to define a 1 bit Seq uencg

number in the header of the frame. This sequence number alternates (fiom 0 to 1)j
subsequent frames. When the receiver sends an ACK, it includes the sequence numbe
of the next packet it expects. This way, the receiver can detect duplicated frameg
by
checking if the frame sequence numbers alternate. If two subsequent frames have th
same sequence number, they are duplicates, and the second frame is discarded.
Similarly
if two subsequent ACKs reference the same sequence number, they are acknowledging
the same frame. 7
~__ Stop-and-wait ARQ is inefficient compared to other ARQs, because the time
between
packets, if the ACK and the data are received successfully, is twice the transit
time
(assuming the turnaround time can be zero). The throughput on the channel is a
fraction
of what it could be. To solve this problem, one can send more than one packet at a
time
with a larger sequence number and use one ACK for a set. This is what is done in
Go.
Back-N ARQ and the Selective Repeat ARQ.
Q.5. (b) Describe LAN architecture along with bus and tree topologies.
(4.5)
; Ans. The architecture on which you choose to base your network is the single most
important decision you make when setting up.a LAN. The architecture defines the
speed of the network, the medium access control mechanism it uses (for example,
collision
detection, token passing, and 0 on), the types of cables you can use, the network
interface
adapters you must buy, and the adapter drivers you install.

The Institute of Electrical and Plectronic Engineers (IEEE) has defined and
documented a set of standards for the physical characteristics of both collision-
detection
and token-passing networks. These standards are known as IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)
and IEEE 802.5 (Token-Ring), respectively. IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) defines wireless
versions of Ethernet.

The most common choice today for new networks is Ethernet (both wired and
wireless). In rare cases, you may encounter a Token-Ring or ARC net network.

que 12
{

ST

jt | jc
Lae
|
oc

Above figure consists of two topologies: Bus and Tree toplogy. In bus topology
signe
from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus
“a 7
Although the message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose ca
address or IP address matches, accepts it. If the MAC /IP address of machine doesnt
,
match with the intended address, machine discards the signal, tree topology is ve 0
the most common network setups that is similar to a bus topology and a star topo
ogy.
A tree topology connects one star network to other star networks.

ae
IP. University-[B. Tech }-AB Publisher 2017-19

Three major components of LAN are:

1.Medium access control (MAC) protocol
2. Network Topology

3. Network Operating System Software

UNIT-III

Q.6. (a) Explain difference between ARP and RARP network layer protocol.
(6)

Ans. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a protocol by which a physical

machine in a local area network can request to learn its IP address from a gateway
server's Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table or cache. A network administrator
creates a table in a local area network’s gateway router that maps the physical
machine
(or Media Access Control - MAC address) addresses to corresponding Internet
Protocol
addresses. When a new machine is set up,i$s RARP client program requests from the

RARP server on the router to be sent its IP address. Assuming that an entry has
been
set up in the router table, the RARP server will return the IP address to the
machine
which can store it for future use.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for mapping an Internet Protocol

address (IP address) to a physical machine address that is recognized in the local
network. For example, in IP Version 4, the most common level of IP in use today, an
address 1s 32 bits long. In an Ethernet local area network, however, addresses for
attached devices are 48 bits long. (The physica] machine address is also known as a
Media Access Control or MAC address.) A table, usually called the ARP cache, is
used to
maintain a correlation between each MAC address and its corresponding IP address.
ARP provides the protocol rules for making this correlation and providing address
conversion in both directions.

Q.6. (b) A class C network with IP address of a host as 198.123.46.237. Four

sub networks are allowed for this network. What is the subnet mask, number of
host per subnet and subnet address. (6.5)

Ans. Subnet mask: 255.255.255.192

Number of hosts per subnet: 2° = 64
Subnet address:

198 . ae : 46 ; 237
255 . 256 ; 255 : 192
11000110 01111011 00101110 11101101
and
11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
11000110 01111011 00101110 11000000
198.123.46.192
Q.7.(a) Discuss the various design issues in network layer. (6)

Ans. The network layer has been designed with the following goals:

The services provided should be independent of the underlying technology. Users of

the service need not be aware of the physical implementation of the network for all
they
know, they're messages could be transported via carrier pigeon. This design goal
has
great importance when we consider the great variety of networks in operation. In
the
area of Public networks, networks in underdeveloped countries are nowhere near the
technological process of those in the countries like the US or Ireland. The design
of the
layer must not disable us from connecting to networks of different technologies.
20-2017

Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

The transport layer (that is the host computer) should be shielded from the i
tbe,

type and different topologies of the subnets he uses. That is, all the transpo
want is a communication link, it need not know how that link is made. i:

°Yq

Finally, there is a need for some uniform addressing scheme for network addre
8

. With these goals in mind, two different types of service emerged: Connection or;
nd connectionless. A connection-oriented service is one in which the user ig pre:
liable” end to end connection. To communicate, the user requests a connection od
ses the connection to his hearts content, and then closes the connection. A tele he
all is the classic example of a connection oriented service. —_
In a connection-less service, the user simply bundles his information together, py
n address on it, and then sends it off, in the hope that it will reach its
destinattgl
ere is no guarantee that the bundle will arrive. So - a connection less service ig
on,
eminiscent of the postal system. A letter is sent, that is, put in the post box. It
is the
n the “postal network” where it gets bounced around and hopefully will leave th
etwork in the correct place, that is, in the addressee’s letter box. We can never b
otally sure that the letter will arrive, but we know that there is a high
probability tha

t will, and so we place our trust in the postal network.

Q.7. (b)Explain the IPv4 protocol with header format. Compare it wit!
E (6.5
Ans.
IPv4 IPv6
The Address Space is 32 bits. The space is 128 bits.
The length of header is)\20 bytes The length of header is 40 y

4 bytes for each adress in the header

6 bytes for each addressing the header

The number of Header field 12

The number of header field 8

Checksum field, used to measure

error in the header, required

Checksum field eliminated from header

as error in the IP header are ot very

crucial
Internet protocol security ( IPSec)
with repect to network security

Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) with

respect to network security is mandatory

is optional

No identification to the packet flow

(Lackgf QoS handling).

The flow level field on the header portion

identifies the packet flow and directs to
to router (Efficient QoS handling) _|

The Fragmentation is done both

and routers

The fragmentation is done both by|

sending there is no role of the routers. |

No identification to the packet flow

(Lack of Qos handing).

The flow level field on the header portion

identifies the packet flow and directs 0

router (Efficient QoS handling)

Clients have approach Dynamic

Host Configuration server (DHCS)
whenever they connect to an network.

Clients do not have to approach any such

server as they are permanent adresse

Ss
LP. University-{B.Tech. LAB Publisher 2017-21
UNIT-IV
Q.8. (a) Explain Transmission Control Protocol with diagram. (8)
Ans.
Bits
8 16 3
pos ;
Source port Destination port
Sequence Number
Ackowledgment Number
Data offset Reserved Code Window
Checksum Urgent pointer
Options Padding
Data

Source Port

Destination Port
Sequence Number
Acknowledgment Number
Data Offset

Reserved
Code

Window

Checksum
Urgent Pointer

Options

a m

Identifies the port number of a source application

program.

Identifies the port number of a destination

application program.

Specifies the sequence number of the first byte of

datain this segment.

Identifies the position of the highest byte received;

Specifies the offset of data portion of the segment.
Reserved for future use.

Control bits to identify the purpose of the segment:

URG Urgent pointer field is valid. Z

ACK Acknowledgement field is valid.

PSH Segment requests a PUSH.

RTS Resets the connection.

SYN Synchronizes the sequence numbers.

FIN Sender has reached the end of its byte stream.

Specifies the amount of data the destination is
willing to accept.

Verifies the integrity of the segment header and data.

Indicates data that is to be delivered as quickly as
possible. This pointer specifies the position where
urgent data ends. ;

End of Option List: Indicates the end of the

option list. It is used at the final option, not at
the end of each option individually. This option
needs to be used only if the end of the options

would not otherwise coincide with the end of the

TCP header.

No Operation: Indicates boundaries between

options. Can be used between other options; for
example, to align the beginning of a subsequent
option on a word boundary. There is no guarantee
12-2017 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks .

that senders will use this option, so rece;

be prepared to process options even tase Ray

not begin on a word boundary. "7 &
Maximum Segment Size: Indicates the
maximum segment size TCP can receive

only sent in the initial connection reques, 18

The applications programming interface to TCP consists of a set of library Pobre,

provided by the sockets interface.

Q.8. (b) Discuss about congestion control and traffic management,

Ans. Network congestion in data networking and queueing theory is the re.
quality of service that occurs when a network node is carrying more data than it
handle. Typical effects include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of he
connections. A consequence of congestion is that an incremental increase in offered
leads either only to a small increase or even a decrease in network throughput.

Network protocols that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for p

loss due to congestion can increase congestion, even after the initial load has
bep,
reduced to a level that would not normally have induced network congestion. Sag
networks exhibit two stable states under the same level of load. The stable state
way
low throughput is known as congestive collapse.

Networks use congestion control and congestion avoidance techniques to try q

avoid collapse. These include: exponential backoff in protocols such as 802.11
CSMa&,
CA and the original Ethernet, window rediiction in TCP, and fair queueing in
devices
such as routers. Another method is to implement priority schemes, transmitting some
packets with higher priority than others. \A third avoidance method is the explics
allocation of network resources to specific flows.-One example of this is the use d
Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T G_hn standard
which provides high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area networking over varying wires
(power lines, phone lines and coawial cables).

Among the ways to classify congestion control algorithms are:

1. By type and amount of feedback received from the network: Loss; delay, single
bit or multi-bit explicit signals

2. By incremental deployability- Only sender needs modification; sender and

receiver
need modification; only router needs modification; sender, receiver and routers
need

modification.

3. By performance aspect: high bandwidth-delay product networks; lossy links

fairness; advantage to short flows; variable-rate links

4. By fairness criterion: max-min, proportional, “minimum potential delay”

In computer networking, network traffic control is the process of managing
controlling or reducing the network traffic, particularly Internet bandwidth, eg.
by th
network scheduler. It is used by network administrators, to reduce congestion,
latex?
and packet loss. This is part of bandwidth management. Traffic management is set
policies and mechanisms that allow a network to efficiently satisfy a diverse range
service requests. Traffic management is necessary for providing Quality of Service
(Qed:

Q.9. Write short notes on any three of the following:- a2

(a) Socket Interface

Ans. Sockets are the most commonly used low-level interface to network protocols
[hey have been an integral part of SunOS releases since 1981. A socket is an end
post
)f communication to which a name can be bound_ A socket has a type and one assousz
srocess. Sockets were designed to implement the client-server model for mnter-P’
communication where: :

.
a

IP University-(B, Tech. AB Publisher 2017-23

+ The interface to network protocols needs to accommodate multiple communication

protocols, such as TCP/IP, Xerox internet protocols (XNS), and UNIX family.

The interface to network protocols needs to accommodate server code that waits for
connections and client code that initiates connections.

* It also needs to operate differently, depending on whether communication is

connection-oriented or connectionless.

* Application programs might want to specify the destination address of the

datagrams it delivers instead of binding the address with the open(2) call.

Sockets make network protocols available, while behaving like UNIX files.
Applications create sockets when they are needed. Sockets work with the close(2),
read(2), write(2), ioctl(2), and fentl(2) interfaces, and the operating system
differentiates
between the file descriptors for files and the file descriptors for sockets.

Q.9. (b) SMTP

Ans. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending
and receiving e-mail. However, since it is limited in its ability to queue messages
at the
receiving end, it is usually used with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP.
that let
the user save messages in a server mailbox and download them periodically from the
server. In other words, users typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-
mail
and either POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail. On Unix-based systems, sendmail is
the
most widely-used SMTP server for e-mail/A commercial package, Sendmail, includes a

POPS server. Microsoft Exchange includes an SMTP server and can also be set up to
include POP3 support.

Mail
exchanger (MX)

Q.9. (c) FTP

Ans. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to
transfer computer files from one host to another host over a TCP-based network,
such
as the Internet.

FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data
connections between the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate
themselves
using a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and
Password,

but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. For secure
transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP
's often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS). SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is
sometimes
also used instead, but is technologically different.

The first FTP client applications were command-line applications developed before
gl ating systems had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most
indows, Unix, and Linux operating systems. Many FTP clients and automation
utilities

——

sic emaiencae:
Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks |

24-2017

have since been developed for desktops, servers, mobile devices, and hardw
FTP has been incorporated into productivity applications, such ag Web Page edi
i

FTP Commands
yo
FTP Replies

Data

SS Ga |
a Connection =

FTP Client on FTP Server

client PC

Q.9. (d) HTTP

Ans- The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protoco}

distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. It is a generic,
statele
protocol which can be used for many tasks beyond its use for hypertext, such as ng
servers and distributed object management systems, through extension of its requ
methods, error codes and headers. A feature of HTTP is the typing and negotiatior
data representation, allowing systems to be built independently of the data be;
transferred.

HTTP is also used as a generic protocol for communication between user age:
and proxies/gateways to other Internet systems, including those supported by the SM
NNTP, FTP, Gopher, and WAIS protocols. In this way, HTTP allows basic hyperme
access to resources available from diverse applications.

Q.9. (e) WWW

Ans. The W3C is an industry consortium which seeks to promote standards for |
evolution of the Web and interoperability between WWW products by producing

| specifications and reference software. Although WS3C is funded by industrial

membe
it is vendor-neutral,and its products are freely available to all.

The Consortium is international; jointly hosted by the MIT Laboratory for Comput
Science in the United States and in Europe by INRIA who provide both local supp.
and performing coredevelopment. The W3C was initially established in collaborati
with CERN, where the Web originated.and with support from DARPA and the Europe

Commission.

Organizations may ap
isn’t offered. The W3C has ta
Transfer Protocol daemon or Web server. )

ply for membership to the Consortium, individual membersh

ken over what was formerly called the CERN Hyperte
FIRST TERM EXAMINATION [FEB. 2018]
SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER
NETWORK [ETEC-310]

fime : 1.5 hrs. MLM. : 30

Note: Q. no. 1 is compulsory, Attempt any two more questions from the rest.
Q.1. (a) What are various standard Ethernet implementations. (2)

Ans. The common traditional Ethe

0- Base-T, and 10Base-FL.

The number 10: At the front of each identifier, 10 denotes the standard data
ransfer speed over these media-ten megabits per second (10Mbps).

The word Base: Short for Baseband, this part of the identifier signifies a type of

etwork that uses only one carrier frequency for signaling and requires all network
tations to share its use.

rnet implementations are 10Base5, 10Base2,

The segment type or segment length: This part of the identifier can be a digit ora
etter:

Digit: shorthand for how long (in meters) a cable segment may be before attenuation
ets in. For example, a 10Base5 segment can be no more than 500 meters long.

Letter: identifies a specific physical type of cable. For example, the T at the end
of
0BaseT stands for twisted-pair.

The common Fast Ethernet implementations are 100 Base-TX, 100Base-FX, and
00Base-T4.

Gigabit Ethernet implementations are 1000 Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, and

000Base-T.

Q. 1. (b) Explain any two types of netwok topologies giving advantages and
isadvantages of each. (2)

Ans. Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,

mnnecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology: Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network
evice is connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
alled Linear Bus topology.

Cable End
Drop Line | Drop Line Drop Line
ee EI
SA, Mie, veel
Node 1 Node 2 Node 3
pas Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer Netwy k
t

Peatures of Bux Topology

va) 1 tranamita data only inene direction

id) Every device is connected to a aingle cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

(a) Ut ix cost effective

(A) Cable required ts least compared to other network topology,

(@) Used in small networks

ad) [tis easy to understand

(e) Basy to expand joining two cables together

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

ia) Cables fails Chen whole network fails,

(b) If network trafic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the ne
decreases.

(e) Cable has a limited length.

id) [tis slower than the ring topology,

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a-ring as euch computer is conned

another computer, with the last one connected to tho first, Exactly two neighbou
each device.

Ring Topology ‘
tl
rat ‘
Ed
Pe

Advantages of Ring Topology

(a) Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nol
only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

(b) Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

(a) Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

(b) Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

(c) Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

_ LP University-(B. Tech}Akash Books go1s-3

Pas .¢) Compare bit stuffing and byte stuffing. (2)

ps \byte usually escape character ESC)), which has a predefined but pattern is

see to Oe Jata section of the frame when there is a character with the same patter
get Quy Whenever the receiver encounters the ESC character, it removes frem the
il wechon and treats the next character as data, net a flag But problem arises 4
hen
ao atti one or more escape characters followed by a flag. To solve this problem,
— characters that are part of the text are marked by another escape character

the escape character is part of the text, an extra one is added to show that the
ad ore 18 part ef the text.

econ
Bit stuffing -
Mostly fag is a special S-bit pattern "01211110" used to define the beginning and

_T Gg ~
je end of Loe Tame

Probiem ath the flag is same as that was in case of byte stuffing. So, in this
protocol
abst ve do 1s, if we encounter Q and five consecutive 1 bits,an extra 0 is added
after
-hese nts. This extra stuffed bit is removed from the data by the receiver.

The extra bit 1s added after one 0 followed by five 1 bits regardless of the value
cf
spe auxt Sit. Aise, as sender side always knows which sequenee is data and which ts
flag
twill voly add this extra bit in the data sequence not im the flag sequence.

Q. L \d) Dilferentiate between DTE and DCE ina data communication.(2)

Ans.

Comparison = DTE DCE

Basic | A device that is an information. A device used as an interface
| source er an information sink | between a DTE
Primary | Produces the data and transfers}Canverts the signals to a format
functiens ‘them toa DCE, with exsential /appropriate to the transmission

the network line

Courdinatien No coerdins tien is required DCE devices must be coordinated

\control characters. medium and introduces it ento

| between DTE devices. in order to communicate.

Included devices | Routers and cumputers Modem in DC E network acts as
' Relanoen Cannected through the help a medium for two DTE networks.
‘ofa DCE network.
Q. L (e) Give a short note on FDDI based LAN or Token passing. (2)

Ans. Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI), which is an optical data

“Smmumcaoun standard used for long distance networks provides communication with
dber optic lines up to 200 kilometers at a speed ef 100 megabit per second (Mbps).
FDDI
22s dual pnmary and secondary communication rings. The primary ring works alongside
the retwork, and the secondary ring remains idle and available for backup.

FDDI was later extended to FDDI-2 for long distance voice and multimedia
cmmunicatien. Organizations use this medium for voice and video conferences, online
‘ectures, news and ather multimedia.

Q. 2. (a) What is ISO-OSI Refernce Model? Compare and contrast with TCP’

Protacol suite? (5)

4 Aas. There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over
“< sorld. Su to ensure, national and werldwide data communication, systems must be
“veloped whieh are compatible to communicate with each other ISO has developed a

——
Sarai ee ee eee SSO

standard. ISO standa for International organization of Standardization

called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly
OSI model.

The ISO-OSI mode! is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers op

a complete communication system. They are:

Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Datalink Layer
. Physical Layer
how wo have the complete representation of the OSI model, showing all the lay
d how they communicate with each other.

Moa! A host B Ls fan

NOP ewe

r IF
<<: . + Presentator protocat -- Pro
ose == -- Seon pratanal---—-~- SPDU
> - == epee protocot -------- SPOu
_Commuricaton subret proteco!
J hetwons layer host router protocol
‘ a “—
fe Network, hen | Past
i oa bac SD a» aa
| Cata tink layer host-(cuter protocol
a ee ee § -
es De ep. pmo Onda Ue Daan ena Frame
Pye ayer fost: router protocol
oak a ; Ba
- pt-tem OF ---> Phys a4
; | sles: ee ihe. al
°F Laverury 2 Tardis dleaty Bisnis

4 1 aLw
ee wate See WS 19°8 vpanied

1 1d-F
Lia prvaania usat sod tan data

arr gre erptlt ce aver of us * ‘ST Mesto

sees Nace f Prseacnd

GE Mame 4f ( ait axvitangqed

gestae ioeatan Poveesi Par {onucatca grvacai Data amt
a | Putting Pes oar :
CC - — aS Snel OPO Peemnratian Potarsi Data aut
fame’ —e tical SOOT Seamon Poomesi Sata Ut
“Fete rene neve TPO Danser Arana Carta Cat |
Geek =| Mataeee lasper Sent Packet
a |
“ye A ue are? teat Sie
- rar Pri ;
Fou Paya arr one Bic a4
Tule? reaend
eal Ty
feacare of 08) Mitel
2 Big pote J omit wer secre 9 iuderstandabie trwugh sus OSI
p We ee toe tar dware aut wotlwars work cgether
py Ba cat ae inand sew eetccungen aa ceg are dewoic nerd.
4 Tontusientig 2 esque by wparaes cetera
{ Cex ve wet ly omigace tame Simetenal -slac com pe on different aecworks
Corrperiwe
ma Open Syren incercnanectcay ICP IP Tramsmissica Coucroi |
_ Protoend ) beterset Prowsecl

OF aa pemetat. publ idetecudere t 1 JOP TP model a based on standart

mies ag acme =| gentsesis aroned wich the [sterner has a

pve woes os metwrridend | develeged [6 w 2 commomcaten grotecal

" i Minvcmpitiantore |
a _ iene ;
is O50 crude: the croEmepec: Lager i is TCP? model the ranspert layer |

ETI ie Ze very of packets.

| does wot guarantees deiivery cf packata. | |

Sell the TCE 12 model va mere reliabie |

Fulews vertical apprvach

| 2 ¥aGews borizontal approach.

O85] made haa 2 seperace | & TCPTP cces not have a separate

Preeicatos lever and Seamer leyer Presentation lrper or Seater Laver.

Turon Laver a Cornectuce Orectad | 3. Transport Layer us beth Cernecticn
. Orented and Conzecticn less.

Sanwore Lager is nth Connection | & Necwors Lazer is Cersecter less.

eta and Commectuon lesa i

Sl a a reference mods! around whch | 7 TCP TP medel is, in a waz

“acerca are bait. Generally ts horse cemarararean-e nmepanigear ae

wt tb Edens tok i

Terworg layer of OS] model provides | & The Necwork layer in TCP!IP model

i cmeection oriented and | presides commecticriess service.

at mad
“wilees termnce.
ys
€-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer Network
f

& OST model has a problem of fitting | 9 TCP/IP model does not fit any Brats

the pratooels into the model

JO Protocols are hidden in OSI model [| 10. In TCP/IP ane ea

and are easily replaced as the easy.

techno! ay changes. s
ui Osi cate fines services, interfaces | 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfacea aay
and protocols very clearly and protocols are not clearly separate h, |
makesclear distinction between also protocol dependent i

them It pre tocol independent

‘ya. It has 7 avers 12. It has 4 layers a

——.
Q. 2. tb) Is PPP a bit a or byte oriented protocol .Give its frame format, «

Ans. Although HDLC is a general protocol that can be used for both POiNt-to-pe,
and multi- point configurations, one of the mast common protocols for point- to-pe,
access is the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). Today, millions of Internet users who
ny
to connect their home computers to the server of an Internet service provider use
Pp
The max nity of these users have a traditional modem; they are connected to the
Intery
throuch a telephone hne, which provides the services ‘of the physical layer. PPP
prowg
several services:

1. PPP defines the format of the frame.to be exchanged between devices.

2. PPP defines how two devices can negotiate the establishment of the link and
exchance of data
3. PPP defines how network layer data are encapsulated in the data link frame
4. PPP defines how two devices‘can authenticate each other.

5. PPP prowdes multiple network layer services supporting a variety of netwa

layer protocols.

6. PPP provides connections over multiple links.

7 PPP provides network address configuration. This is particularly useful whe

some user needs a temporary network address to connect to the Internet.
On the other hand, to keep PPP simple, several services are missing:
1. PPP does not provide flow control. A sender can send several frames one aft
sther with no concern about overwhelming the receiver.

2. PPP has a Very simple mechanism for error control. A CRC field is used to dete
srrers Ifthe frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded; the upper-layer protocol
nee
o take care of the problem. Lack of error control and sequence numbering may cau*
acket to be received out of order.
3. PPP does not provide a sophisticated addressing mechanism to handle framet’
rultipaint configuration.

PPP Frame Format

The frame format of PPP resembles HDLC frame. Its various fields are:

7
Fiza Access Control Flag |

[ortrat® | sasaazr1 | 9000011 | Prowcot | Osta | FCS ] 01111110 |

1 tye 1 byte 1 byte tor2byte Vanable Zor 4 dyta
PPP frame Format
a —

1. Flag field: Flag field marks the beginning and end of the PPP frame. Flag byt

O1T11110 (1 byte).
I.P. University-(B.Tech]-Akash Books 2018-7

ress field: This field is of 1 byte and is always 11111111. This address is the
s™ address /-€. all the stations accept this frame.

yr control field: This field is also of 1 byte. This field uses the format of the
U-
ymbered) in HDLC. The value is always 00000011 to show that the frame

(u ‘ s
om of contain any sequence numbers and there is no flow control or error control.

ye rotocol field: This field specifies the kind of packet in the data field i-e-
what
4 arried in data field.

“en field: Its length is variable. If the length is not negotiated using LCP during

get up, 4 default length of 1500 bytes is used. It carries user data or

joe tion.
pet informa
4, FCS field: The frame checks sequence. It is either of 2 bytes or 4 bytes. It
contains

checksum.
4 g.2 (c) What are the maximum throughputs of ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA
yrandom acccss. (2)

Ans. Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA both are the Random Access Protocols, that
-e implemented on the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, a sublayer of Data Link
gyer. The purpose of the ALOHA protocol is to determine that which competing
station
sgst get the next chance of accessing the multi-access channel at MAC layer. The
main
ference between Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA is that the time in Pure Aloha is
»itinuous whereas, the time in Slotted ALOHA is discrete.

The formula to calculate the throughput of the Pure ALOHA is S-=G*e*-2G, the
soughput is maximum when G=1/2 which is 18% of the total transmitted data frames.

Incontrast to the Pure ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA does not allow to transmit the data
senever the station has the data to be send. The Slotted ALOHA makes the station to
«at till the next time slot begins and allow each data frame to be transmitted in
the
zw time slot.

Synchronization can be achieved in Slotted ALOHA with the help ofa special station
bat emits a pip at the beginning of every time slot as a clock does. The formula to
alculate the throughput of the Slotted ALOHA is S=G*e*-G, the throughput is
saimum when G=1 which is.37% of the total transmitted data frames. In Slotted
\LOHA, 37% of the time slot.is empty, 37% successes and 26% collision.

Q.3. (a) Compare a circuit switched network with a packet switched

wtwork. Give diagrams. (5)

Ans,
Circuit Switched Network
ace, fl Eom a / eee
al = \ =| eg -4 se = 8
We it eat
Receiver Caller

Packet Switched Network

$
‘

ad p 7 a rei OS f -;

~
se

Caller
ae ; 4

§-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer Network D,

1. Circuit Switching is con

between source and destination be

Switching is Connectionless that means ad

transmission

2. Circuit Switching was 0

Packet Switching was onginally

nection oriented that means a path is establis

fore the transmission occurs. On the other hand, p beg
ynamic route is decided for each packet “

riginally designed for voice communication where

designed for data communication.

3 Circuit Switching is inflemble as once a path is established for transmis; ‘J

dvesn't change while the duration of the session. On the other hand, Packet Swi ing
flexible as each packet may travel through a different route to oi its ——a

In packet switching, as each packet travels a different path hence, the packet ,.,
oN ae of order ateubne side and later arranged in order. On the other hand
circuit switching the entire message is received as it is as sent from a sender to
Teceive,

5. Space Division Switching or Time-Division Switching can be used to implemex,

Circuit Switching whereas, Packet Switching can be implemented using two approache,
Datagram Approach and Virtual Circuit Approach.

6. Circuit Switching is always implemented at physical layer whereas, Pack»

Switching is implemented on the network layer.

Q. 3. (b) Give advantages of optical fiber over twisted pair and Co-axial cable
(3;

Ans. Advantages of Optical Fiber Cable

a) Bandwidth
Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. The amouz
f information that can be transmitted per unit time of fiber over other transmissim
media is its most significant advantage
(b) Low Power Loss
An optical fiber offers low power loss, which allows for longer transmissic:
distances. In comparison to copper, in a network, the longest recommended copper
distance is 100m while with fiber, it is 2km.
(c) Interference
Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference. It can also be runt
electncally noisy environments without concern as electrical noise will not affect
fiber
(d) Size
In comparison to copper, a fiber optic cable has nearly 4.5 times as much capsctt
as the wire cable has and a cross sectional area that is 30 times less.
(e) Weight
Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires. They also occaz?
less space with cables of the same information capacity. Lighter weight makes file
easier to install.
(f) Security

Optical fibers are difficult to tap. As they do not radiate electromagnetic enerft

emissions cannot be intercepted. As physically tapping the fiber takes great skill
o @

undetected, fiber is the most secure medium available for carrying sensitive data.
(g) Flexibility

An opneal fiber has greater tensile strength than copper or steel fibers of the ss?
perme me: is flexible, bends easily and resists most corrosive elements that &
copper cable
.. al
a

I.P. University-(B.Tech}-Akash Books 2018-9

in) cost materials for glass are plentiful, unlike copper. This means glass can be
rhe . cheaply than copper.

opt me (c) To send data at a data rate of 12 Kbps over a noiseless channel with
Qs ath of 3 KHz; how many signal levels are required? (2)

peo C = 2B log, (L)

ee _ 2x Bandwidth x log,(L)

pitt 12 x 10° = 2x3 x 109 x log,(L)

12
iin log,(L)

log,(L) = 2
L = 27 =4 levels,

get. (a) In CRC, if a data word is 4 bits and codeword is 7 bits, how many 0’s

added to the data word to make the dividend? What is the size of the divisor
* the remainder? Explain with an example.
i) Re Dataword = 4 bits

Dividend = Dataword + (N — m) no. of zeros

= 4+(7—4) (N(codeword) = 7 bits) m = dataword = 4 bits

24+3

27
Divisor = 4 bits (It is 1 more than no. of bits (zeros) appended after data word)

Example:

Tit TNOAL

1101)10010 0 0
1104

0 0 14 Remainder

Q. 4. (b) Give flow diagram and explain the working of Go-back -N ARQ.

(3)
Ans, Go-Back-N protocol isa sliding window protocol. Itis a mechanism to detect
contro} the error in datalink layer. During transmission of frames between sender
eh vers ifa frame is damaged, lost, or an acknowledgement is lost then the action

"ed by sender and receiver is explained in the following content.

'
np aree ae 4 a ¥
10-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Commumicaton and Computer Neterark

. Sender ae Rece!ver
lyse <a
| 5
ee
———
Data.

il

r ~~ Data X—___Damagedortost |

i stl } we dod
nl —4 ‘

— Data_3.—_ ~ eae -
b UN ts Menard

| ata 4——
a ee Discarded

SY

Resent +—
Data 2
Resent ~Data Py

— r Se 2
eee |

Resent
{ i

Time Tiere

Damaged Fi. ame

If a receiver receives a damaged frame or if an errar occurs while Tecciving a

frame
then, the receiver sends the NAK (negatave acknowledgement) for that frame along
with
that frame number, that it expects to be retransmitted. After sending NAK, the
receiver
discards all the frames that it receives, after « damaged frame. The receiver does
not
send any ACK (acknowledgement) for the discarded frames. After the sender receive:
the NAK for the damaged frame, it retransmits all the frames onwards the frame
number
referred by NAK. |

Lost frame

The receiver checks the number on each frame, it receives. If a frame number ts
skipped in a sequence, then the receiver easily detects the loss of a frame as the
newly
received frame is received out of sequence. The receiver sends the NAK for the lost
frame
and then the receiver discards all the frames received after a lost frame. The
receiver
does not send any ACK (acknowledgement) for that discarded frames. After the sender
receives the NAK for the lost frame, it retransmits the lost frame referred by NAK
and
also retransmits all the frames which it has sent after the lost frame.

Lost Acknowledgement

If the sender does not receive any ACK or if the ACK is lost or damaged in between
the transmission. The sender waits for the time to run out and as the time min
outs, the
sender retransmits all the frames for which it has not received the ACK. The sender
—
identifies the loss of ACK with the help of a timer.

The ACK number, like NAK (negative acknowledgement) number, shows the number _
of the frame, that receiver expects to be the next in sequence. The window size of
the |
receiver is ] as the data link layer only require the frame which it has to send
next to
network layer. The sender window size is equal to ‘w’. If the error rate is high, a
lot ef
bandwidth is lost wasted.
LP. University-{B.Tech]-Akash Books 2018-11
= Explain the — — problem in WLAN. (2)
q+ ireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden station problem

poten a node I visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes
oF jcatiN with said An leads to difficulties in media access control.
"go awire eless network, it is likely that the node at the far edge of the access
point’s
a ich is known a8 A, can see the access point, but it is unlikely that the same
can see 3 a node on the opposite end of the access point’s range, B. These nodes
are
cote hidden. The problem is when nodes A and B start to send packets
is aes to the access point. Since node A and B can not sense the carrier, Carrier
ultiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) does not work, and collisions

g data. To overcome this problem, handsh

He CSMA/CA scheme. ndshaking is implemented in

@
mu
nse
- sc cramb blin
oe

I, ;
ynction with t

o
. q

RM EXAMINATION (MAY-JUNE. 9,
SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH] 4

TA COMMUNICATION AND COMp

aes NETWORK [ETEC-310] Ute

END TE

Time :3 hrs.

Note: Q. no. lis com pulsory. Attempt any five more questions from the resp n

Q. 1. Explain following in brief (Any five)

Q.1. (a) What is meant by data communica

of an efficient data communication. f.. ,

Ans. The word data refers to information presented In W atever form ig g

a W ~

by the parties creating and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices vig ~—
of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to iy
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up ‘f
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs), Th
effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamenty)
characteristics: delivery,accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery- The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data mut
be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user,

2. Accuracy- The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have bee
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness- The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered
late are useless, In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data
as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without
significant
delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter -Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that
video
packets are sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and
othen
with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

Q. 1. (b) State the differences between OSI and TCP/IP models. (5)

tion ? What are the ¢

Ans. pe
Basis for TCP/IP Model OSI Model

Comparison ene

Expands To TCP/IP- Transmission Control | OSI-Open system Interconnett

Protocol/ Internet Protocol ees

Meaning It is a client server model used | It is a theoretical model wich

for transmission of data over _| used for computing syste™
the internet, _

No. Of Layers | 4 Layers 7 Layers ee

Developed by | Department ofDefense(DoD) | ISO (International Standart

Tangible Yes “Saar

Usage Mostly used Never

=a Ee : SORES 2U 15-1

cd explain IPv4 Packet format. (8)

, a”

jaternet Protocol is one of the major protocols in the TCP/IP protocols suite.
ae col works at the network layer of the OSI model and at the Internet layer of
vs uP model. Thus this protocol has the responsibility of identifying hosts based
yh ji Jogical addresses and to route data among them over the underlying network.
” ovides & mechanism to uniquely identify hosts by an IP addressing scheme. IP
ae effort delivery, i.e. it does not guarantee that packets would be delivered to
ae post, but it will do its best to reach the destination. Internet Protocol
version
pe els logical address.
ra rnet Protocol being a layer-3 protocol (OSI) takes data Segments from layer-4
a t) and divides it into packets. IP packet encapsulates data unit received from

ween and add to its own header information.

pore

IP Header Layer~ 4 Data

(IP Encapsulation)

me encapsulated data is referred to as IP Payload. IP header contains all th:

ary information to deliver the packet at the other end.

necess
Ocet 4 13
0 Version IHL oscp EN Total Length
15
ry Identification | Hogs . Fragment Offset
4
Af.
A Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum
12 Source Address
3
a Destination Address
a Maiiiiege 0s ier gt Dh Be Re oe es es See. a1
' ’
2% Options t

Rew ww nw wwe mee we aw we ene ew een eee wee meena ween ewww em wen eee =

[Image: IP Header)

IP header includes many relevant information including Version Number, which, ir

thie context, is 4. Other details are as follows:
* Version: Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).
* IHL: Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
* DSCP: Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
* ECN: Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the
congestion
Seen in the route,
14-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer Networ
¢ Total Length: Length of entire IP Packet (ineluding IP header vail
Ip

* Identification: If IP packet 's fragmented during the tran,

. feed :
fragments contain same identification number. to identify 5 Misg |

Tiging, &&
they belong to- Ip &
° Flags: As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too la ~
these ‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, hn
always set to 0’. &. the My
¢ Fragment Offset: This offset tells the exact position of the ¢,
original IP Packet. "een |,
* Time to Live: To avoid looping in the network, every packet js wens a)
TTL value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) Ri &,
cross. At each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the ie
zero, the packet is discarded. =
¢ Protocol: Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Pry
packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protogg| Mie
ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17. BBibes y
* Header Checksum: This field is used to keep checksum value of entire
which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free. head
¢ Source Address: 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet

© Destination Address: 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of 4

packet. ™

¢ Options: This is optional! field. which is used if the value of IHL is greater
ths,

5. These options may contain values for options such as Security, Record Rex,

Time Stamp, etc

Q. 1. (d) Can two hosts in different networks have same link lnpenr ell
Explain. F |
Ans. Yes. Link-local addresses, much like MAC addresses, do not cross a router, i
the scope to which duplicate addresses can cause a problem is quite limited.
Linksieall
addresses need to be unique to the broadcast domain, and unique among the link-oat
network addresses reached by the hosts who are members of that broadcast docs
|

but cant create a conflict beyond that as long as the network is following the
rules oft
link-local addresses are supposed to be used.
Q. 1. (e) Define Switch and discuss the need of switching.
Ans. In a network, a switch is a device that channels incoming data from soy
multiple input ports to the specific output port that will take it toward its”

destination.
A Network Switch is a constituent of computer network that connects twone””
can be

slices and/or two network devices (switches or routers) together. Switch can kes!

as a network bridge with multiple ports which helps to process and route P®

data link layer of the OSI reference model. Fs

Q. 1. (9) What do you understand by tunneling? fro?
Ans. Tunneling is a protocol that allows for the secure movement of 08% igs

network to another. Tunneling involves allowing private network comm

be sent across a public network, such as the Internet, through 8 we

encapsulation.

Ul
“A LP University-(B Tech}-Alcagh Boule yO1s-15
3

pepe protocol in detail including the frame st , ()

at Level Data Control, also known as HDLC, is » bit anented, ewitched and

h
ype HEY tocol, It ie a data link contrel protocol, and falls within lmyer 2. Une

ip .
are of the Open Systems Interface (OST) mudel.

wg boon #0 widely implemented because it supports beth half duplex and full

* munication lines, point 10 point peer to peer) and multi-point networks. and
we of nan awitehed channels. The procedures outlined in HDLC are designed to
a mynenronuss code-transparent data transmission, Other benefits of HDLC ure
ae control information ia always in the same position, and specific bit patterns

we <7 control differ dramatically from those in representing dota, whach reduses
the

at
: of orrore

ae nos ale led to many subsets. Two subsets widely in use are Synchronous Dats

, Contre! (SDLC) and Link Access Procedure-Balanced (LAP-B)

\ae yoLC Frame Structure: HDLC uses the term “frame” to indicate an entity of
tocol data unit) transmitted from one station to another. Figure below

or a pre ;
epic representavion of a HDLC frame with an information field.
a

Flag \
[re Address | Control 0119999990 Fc ring

\.

any number of bits

Figure |. HDLC frame

Q. 1. (th) Explain Socket address and Berkeley Sockets in brief. (B)

Ans. Sockets can be named with an address #0 that processes can connect to them.
The socket layer treats an address as an opaque clyect. Applicauons supply and
recerve
addresses AS tagged, vanable-length byte strings.

Addresses always reside in a memory buffer (mbuf) on entry to the socket Inver A
data structure called a sockaddr (see Socket Address Data Structures) can be used
o&
a template for referring to the ident fying tag of each socket address.

Fach addrese-fumily implementation includes subroutines for address family-

specific operations, When #ddresses must be manipulated (for example, to campare
them for equality) a pointer to the address (a sockaddr structure) is used to
extract the
address family tag. This tag is then used to identify the subrovtine to invoke the
desired
Gperation.

*Socket Address Storage

Addresses passed by an application program commonly reside in mbufs only long

tasugh for the socket layer to pass them to the supporting protocol for transfer
into a
“ted-tized address structure,

* Socket Addresses in TCP/IP

a mlecion Control Protocol/Internet Protocol provides a set of 16-bit port

Ts within each host.

Rerkeley sockets is a Unix application programming interface (AP 1) for Internet
and Unix domain sockets, used for inter-process communication (IPC). It is

tanonly implemented as a library of linkable modules. It onginated with the 4 2BSD

‘released in 1983.

_— =
a

*8~2018 ~— Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Com

Puter Net wong

A socket is an abstract representation (handle) for the loca] endpo;

API re resentg ; “at of |

communication path. The Berkeley sockets P ~ s itaga file dere, é
handle) in the Unix philosophy that provides a common Mnterface for inpy ~
to streams of data.

Q. 2. (a) Explain various design issues of data link layey,

Ans. The data link layer in the OSI (Open System Interco

' MN€ctiong M (
between the Physical layer and the network layer. This laye; conve ia hi ;
transmission facility provided by the physical layer to a reliable and error fren
ny |

The main functions and the design issues of this layer are uk

* Providing services to the network layer |

Framing

* Error Control

* Flow Control

Services to the Network Layer

In the OSI Model, each layer uses the Services of the layer below it and p
Services to the layer above it The data link layer uses the Services offered by the
physi) |
layer.The Primary function of this layer is to Provide a well defined 8Ervice
interface j,
network layer above it.

{__NETWORK LAYER |

Services to the Network Layer

(_DATALINK LAYER ]

Services from the Physical Layer

(__PHYSicaL LAYER ]

The types of services provided

° Unacknowledged connectio
° Acknowledged connection]
° Acknowledged connection

can be of three types —

nless service

88 service
- Oriented Service
| a —s
fi.

11) University (1) Teoh) Akweh Moola rt

| sain
yo dala link layer encapaulatey each data packet from (ie network Inyer inte
- that are then tranmmitted,
fa]
ri franie he three parts, namely

, Prane Header

‘ Payload field that containe the data packet from network Inyor

» Trailer

Sanding Machina Rocaiving Machine

| Packot | [_ Pad kot

P Rise 4

| leader} Payload Field [ trait

Krror Control

The data link layer ensures error free link for data transminsion. The ianues it
enters
owith respect to error control are

¢ Denling with tranamission errors

* Sending acknowledgement frames in reliable connections

* Retransmilting lowt frames

* Identifying duplicate frames and deleting them

* Controlling access to shared channels in cane of broadcasting

Flow Control

The data link layer regulates flow control so that a fust sender does not drown a
low receiver, When the sender senda frames at very high speeds, a slow receiver may
rot be able to handle it. There will be frame losses even if the transmiasion is
error-free.
The two common approuches for flow control are

* Feedback based flow control

* Rate based flow control

Q. 2. (b) Explain mechanism of stop and walt ARQ. (6.6)

Ans. Jt is the simplest automatic repeat-request (ARQ)mechanism. A stop-and-

wait ARQ sender sends one frame at a time; it {a a special case of tho goneral
sliding

window protocol with transmit and receive window sizes equal to one and greater
than
She respectively, ... Afler receiving a valid frame, the receiver eenda an ACK,
:
d

eo
14-2038 Sixth Memester, Data Commumention and Compute, Mase
Stop-and-wait ARQ

Serer Par arsmr

c ee 0
~f
: et
—
Parr
—_ |

pL rare ,

“pd

| er

v 9

TreOu Tre Qe Tre

iY
a

Tho following transition may occur in Stop-and-Walt AKG

© The sender maintains a timeout counter.

© When a frame is sent, the sender starta the timeout courter

* Ifacknowledgement of frame comes in time, the serider tranarmita the ta Soy

in queue.

° Ifacknowledgement does not come in time, the sender aaasumes that etnier
frame or its acknowledgement |s lost in transit. Sender retranemite the frame ant
og
the timeout counter.

° Ifa negative acknowledgement is received, the sender retrararsta ve fox

Q. 3. (a) What is meant by term Channelization? Explain in detall vam

channelization protocols. §

Ans. The term channelization refers to the sharing of s potnttepe

communications medium.1 For example, many telephone conversaticas for oe
context, computer-to-com puter network transactions) can be submitted nmtatanes
on a single wire, with each conversation being on a separate channel. :

Cannelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwiiss

link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different statect

The three channelization protocols are FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA |

1. The Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA): as

In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available anger

into frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data- me
each band is reserved for a specific station, and it belongs to the station a y
Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine the transmitter ea
prevent station interferences, the allocated bands are separated from enti *
small guard bands.

The following figure shows the idea of FDMA.

wa
LP. University-{B.Tech}-Akash Books 2018-19

Data
fA
a
sae eee
ssscaaed
t
Common
aee channel

tesuasd eve

Data

Silent

The differences between FDM and FDMA are as follows:

ue that combines the loads from low-bandwidth
nnels and transmits them by using a high-bandwidth channel. The channels that

odulates the signals, combines them, and

combined are low-pass. The multiplexer.m

ites a bandpass signal. The bandwidth of each channel is shifted by the
multiplexer.

FDM, is a physical layer techniq

Random access Protocols

Aloha Protocols

Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocol

FDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer. The data link
o make a bandpass signal from the data

er in each station tells its physical layer t

sed to it. The signal must be created in the allocated band. There is no physical

\tiplexer at the physical layer. The signals created at each station are
automatically
:dpass-filtered. They are mixed when they are sent to the common channel.

2. Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the
annel in time. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data.
ch station transmits its data in is assigned time slot. The following figure shows
the

ea behind TDMA.
20-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer N
etwo
Tk

Oata

Data

The main problem with TDMA lies in achieving synchronizatio

different stations. Each station needs to know the beginning of its slot ns
of its slot. This may be difficult because of propagation delays introduced Ry
if the stations are spread over a large area. To compensate for the delays <n
guard times. Synchronization is normally accomplished by having some ayn i =
bits at the beginning of each slot. chroniy

3. Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

CDMA simply means communication with different codes. CDMA differs from,
because only one channel! occupies the entire bandwidth of the link. It differs
from}
because all stations cansend data simultaneously; there is no timesharing.

Implementation:

Let us assume we have four stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 connected to the same chs
The data from station 1 are dl, from station 2 are d2, and so on. The code assign
the first statiomis c1, to the second is c2, and so on. We assume that the
assigned:

have two properties.

1. If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number of stations).
With these two properties in mind, how the above four stations can send data!
the same common channel, as shown in the following figure.

d, 7]
o3 GI
dy Cy d2.%
mmon
dy Cy + G2 Cz + dyCy + yy prs.
Data
dy cy dy.C4
4
LP. University-(B.Tech}-Akash Books 2018-21

pultiplies (a special kind of multiplication, as we will see) its data b

i e1, Station 2 multiplies its data by its code to get d2.c2. And so tine

’ a6 0 on the channel are the sum of all these terms, as shown in the bor.
p stion that wants to receive data from one of the other three multiplies the
oe ve channel « eo of the sender. For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are
gat” ach other. Station 2 wants to hear what station | is saying. It multiplies the
- os channel by cl the code of station1. ine .
acsuse cch-cl) is 4, but (c2 . cl), (c3. cl), and (c4 cl) are all 0s, station 2
divides the
py 4 to get the data from station].

gt bY
* 1g « (dl cl+d2.c2+d3.c3+d4_c4).c1
ic dl. cl+ cl. d2. 2+ c1. d3. c3+ cl. d4. cf 4d1

Q.3. (b)What are the advantages of FDDI over a basic token ring. (6.5)
ans. As opposed to Token Ring’s single ring, FDDI, uses two to achieve better
results
sjess chance of failure.

_|na basic Token Ring network, at any instant there is a single active ring monitor
ch supplies the master clock for the ring, whereas in FDDI this approach isn't
ideal
suse of the high data rates. Instead, each ring interface has its own local clock,
and

ing data is transmitted using this clock.

Unlike the basic Token Ring, which is based on the use of priority and reservation
. the priority operation of the FDDI ring uses a principle that is based on a
parameteT
wn as the Token Rotation Time, or TRT.

.FDDI uses a timed token protocol where Token Ring uses priority/reservation token
ss, leading to differences in frame format and how station traffic is handled

Q. 4. (a) Explain distance vector routing algorithm with the help of a suitable
imple. (6)

Ans. Distance Vector is simple routing protocol which takes routing decision on the
uber of hops between source and destination. A route with less number of hops is
sidered as the best route. Every router advertises its set best routes to other
routers.
imately, all routers build up their network topology based on the advertisements of

r peer routers,

For example Routing Information Protocol (RIP).

Bellman Ford Basics - Each router maintains a Distance Vector table containing
distance between itself and ALL possible destination nodes. Distances,based on a
sen metric, are computed using information from the neighbors’ distance vectors.

Information kept by DV router -

¢ Each router has an ID

¢ Associated with each link connected to a router,

¢ There is a link cost (static or dynamic).

* Intermediate hops

Distance Vector Table Initialization -

* Distance to itself = 0

* Distance to ALL other routers = infinity number.

Distance Vector Algorithm -

|. A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbors in a routing

packet.

2. Each router receives and saves the most recentl i i

y received distance vecto:
«ch of its neighbors. ses

_ 4. Arouter recalculates its distance vector when:

.,
22-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer y
Sty

* It receives a distance vector from a neighbor containing diff,

than before. ™

eny
* It discovers that a link to a neighbor has gone down. '
The DV calculation is based on minimizing the cost to each us
Dx(y) = Estimate of least cost from x toy NAtieg ;
C(x,v) = Node x knows cost to each neighbor v |

Dx = (Dx(y): y e N) =Nodex maintains distance vector

Node x also maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors
~ For each neighbor v, x maintains Dv = (Dvly): ye N]
emUF;' : trait t dj
From time-to-time, each node sends its own istance vector estimate

© When a node x receives new DV estimate from any neighbor y it

vector and it updates its own DV using B-F equation: :

Dx(y) = min ( C(x,v) + Dv(y)] for each node y « N

Q. 4. (b) For the bit sequence 1001110, construct Hamming code

the number of parity bits that will be required to construct the one

Hama

Ans. To calculate no. of parity bits the following condition must be

‘te

avery 4

Q°> = d+r+1 Satints

As the number of data bits (d) is.7, 60 putting d = 7 in above equation
=> 22> = T+r+ I! May

2> = 8+r
Putting r = 4 satisfied eq. (2) since 24 > 12. Thus 4 parity bits are rear:

seven data bits to construct the Hamming code and these parity bits will being
first second fourth and eight position. )

The structure of Hamming code for the data 1001110 is as. |

Dyy Dip Do Og DB, Dg Ds Py Dy P2 Ps
4 oloj—-j1),1}1

So, f—-| =
t Eg sae 5

As the bits D,D,D,D,D,, are 01101 thus P, = 1 to establish even parity

As the bits D;DgDgD 19D 1 are 01101 thus P, = 1 to establish the even pam
As the bits D,D,D, are 111 thus P, = 1 to establish the even parity.
As the bits D,D,,D,, are 001 thus P, = 1 to establish even parity.
-. Hamming code which will be transmitted to receiver is:

Dj; Dio Dg Os
tT To be detected

D, Dg Ds Pg Dy Po Ps

1|o}]ol1]1]1}1)1]0)1 114 Complete

Q.5. (a) What is Congestion. Explain different congestion control

Ans. Congestion is an important issue that can arise in packet erie

Congestion is a situation in Communication Networks in which bt at
present in a part of the subnet, performance degrades. Congestion *

occur when the load on the network (i.e. the number of packets sent at
greater than the capacity of the network (i.e. the number of packe |

ding:

handle.). Network congestion occurs in case of traffic overloa

—_—

d LP. University-{B. Tech Akash Books 2018-23

as words when too much traffic is offered, congestion sets in and performance
0

wea

ry
Maximum Carrying Perfed
Capacity of subnet
' Desirable
8
& Congested
:
ao
Packet sent :f
Concept of Congestion

How to correct the Congestion Problem:

Congestion Control refers to techniques and mechanisms that can either prevent
ongestion, before it happens, or remove congestion, after it has happened.
Congestion
ontrol mechanisms are divided into two categories, one category prevents the
congestion
fom happening and the other category removes congestion after it has taken place.

Congestion
control

Open loop

| |
fi | | |

Retransmissi Acknowledgmen

Closed loop

[Admission Back | |Choke! | Implicit | | Explicit

Policy Policy Pressure] |packet| |Signaling] | Signaling
Window Discarding
Policy Policy

Types of Congestion Control Methods

These two categories are:

1. Open loop
2. Closed loop

1. Open Loop Congestion Control

¢ In this method, policies are used to prevent the congestion before it happens.

* Congestion control is handled either by the source or by the destination.

The various methods used for open loop congestion control are;
(a) Retransmission Policy
* The sender retransmits a packet, if it feels that the packet it has sent is lost
or
corrupted.

* However retransmission in general may increase the congestion in the network.

But we need to implement good retransmission policy to prevent congestion.
24-2018K Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer Netw
ork

fy The retransminsion policy and the retrunsmission timerg Need to

optimize efficiency and at the same time prevent the congestion, he
(b) Window Policy “i
* ‘To implement window policy, selective reject window method ig une |
control, nd for
* Selective Reject method is preferred over Go-back-n window ag jn Go-}
when timer for a packet times out, several packets are resent, although Pre
arrived safely at the receiver, Thus, this duplication may make congestion w® May
* Selective reject method sends only the specific lost or damaged peal hey
(c) Acknowledgement Policy
* The acknowledgement policy imposed by the receiver may also affect
* Ifthe receiver doos not acknowledge every packet it re Pie
sender and help prevent congestion.
* Acknowledgments also add to the traffic load on the network, Thus, }
fewer acknowledgements we can reduce load on the network. dot / ends,
* Tu implement it, several approaches can be used:
1. Areceiver may send an acknowledgement only if it has a packet to be se |
2. Areceiver may send an acknowledgement when a timer expires, Mi
3. A receiver may also decide to acknowledge only N packets at a time,
Discarding Policy :
* Arouter may discard less sensitive packets when congestion is likely to ha
¢ Such a discarding policy may prevent congestion and at the same time i
harm the integrity of the transmission,
Admission Policy
¢ An admission policy, which is a quality-of-service mechanism, can also pr
congestion in virtual circuit networks.
* Switches ina flow first check the resource requirement of a flow before admittiq
it to the network,
e Arouter cun deny establishing a virtual circuit connection if there is congestion
the — network or if there is a possibility of future congestion.
2. Closed Loop Congestion Control i
* Closed loop congestion control mechanisms try to remove the congestion aftet
happens.
The various methods used for closed loop congestion control are:
(a) Backpressure
* Backpressure is a node-to-node congestion control that starts with a node

Cty,

ceives it ma
¥ HOW do,
be

May ue

propagates, in the opposite direction of data flow.

Back
ack
ie Back Pressure Pressure
Me ls Pa a dS 4 |
Source Congestion Desti
>
; pseneny Dataflow = Downstream

Backpressure Method
4 LP. University-{B. Tech}-Akash Books 2018-25

The packpressure technique can be applied only to virtual circuit networks. In

wal circuit each node knows the upstream node from which a data flow is coming.
“if + {o this method of congestion control, the congested node stops receiving data
from
pmediate upstream node or nodes.
5. (b) Expand the address 0:165::1:12:1213 to its original and also find the
5 of following IP address. (6.5)

i 908.34.54.12

ii. 238.34.2.1

iii. 114.34.2.8

jv. 129. 14. 6.8

Ans. 0000:0015:0000:0000:0000:0001:0012:1213

(i) class C (ii)elass D (iii)class A (iv) class B

Q. 6. Describe the following:

(a) Leaky Bucket Algorithm. (6)

Ans. The leaky bucket algorithm is a method of temporarily storing a variable

number of requests and organizing them into a set-rate output of packets in an

asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network.

The leaky bucket is used to implement traffic policing and traffic shaping in
Ethernet and cellular data networks, The algorithm can also be used to control
metered-
bandwidth Internet connections to prevent going over the allotted bandwidth for a
month,
thereby avoiding extra charges. ;

Suppose we have a bucket in which we are pouring water in a random order but we
have to get water in a fixed rate, for this we will make a hole at the bottom of
the bucket.
It will ensure that water coming out is ina some fixed rate, and also if bucket
will full
we will stop pouring in it.

The input rate cam vary, but the output rate remains constant. Similarly, in
networking, a technique called leaky bucket can smooth out bursty traffic. Bursty
chunks
are stored in the bucket:and sent out at an average rate.

clas

144 12Mb
42 ad
10-44
a-
B® 45) Bursty Flow 67
4-4
: 2-4 2 Mbps
it hasten.
012345678910
Bursty Data
14
1244
10-7
4
re 3 Mbps
274
& LS GA SPS) FD See a a
4& — Fixed Flow 012345678910

Fixed Data
—

26-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer Networ,

In the figure, we assume that the network has committed a bandw; th

for a hoat. The use of the leaky bucket shapes the input traffic to make it Cong,
“fg
commitment. In Figure the host sends a burst of data at a rate of 12 Mbpa Pia uh,
total of 24 Mbits of data. The host is silent for 5 s and then sends data ate 28 S
Mbps for 3 s, for a total of 6 Mbits of data. In all, the host has sent 39 Mbit,
Pity ot
10 8. The leaky bucket smooths the traffic by sending out data at a rate of 3
Mortar!
the same 10 sg. %

Without the leaky bucket, the beginning burst may have hurt the ,,
consuming more bandwidth than is set aside for this host. We can alg, see tk, |
leaky bucket may prevent congestion. thay thy

A simple leaky bucket algorithm can be implemented using FIFO queue

queue holds the packets. If the traffic consists of fixed-size packets (e.g cells °
Pip,
networks), the process removes a fixed number of packets from the queue at oa) “ATy
the clock. If the traffic consists of variable-length packets, the fixed output
rate tick og
based on the number of bytes or bits. "Dat by

The following is an algorithm for variable-length packets:

1. Initialize a counter to n at the tick of the clock.

2. If n is greater than the size of the packet, send the packet and decreme
counter by the packet size. Repeat this step until n is smaller than the Packet ih,

3. Reset the counter and go to step 1.

Q. 6. (b) Dynamic Host Control protocol DHCP. (65)

Ans. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server Protocol thas

automatically provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address ang other
related configuration information such as the subnet mask and default gateway. RFC,
2131 and 2132 define DHCP asen Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) g
based on Bootstrap Protoco)(BOOTP), a protocol with which DHCP shareg
implementation details. DHCP allows hosts to obtain necessary TCP/IP configuration
information from a DHCP server.

The Microsoft Windows Server 2003 operating system includes a DHCP Serye ,
service, which is an optional networking component. All Windows-based clients
include
the DHCP client as part of TCP/IP, including Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows XP, Windows. 2000, Windows NT 4.0, Windows Millennium Edition (Window |
Me), and Windows 98.

Benefits of DHCP

In Windows Server 2003, the DHCP Server service provides the following benefits

° Reliable IP address configuration. DHCP minimizes configuration erron

caused by manual IP address configuration, such as typographical errors, or addres
conflicts caused by the assignment of an IP address to more than one computer st th
same time. |

* Reduced network administration. DHCP includes the following features

reduce network administration:

o Centralized and automated TCP/IP configuration.

o The ability to define TCP/IP configurations from a central location.

o The ability to assign a full range of additional TCP/IP configuration values ™

means of DHCP options. : wl
o The efficient handling of IP address changes for clients that must be OF
frequently, such as those for portable computers that move to different location”
wireless network. |
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(8. (e) Whas is FTP. Horm files are transferred using FTP. (6)

Ans, OTP canta for Pile Trenster Proven Lo 2 putehell, FTP is used to transfer
umngted blasted ve prbathy waa VTP batore, eves if you didn’t realze it. If you
have
henwtleated, wonetiana fro the lovertet, each es 9 new version of en spplication,
it is
very yatta teat yo aed FTP Ys Ge ws.

PTY ie alas frequently used ese way to trauafer web peges. PTP allows new web
pages treater by an ttadervtual w shew ap on Ue icternet. PTP essentially transfers
there wat, pags flee i the anopolet eerver w others cen sovess them PTP cen also be
oaed ty doowalosd Dles or programe from the loternet to your computer. When you
dewiitad thaws let, you ere trenslerring them from other servers through FTP.

FTP can allow yoru Ww traneler Olea over eny two computers, as long es they both
have en Leternet conection. You cnn dhare folders that contein data like mumc, Word
Bervssnatns wid peters

Wier: (lee are tearaterd through KTP, une f two actsons it happening - uploading
ot dreticad.ng Upeating invelres Ueselerring Oles from a persona] computer Wo a
28-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Compute, Sills: e
=

server Downloading involves transferring a file from a server 1, eae |

FTP uses TCP/IP (Transmission Control ProtocolInternet Protoce)) Pe” *al
Ser ay

TCP‘|P is basically the language that the Internet uses to Carry ou Conny
Lf you are going to use File Transfer Protocol in order to downloaq files tad, Ny

keep security concerns in mind. Files downloaded from the Internet Poy
that can harm your computer. —_ hav, Sa

One way to use PTP is to go through an FTP client. FTP clients may —~
your computer to download/‘upload files and help you avoid malware and ea. Peas,
chents are pricey, while some are completely free. Using an FTP chent want Boma
a

step for transferring folders, but 1t may make uploading and downloading fij.. a.
Q. 8. (b) Explain the DNS in terms of name space, resource recorg He
server. ing
Ans. Domain Name System he!ps to resolve the host name to
uses a hierarchical naming scheme and distributed database of Ip br addr
associated names “reste Rg
Domain Name System Architecture
The Domain name system comprises of Domain Names, Domain Na
Name Server that have been described below: Srany
Domain Names: Domain Name 1s a symbolic string associated with an [p
There are severa! domain names available; some of them are generic Fuch as rem
ov, net etc, while some country level domain names such 28 au, in, za, us «

The following table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

Edu Education
Gov US. government agency
Int International entity
Mil US. military
Net Networking organization
Org Non profit organization
The following table shows the Country top-level domain names:
Domain Name Meaning
au Australia
in India
cl Chile
fr France
us United States
za South Africa
uk United Kingdom
ip Japan
es Spain
de Germany
ca Canada
ee Estonia
hk Hong Kong

a ta eee Remne Ona

eS
» LP University-{B. Tech}-Akash Books 2016-29

F .
| pomain Namo Space: The domain name space refers a hierarchy in tho internet
! ag structure This hierarchy has multiple levels (from 0 to 127), with a root at
the

2 phe following diagram shows the domain name space hierarchy:

G on fom i A te “Borg
a: ~~

te colorado ©@

mtghouse @paulatten “Qunh ”

@kin

mana roxy

In the above diagram each subtree represents a domain. Each domain can be
partitioned into sub domains and these can be further partitioned and so on.
Name Server

Name server contains the DNS database. This database comprises of various names
and their corresponding IP addresses. Since it is not possible for a single server
to
maintain entire DNS database, therefore, the information is distributed among many

DNS servers.

¢ Hierarchy of server is same as hierarchy of names.

* The entire name space is divided into the zones

Zones

Zone is collection of nodes (sub domains) under the main domain. The server
maintains a database called zone file for every zone.

edu zone

5 °° emu
stanford

CH

berkeley.edy zone

cs. berkeyles. edu zone

If the domain is not further divided into sub domains then domain and zone refers
to the same thing.

The information about the nodes in the sub domain is stored in the servers at the
lower levels however; the original server keeps reference to these lower levels of
servers
30-2018 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Computer Network

TYPES OF NAME SERVERS

Following ure the three categories of Name Servers that manages the tins
Name System.

* Root Server “s

¢ Primary Server

° Secondary Server

ROOT SERVER

Root Server is the top level server which consists of the entire DNS tree. It q
‘ontain the information about domains but delegates the authority to the oth. ma

PRIMARY SERVERS

Primary Server stores a file about its zone. It has authority to Create, main
and update the zone file. a,

SECONDARY SERVER

Secondary Server transfers complete information about a zone from another

which may be primary or secondary server. The secondary server does not have 4
to create or update a zone file.

wa
FIRST TERM EXAMINATION [FEB. 2019]
SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]

pATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

[ETEC-310]

i LS brs: i

on Qi.is compulsory and out of remaining attempt any two questions.

yet

1. (a) What is the difference between flooding and broadcasting? (2)

4 When a switch receives a unicast frame(a frame with a specific MAC address
dfor a particular device), it looks for the frame’s destination MAC in its MAC-
jess table. If there is no entry for the destination MAC in its table, it will
simply
? te frame out to everyone connected to it’s ports.

The frame is still a unicast frame, since it has a specific destination mac address
its header. The switch doesn’t change any header data in the frame.All the devices
receive the frame will compare the destination mac address in the frame with their
mac address and drops the frame if it doesn't match.

Broadcasting: A broadcast frame is created by the host itself. A frame becomes a

padcast frame if the destination mac address is fffffeffifft. Usually the host
creates
s type of frames during the ARP process. When the switch receives a broadcast
frame,
ends it out to everyone connected to it.

In flooding the switch sends the frame to all because it doesn’t know how to reach
destination.

In broadcasting the host that created the frame itself addressed the frame to
ryone.

Q. 1. (b) What is fit stuffing? Why it is used? (2)

Ans. Bit stuffing is the process of inserting non information bits into data to
break
bit patterns to affect the synchronous transmission of information. It is widely
din network and communication protocols, in which bit stuffing is a required part
he transmission process. Bit stuffing is commonly used to bring bit streams up to

mmon transmission rate or to fill frames. Bit stuffing is also used for run-length
ited coding. :

onde

Q.1. (c) Which are of the terms given below are essential in creating &
intaining an open market and guarantee national & international
'Toperability of data & telecommunication technologies & processes. (1)

'™ Standards (b) Protocols

©) Jure (d) Forums

Ans, Standards

ei (d) Which of them is used to keep the session records, q)

") Sessions (b) Cookies

©) Files

(d) Forums
=; Sessions

4 4
o>] ”
2-201 3y > : :
1p Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networ,,

ai Q.1. (©) Which of the following ITU-T standard defines the ing, :
a terminal device & packet switching network? Tface

(a) X.50 (b) X.25 ae |

(ce) X.509 (d) X.32 y

Ans. X25 ,

Q.1. (0 What is the difference between multiple bit error and } |

Ure, en, )

‘ Ans. When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they ay, i
orrupted due to interference and network problem. Below is the differ, Subject u
multiple bit error and burst error: ie, betyet

* Multiple bits error- In the received frame, more than one bits ar
eco

100 “440 1\0,

Sent Frame = 1 0 0 = Bg

Multiple bits erroy

Received 1 1 2 0 [ 04 1, |
ec 0 1 ; i |
Frame |

¢ Burst error “ In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits are corry,
Pted

Sent Frame

Received frame 1° \ | ’

Q.1. (g) What is the effect of propagation delay on CSMA? (l

Ans. The propagation delay time greatly affects CSMA. Let us suppose, just afer
the station I begins its transmission, station 2 also became ready to send its data
ait
senses the channel. If the station 1 signal has not yet reached station 2, station
2 wl
sense the channel to be idle and will begin its transmission. This will result in
collisia

Sease & transmit

Coatinuog|s wase

Channel >

Idle

Besy chanect idle chaenel

Station can transmll

1-persistent CSMA toc

@ 2 Compare GoBack N, Selective Repeat, and Stop and Wait protocols”

following situation diagrammatically with sender and receiver window
Suppose Host A sends 5 frames to Host B, and the 2nd fram (sent :
Jost. In the end, all 5 frames have been correctly recieved by

Host B-
r IP. University-{B Tech}—Akash Booke 2019-3
mptions:
nest calulate the window size use value of n as 2.
w gait the missing values,
)é
2 The timeout values for oll three protocols are sufficiently long such that
ih ytive frames and their corresponding ACKs can be received.
; fi a the follow ing questions by assuming a set-up.
0 How many frams has Host A sent in total and how many ACKs has Host B
ee yotal? What are their sequence numbers? Answer this question for all
t

ee rotocols. (10)
» ge which protocol successfully delivers all five daata segments in shortest
vjnterval?
«In stop and wait ARQ. We use sequence numbers to numbers the frames
aot ace nurnber are based on module 2-anthmetiec.
one a K no always announce, in module 2 arithmetic the a@quence number of the next
agit? expected
whereas, In Go Back N protocol the sequence numbers are module 2*, where m is

gue of the sequence No field in bita.

he + “3

jn selective re peat ARQ use, the send window, size 19 27-' and the renieve window
ofthe same #176 of aend window ie. (2°!)
af tl

5,

; 2,4,5,6
&, GO Back N = Sequence of framea = « and ACK’S = a

1,293, 495
(ales, “Sida,” (become

uehnowledgement 2 means packet 1 is reached safely.)

ACK 218 missin, and all other remaining frame also.

2,3,4,5

r
seq = aan Sa & ACK's = 4

Hence total of 9 sequence no's & 8 acknowledgement no's

(5+) (4 + 4)
Through selective repeat Protocol.
1,2,3,4,5

sequene number = "4 and , ACK’s =

2,4,5,6
6 4

It compares with Acknowledgements and identifies Acknowledgement 3 is missing.

Reeome packet 2 is lost)

Sequence # 2 and Acknowledgment = 3

1 cond
l

Hence total sequence = 6 (5 + 1)

and Acknowledgement © 5 (4 + 1)

Q 3. (a) Design and demonstrate diagrammatically in detail a Network

‘logy for a college of the size of Maharaja Agjrasen Institute of Technology
“eden buildings blocks all part of a network, State all the assumptions and
“ns for assuming a particular topology. (3)
4—2019 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

Ans,

Core

Distribution

Access

Each layer in the three-tier hierarchical model has a unique role to perform:

* Access Layer—The primary function of an access-layer is to provide aa |

access to the end user. This layer often performs OSI Layer-2 bridge function ¢ |
interconnects logical Layer-2 broadcast domains and provides isolation to grou hat
users, applications, and other endpoints. The access-layer interconnectg so aa
distribution layer. "a

° Distribution Layer—Multi-purpose system that interfaces between access layer

and core layer. Some of the key function for a distribution layer include the
following _

—Aggregate and terminate Layer-2 broadcast domains

~Provide intelligent switching, routing, and network access policy function to

acces
the rest of the network. |

—Redundant distribution layer switches provides high availability to the end-user

and equal-cost paths to the core. It can provide differentiated services to various
class-
of-service applications at the edge of network.

° Core Layer—The core-layer provides high-speed, scalable, reliable and low-latenq

connectivity. The core layer aggregates several distribution switches that may be
ia
different buildings. Backbone core routers are a central hub-point that provides
transit
function to access the internal and external network.

Q.3. (b) A channel has a bandwidth of 6 kHz, what is the channel capacity if
signal to noise ratio being 34. For same channel capacity, if signal to noise «
is increased to 68, then, what willbe the new channel bandwidth?

Ans. (1) C = B* log, (1+S/N)

C = 6000 P< log, (1 + 34)

C 6000 p< 5.13 = 30,780 (

(40) 30780 B * log, (1 + 68)

30780 = B*6.12
B = 5029 Hz = 5.29 kHz

30.78 kbp?)
LP, University-(B. Tech -Akanh Hooks 2019-5

(¢) What is the difference between step-index mode and multi-mode

ace cablo? (3)

f

fn ag, Single Mode cable is a single Stand of glass fiber with a diametor of 8.3 to
10

that has one mode of tranaminsion, Single Modo Fiber with a relatively narrow
git through which only ono mode will propagate typically 1310nm or 1650nm. It
wn higher bandwidth than multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow

anal width

cl glo-mode fiber gives us a higher transmission rate and up to 60 times more

on than multimode, but it also coats more, Single-mode fiber has a much smaller

ian multimode, The amall core and ainglo light-wave virtually eliminate any

jortio” that could result from overlapping light pulues, providing tho least signal

is

a
i hwation and the highest transmission apeods of any fiber cable type.
{ie

gingle-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order bound
je can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.
m0!

Multimode cable is mado of of glass fibers, with a common diameters in the 50-
_.100 micron range for the light carry component (the moaticommon sizo is 62.5).
POF
4 newer plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass cable on
vahort runs, but at a lower cost,

Multimode fiber gives bandwidth at high speeds over medium distances. Light
aves are dispersed into numerous patha, or modes, aa they.travel through the
cable's
a typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and
iW micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet 914.4 ml),
multiple
saths of light can cause signal distortion at tho receiving end, resulting in an
unclear

#7 incomplete data transmission.

Q. 4. (a) Demonstrate that the hamming code can correct one bit error in
he following case. Transmitted code is 11101 and the code received at the

eceiver is 110010100. Specify which bit has error and correct it. (4)
Ans. Refer Q.3. (b) of First Term Examination 2017, (Page No. 3,4-2017)
Q. 4. (b) What kind of error is undetectable by checksum? (2)

Ans, At least three types of error cannot be detected by the current checksum
culation. First, if two data items are swapped during transmission, the sum and the
tecksum values will not change. Second, if the value of one data item is increased
atentionally or maliciously) and the value of another one is decreased
(intentionally
‘maliciously) the same amount, the sum and the checksum cannot detect these
changes.
hird, if one or more data items is changed in such a way that the change is a
multiple
(216-1, the sum or the checksum cannot detect the changes.

Q. 4. (c) Design a methodology to solve incase a token is lost or a duplicate

‘ten appears on the ring? (4)
Ans. If Token is lost: It may be possible that after taking the Token, station is
“thed Down, In this case, the token will be lost.To deal with such situations, it
is the
nability of Monitor to generate new Token. Monitor will wait for Max Token Return

tnd if the token is not received then it will generate a new Token.
" duplicnte token appears: Then it will accept the token which is sent first and
“ard the duplicate token,
=

END TERM EXAMINATION [MAY. 2019)

SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH]

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKg

[ETEC-310]

Time ; 3 hrs. MLM. :>

Note : Attempt five questions in all including Question No. 1 which is compulsory,
Se ,
one Question from each unit lees

Q.1. Answer all question:-

Q.1. (a) What are the key design issues of a data communication network

(2.5)

Ans. A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer
networks Some of the main design issues areas follows: .

Reliability: Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss

of bits while data transfer So, an important design issue is to make sure that the
information transferred is not distorted.

Scalability: Networks are continususly evolving. The sizes are continua)}

increasing leading to congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the
addeq
components, it may lead todneom patibthty issues. Hence, the design should be done
g5
that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such additions and alterations,
|

Addressing: At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred -

between large numbers of computers. So, & naming or addressing system should exist
&o that each layer can identafy the sender and receivers of each message.

Error Controk Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data

«treams that are communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error
detection —
and error correction metheds so as to protect data packets while they are
transferred —

Flow Control: |{ the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than —
the rate at which daté is received by the receiver, there are chances of
overflowing the —
receiver So, a proper flow contre! mechanism needs to be implemented.

Resource Allocation: Computer networks provide services in the form of network

resources to the end users. The main design issue is to allocate and deallocate
resources |
to processes. The allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference
among |
the hosts eccurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.

Q.1. (b) What are the four fundamental characteristics of data

communication system? (2.5)
Ans. The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter. 7

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must » 7
recerved by the intended device or user and only by that device or user. |

2. Accuracy: The syetem must deliver the data accurately. Data that have de" |
aliered in tranemessien and left uncorrected are unusable.

4. Timeliness: The syetem must deliver data in a timely manner. Data det we
late are oxeless Im the case of video and audio, tmely delivery means deliverina
4s they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without sage
delay This kind of delivery uw called real-time transmission. Z

3
|.P. UniversityB.Tech}-Akash Books 2019-7

jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven

iter very of audio or video packets. For example, Jet us assume that video

“a ihe out? 3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others
pias se ag uneven quality in the video is the result.

Pips explain Piggybacking with a neat diagram. (2.5)

) ay communication, whenever a data frame is received, the received

o> Pg tt send the control frame (acknowledgement) back to the sender

a gd e receiver waits until its network layer passes in the next data packet.

P vgately” acknowledgement is then attached to this outgoing data frame. This

A189" semporarily delaying the acknowledgement so that it can be hooked with

pie data frame is known as piggybacking.
000 acking
** pigayP4°
a . * Amethad to combine a data
pay pay frame with ACK.
eel Frame 0, ACK 0 aa e Station A and B both have
F Pom data to send
0 * Instead of sending separately.
sal Ret station A sends a data frame
Sel that includes an ACK.
fe! 5=0 ° Station B does the same thing.
$ e Piggybacking waves bandwidth.
v Y
Time Time
qi. (d) What are the criteria necessary for an effective and efficient
work? (2.5)

Ans. Anetwork must be able to meet certain number of criteria. The most important
«Performance, Reliability and Security.

+ Performance: Can be measured by transit time and response time. Transit time
he amount of time required fora message to travel from one device to another.
sponse time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance
snetwork depends on the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
exities of the connected hardware and the efficiency of the software.

» Reliability: Is measured by the frequency of failures, the time it takes a link

to
cer from failure and the network robustness in a catastrophe.

‘Security: This refers to the ability to protect data from unauthorized access
QI. (e) What are the responsibilities of Data Link Layer? (2.5)
~ 1. Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network layer
Manageable data units. This division of stream of bits is done by Data Link Layer.
A Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order
rhage address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be
te to different systems on the network.
bow cam Control: A flow control meckanism to avoid a fast transmitter from running
i ver by buffering the extra bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic
. receiver side.
tie} Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the
ada, On Of frames are also prevented by using this mechanism. Data Link
mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.
88-2019 Siath Semester, Data Communic ation and Networks

5. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine whieh of the Neve j

Over the li . hee are CONNeErt Ee ‘Nay

ink at any given time, when two or more devices 4 ed te thie omit

Q.1. (D What are the differences between port address, logical agg.” lin
Physical addreas? "eng, ana

Ans. Logical Addreas: An IP addrons of the aystem Is called logical Adit. 4,

addresa is the combnation of Net 1D and Hoat ID, This address is used by rey wr :
tin
to identify a particular network (xouree to deatination) among the networks This
can be changed by changing the host postion on the network. So it in Calle ¥ i]
address 4 Inng

_ Physical address: Each syetem having a NIC (Network Interface Card) u

which two systems physically connected with each other with cables. The addrong sri
NIC ia called Physical address or MAC address, This is apecified by the manuf =
company of the card. This address is used by data link layer

Port Address: There are many applications running on the computer p

applicatio ri ; ter, This pe T Kinet

nrun with a port no. (logically) on the computer, This port no, for Spplien

is decided by the Kernel of the OS. This port no. is ealled port addrens Ue |

Q.1. (g) Describe bit interval, bitrate and baud rate. (ay |

Ans. Bit rate and Baud rate, these two terms are often used in data communicatj, 7
Bit rate is simply the number of bits (e,, 0's and 1's) transmitted in per unit 4
“a
While Baud rate is the number of signal units tranamitted per unit time that ig ne
re
to represent those bits The crucial difference between bit rate and baud rate that
one
change of state can transfer one bit, or slightly more or less than one bit that
relieg ~~
the modulation technique used. Hence, the given equation defines the relation
between |
the two:

Bit rate = baud rate = the number of bit per baud

Bit interval: Data can be represent by a digital signal For Example :al cants .
encoded as a positive voltage anda Ocan be encoded as a zero voltage . The bit
interval )
is the time required to send one single bit , This means that the bit rate is
number of
bits sent in one second, usually expressed in bits per seconds (bps),

Q.1. (h) Explain how QoS is provided through integrated services. — (2.5) _

Ans. QoS ia an overall performance measure of the computer network. Integrated |

Services is flow-based QoS model and designed for IP. In integrated services, user
needs
to create a flow in the network, from source to destination and needs to inform all
routers
(every router in the system implements IntServ) of the resource requirement.

Steps to understand how integrated services works

(i) Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP): An IP is connectionless, datagram,

packet-switching protocol. To implement a flow-based model, a signaling protocol is
used
to run over IP, which provides the signaling mechanism to make reservation (every
applications need assurance to make reservation), this protocol is called as RSVP.

(ii) Flow Specification: While making reservation, resource needs to define the
flow epecification. The flow specification has two parts:

(a) Resource specification: It defines the resources that the flow needs to reser?
For example: Buffer, bandwidth, etc.

(b) Traffic specification: It defines the traffic categorization of the flow.

(iii) Admit or deny: After receiving the flow specification from an applica the
router decides to admit or deny the service and the decision can be taken bas¢
previous commitments of the router and current availability of the resource:

ACture,
,

tis tho use of classless addressing.?

1) ess Addressing: To reduce

@ ‘ clase! We use host id bits ag net {
pet 4 define the number of bits fo

yares® - 192. 168.1.1/28. Here, subne

s pol hike,

(2.5)
the wastage of IP addresses in a block, we
d bits of a classful IP address. We give the
r mask along with it (usually followed by a

‘ ; t mask is found by putting the given number

mb 'o¢92 as I, like, in the given address, we need to put 28 out of 32 bits as 1
and
¢ 0, and £0, the subnet mask would be 256.255.265.240.

pee values calculated in subnetting ;

me

umber of subnets: Given bits for mask ~ No. of bits in default mask
I. Post address: AND result of subnet mask and the given IP address
jroadcast address: By putting the host bits as 1 and retaining the network bits
3. ddress
IP aac
yin Faumber of hosts per subnet: 2(32 — Given bits for mask) — 2
4.

first Host ID : Subnet address + 1 (adding one to the binary representation of the

spnet address)
§

L@ What kind of error is understand by checksum? (2.5)

a At least three types of error cannot be detected by the current checksum
jation. First, if two data items are swapped during transmission, the sum and the
= um values will not change. Second, if the value of one data item is increased
bectonally or maliciously) and the value of another one is decreased (intentionally
it jciously) the same amount, the sum and the checksum cannot detect these changes.
val if one or more data items is changed in such a way that the change is a
multiple

216-1, the sum or the checksum cannot detect the changes.

UNIT-1
Q.2. (a) Compare OSI reference model with TCP/IP reference model in detail.

(7.5)
Ans. Refer Q.2. (a) First Term Examination 2018. (Page No. 3-2018)

Q.2. (b) Explain DTE-DCE interface, (5)

Ans. A data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) is a device that sits between the
data terminal equipment (DTE) and a data transmission circuit. It is also called
data
ommunication(s) equipment and data carrier equipment. Usually, the DTE device is
the terminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem.
Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that converts user information

into signals or reconverts received signals. These can also be called tail
circuits. A DTE
device communicates with the data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE). The DTE/
DCE classification was introduced by IBM.

V.35 is a high-speed serial interface designed to suppprt both higher data rates
and
smnectivity between DTEs (data-terminal equipment) or DCEs (data-communication
*quipment) over digital lines.

Q.3. (a) Explain the functional diagram of MODEM. Explain synchronous

ind asynchronous MODEM in detail. (7.5)
Ans. Modem is abbreviation for Modulator — Demodulator. Modems are used for

fa transfer from one computer network to another computer network through telephone
Mes. The computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used
for
. vd Messages across phone lines. Modulator converts information from digital mode
ay °§ mode at the transmitting end and demodulator converts the same from
at receiving end. The process of converting analog signals of one computer
nto digital signals of another computer network so they can be processed bya
‘omputer is referred to as digitizing.

rk

Treg

—
10-2019 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices
called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end DTE can be a
terminal or a computer

Analog Slynal
Ougrral Figral P J Signa
a Li. —e en e's I 1 fa
bead Tetephone Line —
edu! stianDelodulaton

The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE
into an analog signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end
demodulates the carrier and hand over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a
switched telephone circuit. Ifa switched telephone circuit is used, then tho modems
are
connected to the local telephone exchanges, Whenever data transmission is required
connection between the modems is established through telephone exchanges.

Transmitter
(Modutator) mn > Transmission
Digital Tine medium
To OTE4——44 interface} interface
Receiver
(Demodulator)
Talaphone
—s instrument
Bulding blocks of a modem

Synchronous modems typically consist of four sections, as shown in Fig. (a). The
transmitter, receiver, terminal control and power supply. The transmitter section
of a
synchronous modem typically consists of timing (clock), scrambler, modulator,
digital
to analog converter gnd equalizer circuits. The expanded block diagram is shown in
Fig.
below. The timing circuit provides the basic clocking information for both the
modem
and the data terminal equipment (DTE) that is providing the data to be transmitted.
The internal timing is usually controlled by a crystal oscillator to within about
0.05% of

the nominal value.

Transmitter
Public
Telephone Data Terminal
ee | Terminal Equipment
Control
i——| Power
r—|_ Supply
Receiver

Fig.1. (a) Synchronous Modern Block Diagram

IP University-(B Tech|-Akash Books 2019-11
achronous Modem
aay enchronous modems can handle data bytes with start and stop bits.
‘ rere .« no separate timing signal or clock between the modem and the DTE.
’ es internal (ming pulses are synchronized repeatedly to the leading edge of the

yt pulse
é
Data ——___-»
7 Ba H move {e——>
Start bet Stopbit
Data -——
Asynchronous modem
Q3.(b) What is data detection code.? Explain any two with suitable example.

(5)
,ns. Error Detecting Codes: In digital communication system errors are

eqosferred from one communication system to another, along with the data. If these
ors are not detected and corrected, data will be lost, For effective communication,
gta should be transferred with high accuracy ‘This.canbe achieved by first
detecting
ye errors and then correcting them.

Error detection is the process of detecting the errors that are present in the data
cansmitted from transmitter to receiver, in ® communication system. We use some
wjundancy codes to detect these errors, by adding to the data while it is
transmitted
om source (transmitter), These codes are called “Error detecting ccdes”.

Types of Error detection

Panty Checking

Cycle Redundaney Check (CRC)

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

Check Sum

(a) Parity Checking: Parity bit means nothing but an additional bit added to the
jata at the transmitter before transmitting the data. Before adding the parity bit,
aumber of 1’s or zeros is calculated in the data. Based on this calculation of data
an
stra bit is added to the actual information/data. The addition of parity bit to the
data
wil result in the change of data string size.

This means if we have an 8 bit data, then after adding a parity bit to the data
binary
amng it will become a 9 bit binary data string-Parity check is also called as
“Vertical
Redundancy Check (VRC)”.

— is two types of parity bits in error detection, they are:Even parity, Odd
ty
ec Even Parity: If the data has even number of 1's, the parity bit is 0. Ex: data
is
“000001 -> parity bit 0 . Odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1. Ex: data is
10010001
> Panty bit 1
ine, Parity: If the data has odd number of 1's, the parity bit is 0, Ex: data is
“101 -> parity bit 0
Qven number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1. Ex: data is 10010101 -> parity bit 1

ery i ee eh ee
12-2019 Sixth Semester, Data Communication and Networks

Note: The counting of data bits will include the parity bit also. |

The circuit which adds a parity bit to the data at transmitter is called “Parity _
generator”. The parity bits are transmitted and they are checked at the receiver.
Ifthe
parity bits sent at the transmitter and the parity bits received at receiver are
notequal
then an error is detected. The circuit which checks the parity at receiver is
called “Parity
checker”

(b) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A cyclic code is a linear (n, k) block code
with the property that every cyclic shift of a codeword results in another code
word. Here
k indicates the length of the message at transmitter (the number of information
bits).
nis the total length of the message after adding check bits. (actual data and the
check
bits). n, kis the number of check bits. The codes used for cyclic redundancy check
there
by error detection are known as CRC codes (Cyclic redundancy check codes).Cyclic
redundancy-check codes are shortened cyclic codes. These types of codes are used
for
error detection and encoding. They are easily implemented using shift-registers
with
feedback connections. That is why they are widely used for error detection on
digital
communication. CRC codes will provide effective and high level of protection.

CRC Code Generation: Based on the desired number of bit checks, we will add
some zeros (0) to tho actual data. This new binary data sequence is divided by a
new
word of length n + 1, where n is the number of check bits to be added . The
reminder
obtained as a result of this modulo 2- division is added to the dividend bit
sequence to
form the cyclic code. The generated code word is completely divisible by the
divisor that
is used in generation of code. This is transmitted through the transmitter.

Example

Lit
1011 1101000
1011

1100
1011

1110
1011

1010
1011

001 ———_ reminder

UNIT-II
Q.4. (a) Discuss sliding window flow control in the datalinklayer. (6.5)
Ans. Refer Q.4. (a) End Term Exam Examination 2017. (Page No. 15-2017)
Q.4. (b) What is channel allocation problem for data link layer. (5)

Ans. We have a limited resource transmission spectrum, that must be shared by

several users. Unlike wired communications which benefits from isolation provided
by
cables, wireless users within close proximity of one another can cause significant
interference to one another. To address this issue, the concept of cellular
communications
was introduced around in 1968 by researchers at AT and T Bell Labs. The basic
concept
being that a given geography is divided into polygons called cells.
LP. University-(B. Tech}-Akash Books 2019-13

Each cell is allocated a portion of the total frequency spectrum. As users move
into
agven cell, they are then permitted to utilize the channe) allocated to that cell.

Channel-allocation schemes follow one of two types of strategy:

1. Fixed: FCA, fixed channel allocation: manually assigned by the network operator
2. Dynamic:

1. DCA, dynamic channel allocation

2. DFS, dynamic frequency selection
3. Spread spectrum

In Fixed Channel Allocation or Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA) each cell is given
a predetermined set of frequency channels. FCA requires manual frequency planning,
which is an arduous task in TDMA and FDMA based systema, since such systems are
highly sensitive to co-channel interference from nearby cells that are reusing the
same
channel. Another drawback with TDMA and FDMA systems with FCA is that the number
of channels in the cell remains constant irrespective of the number of customers in
that
cell. This results in traffic congestion and some calls being lost when traffic
gets heavy
in some cells, and idle capacity in other cells.

Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) may be applied in wireless networks with

several adjacent non-centrally controlled access points. The access points
automatically
select frequency channels with low interference levels. DFS is supported by the
IEEE

802. 11h wireless local area network standard. DFS is also mandated in the 5470-
5725
MHz U-NII band for radar avoidance.

Q.5. (a) What is ALOHA? Discuss how slotted ALOHA is different from Pure
ALOHA. (6.5)

Ans. ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared

communication network channel. It was developed in the 1970s by Norman Abramson
and his colleagues at the University of Hawaii. The original system used for ground
based radio broadcasting, but the system has been implemented in satellite
communication systems.A shared communication system like ALOHA requires a method
of handling collisions that occur when two or more systems attempt to transmit on
the
channel at the same time. In the ALOHA system, a node transmits whenever data is
available to send. If another node transmits at the same time, a collision occurs,
and
the frames that were transmitted are lost. However, a node can listen to broadcasts
on
the medium, even its own, and determine whether the frames were transmitted.

Aloha is a multiple access protocol at the datalink layer and proposes how
mnultiple
terminals access the medium without interference or collision. In 1972 Roberts
developed
a protocol that would increase the capacity of aloha two fold. The Slotted Aloha
protocol
involves dividing the time interval into discrete slots and each slot interval
corresponds
to the time period of one frame. This method requires synchronization between the
sending nodes to prevent collisions.

Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA both are the Random Access Protocols, that are
implemented on the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, a sublayer of Data Link
Layer.
The purpose of the ALOHA protocol is to determine that which competing station must
get the next chance of accessing the multi-access channel at MAC layer. The main
difference between Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA is that the time in Pure Aloha is
continuous whereas, the time in Slotted ALOHA is discrete.

ee ee
—— 4 ‘ bs , 9
+@- BE 1p feiwth Skerweetes Late ( waiuudication abd Ped weiga ae

Kents for oompartsoa | Pure Aloha | Phat led Aladin

Amiruduced A ' Phtridiaced bby Prodiials | WEL ERevaove es | hey Waitinarg
! Alvaerimea and bus avon polar ” Me, '

} lat the tniwenwty of Hawa

\ {im 1970

Ricntunctinigeen res eee Cee, ae nee

(Prame Trenemiesion The user can ranemit the The user haw ty wast bait wy,
abd ¢ i

data frame whenever the Hert Gis st wteey uy -

| slalien hes the data & he Watstnait the Gate th ize

tranemithed

; In Pure ALANA the tune to la SMluytte r | ALAINIA the ¢

|
{
Hl
'
t
|

}--

Time rs ;
EY .

= | lites aD distrete ” ll
| Suorenaful Tranemimein |! The probatality of successful | The probability of
Cusceeagad
| transimdeson of the duta raneiiieswwurn of the date i
frame is frame ia
S = G* e4.2G 8 = GrerG
stcshstcmnnileeaselleommesnanesiions shi ath sasedemmumnnndaciicsil
‘Throughput e The maimum throughpat | be marinus throughs
looowrs at Gs 1/2awhiels eocurs at G «= | which is 7%
} ie La% yao {
Q-5. (b) Explain HDLC frame formate. te ee

Ane. High-Level Data Link Control, ales know as HDL, 10 » bit oriented, Pwitehed
end nep-ewitebed protoce) It is « data link contre! protoonl, and falls within
layer 2 Uw
Date Link Layer, of the Open Systems boter{soeOS1) model ,

HDLC is « protecal develuped by the International Orgs NIZBLION fy,

Standardirathen ISO; 1 falle under the 180 standards ISO 3409 and ISO 4335 fy hae
found iteetf being used throughout tue world It has been so widely unplemented bea
it supports both half duplex and full duplex communication nes, point Wo print peer
yw
peer) and multi-port networks, and ewitched or non-switched channels. The
procedures
outlined in HDLC ere designed to permit synchronous, code-tranaparent data
tranenussion Other bene fiteof WDLC are that the control information is alweys in
the
pume pusition, aud epecific bit patterns used for control differ dramatically from
those
in representing data,» hich reduces the chance of errors.

HDLC Stations and Configurations:

HDLC specifies the following three types of stations for data link control

(a) Primary Station: Within a network using HDLC as it’s data link protooul, fa
cunfiguration is used in which there is a pnmary station, it is used as the
controlling
etatuon on the lank. Jt has the responsibility of controlling all other stations on
the
link! usually secondary stanens). Despite this important aspect of being on the
Link, the
primary etatien is also responsible for the organization of data flow on the link.
Jt also
takes care of error recovery at the data link level(Jayer 2 of the OSI model).

(6) Secondary Station: If the data link protocol being used is HDLC, and a pnmary
elation is present, a secondary etation must also be prevent on the data link The
secondary station 1s under the control of the primary station. It has no ability,
or diret
reepunsilulity for controlling the Jink. It is only activated when requested by the
primary
station It only responds to the primary station. The secondary station's frames are
culled responses. It can only send response frames when requested by the primary
Fle tion

ic) Combined Station: A combined station is a combination of a pnmary and

secondary station. On the link, all combined stations are able to send and ania

ee SERRE Te ON LE RT ee aan : ———

ST te ae

J I i a: si
Unij 1 y (B ‘ 1} Akan h
vers t Tert a Books

ands and reaponseq without any 2019~16

one ad atation ia Perminal,

f ' combin J in full Control ior frory any other stations on the link.

j Of itee|
tat kh No other stations elf, ani ¢

the ho fan control any comtbinet, o rely on any other stations

©0 Elation.

#4) Unbalanced Configuration; Tt

unbalanced configuration in an HDLC link

(a
one oT me
ore ‘
x secondary Stations. The unbalanced

sist of a primary atation and

rg pacause One Stations Contr
0
“ Is the other stations in a unbalanesd confi “
' D wed configurations,

get (the following can be used:

Pe] | Pull Duplex or Half - Duplex Operatic
g Point to Point or Multi-point networks.
, r)

Balanced Configura :
(b) EDO hd tion: The balanced confi a
frwo oF more combined station Bach of th Kuration in an HDLC link consist

responsibility compared to each other Bele stations have equal and complimentary

jilowine: anced configurations can used only the

1, Full - Duplex or Half. py

2 Point to Point networks

(c) HDLC Operational Modes: HDLC offe

fhe three modes of operationa are:

‘ 1 Re > Ms
1 erm nears Mode: Thai the modMMMMMe ine primary station
iaitia » Necondary station. The secondary stati ly transmit
sponse when, and only wt it j ry station can only tr
9 fe8P y when, it is instructed to do so by the primary station. In
gher words, the secondary station must receive explicit be P ? peered
n to transfer a response. Afte ; icit permission from the primary
gato “sponse. Alter receiving permission from the primary station,
the gooundary station initiates it's transmission. Thistransmission from the
secondary
station to the primary station may be much More than just an acknowledgment of a
frame. It may in fact be more than one information frame. Once the last frame is
transmitted by the secondary station, it must Waitonce again from explicit
permission
to transfer anything, from the primary station. Normal Response Mode is only used
mthin an unbalanced configuration.

(4i) Asynchronous Response Mode: In this mode, the primary station doesn’t
itgtiate transfers to the secondary station. In fact, the secondary station does
not have
to wait to receive explicit permission from the primary station to transfer any
frames.
The frames may be more than just acknowledgment frames. They may contain data, or
control inforraation regarding the status of the secondary station. This mode can
reduce
overhead on the link, aa no frames need to be transferred in order to give the
secondary
station permission to initiate a transfer. However some limitations do exist. Due
to the
fact that this mode is Asynchronous, the secondary station must wait until it
detects
and idie channel before it can transfer any frames. This is when the ARM link is
operating
at half duplex. If the ARM link is operating at full-duplex, the secondary station
can
transmit at any time. In this mode, the primary station still retains
responsibility for
error recovery, link setup, and link disconnection. ; .

(iii) Asynchronous Balanced Mode: This mode uses combined stations. There is
to need for permisaion on the part of any station in this mode. This is because
combined
#ations do not require any sort of instructions to perform any task on the link.

Normal Response Mode is used most frequently in multi-point lines, where the
primary station controls the link. Asynchronous Response Mode is better for pot to
Mint links, as it reduces overhead. Asynchronous Balanced Mode is not used widely

‘day
The “asynchronous” in both ARM

® the link. It refers to the fact that |

"Glicit permission or instruction from any other station.

plex operation

rs three different modes of operation.

and ABM does not refer to the format of the data

any given station can transfer frames without
1G 2919 Siath Semeutor, Data Comriunication and Metworka

HDLC Non-Operational Modes

HDLC ales defines three non-operational medoa Theae three GoreogeTauoral treston

are
1 Normal Disconnected Model DM)
2. Aaynchrotious Disconnected Model ADA)
I Initialization Mode(IM)
HDL frame format: The contenta of an HDLC frase are shown it tha fairing
table
TABLE: Frame Format of HDLC

Flag Address Control Information ¥ oe | Flag

§ bite 4 or more Kor Variable 16 or 42 % buta |
bite 16 bite length, n*

4 bite bite

Note that the end flag of one frame may he (but does not have to be) the beginning
(atart) Nag of the next frame,

Data is usually sent in multiples of 4 bits, but only some varianta require this;
others theoretically permit data alignmenta on other than #-bit boundanes

The frame check sequence (FCS) is a 16-bit CRC-CCITT or a 32-tnt CRO-42

computed over the Address, Control, and Information fields. It provides a meana by
which the receiver can detect errors that may have been induced during the
tranamzasion
of the frame, such as loat bits, flipped bits, and extraneous bits However, given
that the
algorithma used to calculate the PCS are such that the probability of certain types
of
transmission errors going undetected increases with the length of the data being
cherked
for errors, the FCS can implicitly limit the practical size of the frame.

If the receiver's calculation of the PCS does not match that of the sender's,
indicating
that the frame containa errors, the receiver can either send a negative acknowledge
packet to the sender, or send nothing After either receiving a negative acknowledge
packet or timing out waiting for a positive acknowledge packet, the sender can
retransmit the failed frame.

The FCS was implemented because many early communication links had a
relatively high bit error rate, and the FCS could readily be computed by simple,
fast
circuitry or software. More effective forward error correction schemes are now
widely
used by other protocols.

UNIT-III

Q46. (a) An organization is granted the block 211.17.180.0/2A4 the administrator

wants to create 32 subnets. (6.5)

(i) Find the subnet mask.

(il) Find the number of address in each subnet

(iil) Find the first and last address in subnet 1

Ans. (1) This is a Class C network. We require a mask that provides 32 subneta. /
24 has no subnets,

So we increase it until 32. Thus the mask is /29 = 255.255.255.248.

(ii) There are 3 host bits remaining and 24= 8. Two addresses are not available
hence a mnaximum of 6 hosta can be used,
- eo
ee
IP Uoivermity.4 1 Teth)-Abash Hooke oie iT

ind the first and last allocatable add

ua subnet 1 will be 211.17.189 4 , the
99 P

i, 37:100
7 . ) Write short notes on ICMp and ICMPyg. -
4 JCMP (Jniternet Control Mezeage Protuenl) is an error-rep rung priarze
jevices hike rouLlers use tg Benerale error Heneeges ty the svurce IV adcrens
prewar problema pre vent delivery ALP packets ICMP creates and senda mceunget
wo mare [P address indicating that a gateway to the Internet that @ router, eT VIO

oO cannot be reached for packet delivery. Any IP network device has the cepellsty
ih receive oF process ICMP Meseages.

Teesey in eubriet ) The Cret eli eee

leet sioratalie addrees 1p eultsct } wl

. je ts used by network administrators lo troubleshoot Internet conmmecticts of

tic utilities including ping and traceroute.

one of the main protocols of the Internet Protos] suite, ICMP is uned by rowlers,
_mediary devices or hosts to communicate error information or u pastes We ther
sat, intermediary devices or hosts. The widely used JPv4 (Internet Prous) veresou
vod the newer IPV6 use similar versions of the ICMP proven ICM Pv4 and ICM Pst,
‘atively)

ICMP messages are transmitted as datagrams and consist of an IP header that

eapsulates the ICMP data. ICMP packets are IP packets with ICMP in the IP dere

won ICMP messages also contain the entire IP header from the onignal meriege,
wend systern knows which packet failed

The ICMP header appears after the IPv4 or IPv6 packet header and is identfied xs
P protocol number 1. The complex protocol contains three fields

| The major type that identifies the JCMP message;

2The minor code that contains more information about the type field: and

3 The checksum that helps detect errors introduced during tranemisrion.

ICMPv6:- Internet Control Message Protocol version 6 (ICMPy6) is the

splementation of the Internet Control] Message Protocol (ICMP) for Internet
Protocc!
erson 6 (IPv6). ICMPv6 is defined in RFC 4443. ... Neighbor Discovery Protcoul
(NDP)
sanode discovery protocol in IPv6which replaces and enhances functions of AEP.

Types of ICMP v6 Messages: There are two types of ICMPv6 meseages.

Error messages : Error messages report errors in the forwarding or delivery of IFA®
~ckets by either the destination node or an intermediate router. The high-order bit
of
“e@-bit Type field for all ICMPv6 error messages is set to 0. Therefore, valid
values for
“# Type field for ICMPv6 error messages are in the range of 0 through 127. ICM P+s6
wed messages include Destination Unreachable, Packet Too Big, Time Exceeded, ond
‘ameter Problem.

Informational messages : Informational messages provide diagnostic f unclions

"d additional host functionality, such as MLD and ND. The high-order bit of the &-
tut
W field for all ICMPv6 informational messages is set to 1. Therefore, valid values
for

Type field for ICMPvG information messages are in the range of 128 through 255.

‘ ICMPy6 informational messages described in RFC 4443 include Echo Pequest and

fhe

> Reply There are additional JCMPv6 informational] messages defined for Mob:le

__ CMPva Error Messages: ICMPv6 error messages report forwarding or delivery

* Ly cither a router or the destination host, and they consist of the icllowing

‘
Wages.
Sa

tet me a “ - = 2 ‘
7 ‘ “+ Semester, Deta Commanataten aad Net worg,

ae oe et
¢ Ohetummetaos. | cureetinacie TM Pv Tppe i
= Pectet Ths Big (CMP Ee Type 2
Fume Eerwedied [CWP 4 Trge 2
& Perasmeter Pouhiem SMPs Type 4
To Expdacc distance vector coaimyg and link state routing
Aas.) Gstanrecertar mating DVR) pretacei requires that @ rouge, indi a,
MOP al hep: chhecge+ gerudeailu Histercally Keown as the cud Preis.
TUILES BigMrceme of cxewn 14 Avilauen-Ford adgomthm at
Eel Ford B % - Lach rveter macntame a Dwtance Vector table con,
Vat Com=amee termes self aad ALL preabie Gestation codes. Distances neg
Tene Te. are nezuted usumg formate from che nevghbors’ chstanc,. reiting a
inflvematics sepa by DW roczer - :

* Lach reeter has a ID

* Awmecaet wel ouch laa connected wo Seies

° There of 2 lm cnet statue or dynam,
* intereentizate bogs
Destames Vector Table Initialization -
© Dhaene te xtaetif = 6
° Dustamce to ALL cher commie Sy - Se? cer
Dries vector Ewoaieg a gorithm: F
> A renter vessel Agee cce sone tees of its nerghbers in 2 routing parker
Eecs ryotes cemerwem coc recs dhe mest recently received distance vector fam
fac of ca neuro
<A rotem mmemc Nees 5a telgtemes vector when.
© Dt reer 2 wie weetier from a merghbor containing different informatica
© [Sie 277 —Neebe Baek %2 2 nesznber has mae down
Tie Ds" ealiee 2 8 i Besed oo: mememuring the enst to each destination
Lenz, = Dates lens: cunt from x to y
Cig. 3) = Mute goer. cet te cach meaghber c
fa = Dorp 3 €« Ns Node x maumtains dostance vector
Sede z wles sucentases te meughbory destanee vectors
— For cack meaghiber «2 matntaons [Dp = Deis y < N}
Sete -
° From tome ty tume each node sercls ta own distance vector estimate to nesghber
© When s node 1 reeeives mew DV ectimate from any neighbor y, it saves v's Gao
veoter aad ot apiates ota own DV wang BP equation:
© Dry) = mie Wa 2) + Doty), Dxty: | for each node y < N :
Linke State Renting Algorithe - Link state routing is the second family of =
peetseniia, Whe Zetec vector outers use a distributed algurithm to omre? it
LE University-{B, Tech)—Akash Books 2019-19

ach router to learn the entire network topology Based on thi« learned topology.

or is the? able to compute its routing table by using a shortest path computation.
es of link state routing protocols —

age -
gf rou

“ tT
eatv
, pink state packet ~ A «mall packet that contains routing information.
pink state database - A collection information gathered from link state packet.
’

_ shortest path first algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm) - A calculation performed

gatabase results into shortest path
he

9 , pouting table - A list of known paths and interfaces

calculation of shortest path - To find shortest path, each node need to run the
samo™8 piykstra algonthm. This famous algorithm uses the following steps
yn

step}: The node 1s taken and chosen as a root node of the trée, this creates the
tree
pasingle node, and now set the total cost of each node to some value based on the
wrmation in Link State Database
oe .
step-2: Now the node selects one node, among all the nodes not in the tree like
gructure, which 1s nearest to the root, and adda this to the tree. The shape of the
tree
49 changed

Step-3: After this node ia added to the tree, the cost of all the nedes not in the
tree
seeds to be updated because the paths may have been changed.

Step-4: The node repeats the Step.2. and Step 3 ‘until all the nodes are added in
the tree

Q.7. (b) Explain classful addressing scheme for IPV4. (6)

Ans. Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to be

used
eficiently 1n various situations as perthe requirement of hosts per network.
Broadly,

the IPvd Addressing system is divided into five classes of IP Addresses. All the
five
classes are identified by the first octet of IP Address.

The first octet referred here is, the left most of all. The octets numbered as
follows
depicting dotted decimal notation of 1P Address “

1" Octet 2" Octet 3” Octet

\ sgn amma os

11000000 .10101000.00000001.10011000
192 : 168 , 1 ‘ 152

4” Octet

The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by this
ormula-

Number of networks = 2*network_bits

Number of Host/Network = 2*host_bits-2
When calculating hosts’ IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they

meno be assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network number and the
last
‘STeserved for Broadcast IP.

fis ts A Address: The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus
the
octet ran

4
2) 2G Mats Swrester, Data Commanicatpon and Net wort

OOP00R0)] ~ GLILILII
t = 327
Claw A addresses only rnelude ( starting from Dace ate L2G a cory The 1F renin
127.1 2 x ie reserved for loophack IP addresens
Tht default subnet mask for Claas A IP address i¢ 255.0.09 which Cpe thas
Chass A addresming can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 howta ‘Eady

AS TP address which belongs to clase BD has the firet too bite in the First ortet
ens te
IO,ve
1N9HHNGD - LOUIE
123 - 191
Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0 1.1 to 191 255.08 The detauls SHAE maak
for Clase Bis 295 255.4%
Clase B has 16984 (214) Network addresses dnd G6554 (216-2) Host addrasseg
Class C Address: The first octet of Clase.C IP address has its first 5 bit, tat b,
110, that ts *
11600009 = IMOOLINMN
192 ~ 223
Class C IP addresses range from 198.0 Swt3223 285 255 1. The default wjhees
mask for Class C is 255.255.2565,

Class D Address: Very first fozir bits Othe first octet in Claes D IP addresses gre

set to LLIO, giving a range of-

11100999, - 11101111
224 - 239

Class D has IP address range from 224 0 0 0 to 239 255 255 255 Class D is reserved
for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined for a particular host, that
is why
there ts nd need to extract hast address from the IP address, and Claas D does not
have
any submet mask

Class E Address: This [P Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D
or Study. IP addresses in this class ranges from 240.0 0 0 to 255.255 255.254. Like
Claas
D, this class too is net equipped with any subnet mask.

UNIT-IV
Q8.(a) Explain the SMTP and HTTP. Give their uses, strengths and
weaknesses. (7.3)

Ans. SMTP is part of the application layer of the TCP1P protocol. Using a procesa
talled “store and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and acrosa networks It works
cesely with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to send your
communication
to the right computer and email inbox.

SMTP spells out and directs how your email moves from your computer's MTA to an
MTA on another computer, and even several computers. Using that “store arid forward
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22-2019 Sixth Semester Data Commumeation and Networks

HTTP is called a stateless protocal because ¢ ach command j« OX

independently, without any knowledge of the commands that come before it Thy, int
main reason that it is difficult to implement Web rites that react intelligensy
Fbong
input This shortcoming of HTTP is being addres sed in a number of new technolog * 1
including ActiveX, Java, JavaSeript and cookies Bi
Advantages of HTTP:

1 Platform independent- Allows Straight crows platform porting

ate 4

2. No Runtime support required to run properly

3. Usable over Firewalls ! Gloval applications poesble

4.Not Connection Oriented - No network overhead to create and maintain BUS ion
state and information
Disadvantages of HTTP:

1. Not optimized for mobile

2. Only point-to-point communication

3. (Partly) too complex for simple data,

4. Tuo verbose,

5. No reliable exchange (Without retry logic)

6. No Push Capabilities

Q.8. (b) Explain user datagram protoco! with neat diagram. (5)

Ans. UDP (User Datagram Proteco! is an alternative communications protecs] t»

Transmission Control Protocol TGP) used primarily for establishing low-latency ang
loss-tolerating connections between applications on the internet.

Both UDP:and TGP runoon top of the Internet Protocol (IP) and are sometimes
referred to ag UDP/1P or TCP’1P, But there are important diflerences between the
two

Where UDP enables process-to-process communication, TCP supports host-to-host

communication. TCP sends individual packets and is considered a reliable transpert
medium, UDP sends messages, called datagrams, and is considered a best-effort made
of communications.

In addition, where TCP provides error and flow control, no such mechanisms are
supported in UDP. UDP is considered a connectionless protocol because it doesn't
require
a virtual circuit to be established before any data transfer occurs.

UDP provides two services not provided by the IP layer. It provides port numbers to
help distinguish different user requests and, optionally, a checksum capability to
verify
that the data arrived intact. F
TCP has emerged as the dominant protocol used for the bulk of internet
connectivity due to its ability to break large data sets into individual packets,
check
for and resend lost packets, and reassemble packets in the correct sequence. Bat
these additional services come at a cost in terms of additional data overhead and
delays called latency.

In centrast, UDP just sends the packets, which means that it has much lower
bandwidth overhead and latency. With UDP, packets may take different paths
between gender and receiver and, as a result, some packets may be lost or rece!
out of order.
‘.” _

LP Uni versity-{B Tech}-Akash Books on 1G-23

elix
user datagram protocol features
: atagram protec hag attr:
qhe uset d th Am) | veo) hag attributes that make i advantageous for use woth
jeation that can tolerate lost data
sf jt allows packets to b

oo i ‘Tye :
ka # Topped and received in a different order than they were
ak 7 nf 4 “ "
qsmitted, maKing it suitable for rea) tune uppheationa whe re latency might be 9
concert.
yi can be used for trane ;

protocol (NTP)

jrcan be used where a large number of clients ure connected and where real-Lmae
eTTor
gprection isn't necessary, such as g ming, vurce or video conferencing and
streaming mea

UDP header composition. UDP uses headers as part of packaging message data

transfer over network connections. UDP headers con.ain a set of parameters called

golds defi ned by the technical specifications of the protacol

The User Datagram Protocol header has four fields, each of which is 2 bytes-
They are:

(a) Source port number, which is the number of thewender,

(b) Destination port number, the port the datagram 1s addressed to,

(c) Length, the length in bytes of the UDP header and any encapsulated data: and

(d) Checksum, which is used in error checking. Its use" required in [Pv6 and
optucnal
in Pv4

action-based protocols, euch as DNS or Network Time

UDP header format

a. 15. 16 31
Source port Destination port
UDP length Checksum
Q.9. Write a short note on any three of the following: (12.5)

Q.9. (i) DNS

Ans. DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical decentralized naming
system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a
private
network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of
the
participating entities. Most prominently, it translates more readily memorized
domain
names to the numerical IP addresses needed for the purpose of locating and
identifying
computer services and devices with the underlying network protocols. By providing a
worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential
component of the functionality of the Internet, and has been in use since the
1980s. It
was created in 1983 by Paul Mockapetris.

Q.9. (ii) UDP (iii) TCP

Refer Q.8. (b) of End Term Examination 2019.

Q.9. (iv) FTP

Ans. FTP: The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to
transfer computer files between a client and server on a computer network.

FTP is built on a client-server model architecture and uses separate contro) and
data connections between the client and the server. I'TP users may authenticate

i pe acai: Pe
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ems) ere 6 ay cheer ad wenn protecul, normally in the form of g Wer Lam.
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Sauer, Lunt priests the username aud paseword, end encrypts the
wes uecuret with SOL/TLE (PTPS) SSH File Transfer Protocel (SFTP) ip uh Pp
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The Gra FTP vheut applications were command-line programs developed
MAP ELT rveieme bet prephical user interfaces, and are etal] thu pped “me
Waster Ue and Lens operating eyes Many PTP cheats and automation a
eve ee been developed for desktops, servers, nubile devices, and hardware.
PT? tune teen cuourpureted inte producurity epplications, such as web page editens
G2 a wwe
Ams. WWW: The WSC as an ndustry consoruum which seeks to promote tandardy
for te ew ict uflue Web aud smeroperabibty between WWW products by produc
tecdicetions eutreferencs softwere Although WSC ws funded by industria} membe’
Som vendor -twutre end ce products are freely available to all. .
Toe Commute omterngtiona): yomntly hosted by the MIT Laboratory for Compute
Souenee = Le omed States and io Europe by INRIA who provide both loca} Suppor
but periomiunyp coredievelopment The WC was initially established in collaboration
won CHEN where the Web ongnced end with ecpport from DARPA and the Eurypee,
BEET.”
Orpen mer epp'y for members hap tothe Consortium: individual membership
wit alered The WSC nav tele ower whet wes formerly called the CERN Hypertert
Tremeler Frocvcu caemon or Web server