Revision on Partial Fractions

Revision on Partial Fractions

Dealing with unequal first terms:
Example 1:
In this section I will show you two different methods for converting a rational
function into partial fractions. One is the method taught in most beginning calculus
classes. The other was invented by a fellow named Heaviside.
Let’s do an example. 8x  22 We are looking for a way to break this fraction into
(x 1)(x 5)
the sum of something over (x − 1) plus something over (x + 5). The problem is that
we don’t know what those two constants are. So what we do is what you learned to
do in algebra. That is, treat the two constants as unknowns and solve for them.
We’ll call them, A and B. The equation they must solve is
The method that is commonly taught goes like this. We already know that the
common denominator is (x − 1) (x + 5). To put A over that common denominator, we
would have to multiply it by (x + 5). To put B over that same common denominator
we would have to multiply it by (x − 1). And when you add those two products up, it
better come out equal to the numerator on the left, that is, 8x + 22. Why? Because the
numerator on the left is 8x  22  A  B  already over the common
(x 1)(x 5) x 1 x 5
denominator of (x − 1)(x + 5). Equating just the numerators gives us the equation
A(x + 5) + B (x − 1) = 8x + 22 (1)
or equivalently A(x + 5) + B(x −1) = 8x + 22 (1b)
A(x + 5) + B (x − 1) = 8x + 22 
(A + B) x + (5A − B) = 8 x + 22  A + B = 8 , 5A − B = 22
i.e. A = 5 , B = 3.  8x  22  5  3 .
(x 1)(x 5) x 1 x 5
Heaviside tells us that to find A, multiply both sides by (x − 1) (that is the binomial
under the A).
8x  22 B( x 1) 8x  22 A(x 5)
A  5,  B3
(x 5) x 1 x 5 (x 1) x 5 x 1
The bracket with the x = 1 means to evaluate the whole thing at x = 1. Notice that that
value of x is precisely what will make the B expression become zero.
Example 2:
Write the partial fraction to: x 2  4x 33
(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)

Write out the partial fractions with unknown numerators.

x 2  4x 33  A  B  C (2)
(x 1)(x  2)(x 3) x 1 x 2 x 3

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x 2  4x 33 (A  B C)x 2  ( 5A  2BC)x (6A 3B 2C)
 ,
(x 1)(x  2)(x 3) (x 1)(x  2)(x 3)
Equate the numerators’ coefficients according to powers of x.
2
coefficients of the x terms: A + B + C = 1,
coefficients of the x terms: −5A − 2B − C = 4,
coefficients of the constant terms: 6A − 3 B − 2 C = − 33.
The result we get is A = −3, B = 7, and C = −3.
Heaviside method: Solve for A by multiplying equation (2) through by (x + 1) and

evaluating at x = −1. x 2  4x 33 A

B(x 1) C(x 1)
  A  3
(x 2)(x 3) x 2 x 3
x 1
Because we multiplied by (x + 1) while x = −1, we eliminated the B and C terms (that
is we multiplied them by zero). So we find from this equation alone that A =−3.
Heaviside method : Solve for B by multiplying equation (2) through by (x − 2) and
evaluating at x = 2. This eliminates the A and C terms by multiplying them by zero.
We’re left with B = 7 from this equation
2 A( x  2) C(x  2)
alone. x  4 x 33  B  B  7.
(x 1)(x 3) (x 1) x 3
x 1
Heaviside method : Solve for C by multiplying equation (2) through by (x − 3) and

evaluating at x = 3. x 2  4x 33 
A(x 3) B(x 3)
  C  C  3
(x 1)(x  2) (x 1) x 2
x 3
This eliminates the A and B terms by multiplying them by zero. We’re left with
C = −3 from this equation alone. i.e. x 2  4x 33   3  7  3
(x 1)(x 2)(x 3) x 1 x 2 x 3

Dealing with Improper Fractions:

Either of the methods we have discussed for breaking a rational function into partial
fractions requires that the degree of the numerator be less than the degree of the
denominator. Rational functions that do not meet this criterion are called improper
fractions. If you try to apply either of the methods to any improper fraction, you will
run into trouble before you are done. This is not a problem, though, since a little
algebra can whip any improper fraction into a proper one. All you need to do is some
polynomial long division. For example, if you have
Example 3:
3 2
Write the partial fraction to: 2x 7x  6x 21
(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)
The numerator is a cubic (polynomial of degree 3). When you multiply out the
3 2
denominator you get (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) = x −4x +x+ 6, which is also a polynomial
of degree 3. This fails the test of the numerator being of lesser degree than the
denominator. So we employ polynomial long division.

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2
3 2
x  4x  x  6) 2x 3  7x 2  6x  21
2x 3  8x 2  2x  12
x 2  4x  33
According to the rule about quotients, denominators, and remainders, the
3 2
becomes 2x 7x  6x  21  2  x 2  4x 33  2 3  7  3
(x 1)(x  2)(x 3) (x 1)(x  2)(x 3) x 1 x  2 x 3
That leaves us with the sum of an easy integral with one that meets the criterion for
partial fractions (and is the same as the one we did in the last paragraph).
Dealing with Repeated first terms:
In each of the partial fraction problems we have done so far, the polynomial in the
denominator has had distinct real roots (that is real roots that are all different from
each other). Here we will deal with the complication that confronts us if two or more
of the real roots are the same. You will see that whether you do it using the standard
method or the Heaviside method, there is a new wrinkle to setting it up. Once we
have it set up, the standard method goes the same way as before. The Heaviside
method, though, becomes a little more complicated. Here is an example
Example 4:
2
Write the partial fraction to: x  2x 172
(x 3)(x 1)
You can see that the root in the denominator at x = 1 is occurs twice.
The way you set this one up for partial fractions is
x 2  2x 17  A  B  C (3)
(x 3)(x 1)2 x 3 x 1 (x 1)2
Note that the number of unknowns on the right must be equal to the degree of the
denominator polynomial on the left. In this case that denominator polynomial is a
cubic. So we have to have three unknowns. But there are only two roots (one of them
repeated). In order to set it up for three unknowns, we use various powers of the
repeated root in the denominators of the partial fractions. The highest power of each
root used is equal to the number of times it occurs in the denominator of the
polynomial on the left. In this case (x − 1) occurs twice in the denominator of the left-
hand side. So there must be a partial fraction with that root to the first power and
another with that root to the second power, just as we have it in equation (3). Since
the (x + 3) root appears only once on the left, it results in only one partial fraction,
with that root taken to the first power, on the right. Standard method: Put all the
partial fractions over a common denominator. So we multiply A by
2 2 2
(x − 1) = x − 2x + 1. We multiply B by (x + 3) (x − 1) = x + 2x − 3. And we
multiply C by (x + 3). Gathering the like powers of x, as we did in the last example,

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we get Standard method: Put all the partial fractions over a common denominator. So
2 2 2
we multiply A by (x − 1) = x − 2x + 1. We multiply B by (x + 3) (x − 1) = x + 2x −
3. And we multiply C by (x + 3). Gathering the like powers of x, as we did in the last
example, we get
2
x 2  2x 17 = (A  B)x ( 2A  2BC)x (A 3B3C)
(x 3)(x 1)2 (x 3)(x 1)2
Standard method: Equate the numerators’ coefficients according to powers of x.
2
equating coefficients of the x terms : 1 = A + B
equating coefficients of the x terms: −2 = − 2A + 2B + C
equating coefficients of the free terms 17 = A − 3B − 3C
This gives us linear equations for the unknowns, A, B, and C.
Solve the linear equations. We get A = 2, B = −1, and C = 4. If you need to see how
to find this solution, click here. Put in the solved values of the coefficients.
x 2 2x 17  2  1  4
(x 3)(x 1) 2 x 3 x 1 (x 1)2
You can solve this same example using the Heaviside method, but because of the
repeated root, it is not as easy as ABC the way the last one was. Here is equation (3)
2
again: x  2x 172  A  B  C 2
(x 3)(x 1) x 3 x 1 (x 1)
Heaviside method, step 2: Go for the highest power first. That means we solve for C
2
first. To do that, multiply equation (3) by (x − 1) , and evaluate it at x = 1.
x 2  2x 17  A (x  1)2  B (x  1)2  C  C  4
(x 3) x 3 x 1
x 1
Can you see how multiplying by the highest power denominator and evaluating at its
root eliminates everything except the one partial fraction we are trying to solve? That
lets us establish with this equation alone that C = 4. Heaviside method: Subtract out
the partial fraction you just solved. This is the tricky part of Heaviside when there are
repeated roots. We know that C = 4. So equation (3) becomes
x 2 2x 17  A  B  4
(x 3)(x 1) 2 x 3 x 1 (x 1)2
Now put the partial fraction we just solved for over the common denominator
and subtract it out of both sides. That drops it completely from the right and subtracts
4(x + 3) from the numerator on the left.
x 2  2x 17  4  x 2 6x 5  (x 1)(x 5)  (x 5)  A  B
(x 3)(x 1)2 (x 1)2 (x 3)(x 1)2 (x 3)( x 1)2 (x 3)(x 1) x 3 x 1
The result is that you have now reduced the problem by one power of the repeated
root. Since the repeated root occurred twice in the original problem, it now occurs
only once in the reduced problem. That means you can do the rest of the problem
using the Heaviside method for distinct roots, which is easier than what we just did.

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Heaviside method: Solve for A by multiplying the last equation through by (x + 3)
and evaluating at x = −3:
(x 5) B(x 3)
A A2
(x 1) x 3 (x 1)
This eliminates B by multiplying it by zero. We’re left with A = 2 from this equation
alone. Heaviside method : Solve for B by multiplying the last equation through by
(x − 1) and evaluating at x = 1.
(x 5) A(x 1)
  B  B  1
(x 1) x 1 x 3
This eliminates A by multiplying it by zero. We’re left with B = −1 from this
equation alone. We now have solutions for all three partial fraction coefficients (that
is, A = 2, B = −1, and C = 4). The last step is the same for both methods.
Dealing with Non-real Roots
So far we have dealt with rational functions whose denominators factor completely
into binomials. But as you know, not every polynomial is so compliant. With some of
them we find that one or more of the factors are quadratics that have no real roots.
How do you apply the method of partial fractions to these? I’ll show you by an
example of one that has just one such factor.
Example 5:
Write the partial fraction to: x 2 3x  46 .
(x 3)(x 2 2x 17)
2
If you try to factor the x − 2x + 17 further by applying the quadratic formula,
you find that you get a negative number under the radical. So we are stuck with this
one the way it is. How do you break it into partial fractions? Set it up:
x 2 3x  46  A  2Bx C (4)
2
(x 3)(x  2x 17) x  3 x 2x 17
It is still true that the number of unknowns on the right must equal the degree of the
denominator polynomial on the left. That is a cubic, so we need three unknowns.
When a partial fraction has an irreducible quadratic in its denominator (“irreducible”
is just math-speak for “cannot be factored”), it always gets two unknowns in its
numerator, according to the scheme you see in equation (4).
Standard method 2: Put all the partial fractions over a common denominator. Hence
2
the A gets multiplied by (x − 2x + 17). The B x + C gets multiplied by (x + 3),
2
yielding B x + (3B + C) x + 3C. When we gather like powers of x we get Standard
method : Equate the numerators’ coefficients according to powers of x.
2
equating coefficients of the x terms: 1=A+B
equating coefficients of the x terms: −3 = − 2A + 3B + C
equating coefficients of the constant terms: 46 = 17A + 3C
This gives us linear equations for the unknowns, A, B, and C.

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Standard method : Solve the linear equations. We get A = 2, B = −1, and C = 4.
Either method, last step: Put in the solved values of the coefficients and integrate.
x 2 3x  46  2  2Bx C
( x 3)(x  2x 17) x 3 x 2 x 17
2

x 2 3x  46 2 x 2 3x  462(x 2 2x 17)  x 2  x 12

   
(x 3)(x 2  2x 17) x 3 (x 3)(x 2  2x 17) ( x 3)(x 2  2 x 17)
(x 3)(  x  4)  x  4  Bx  C  B = −1 , C = 4.
 
(x 3)(x 2 2x 17) x 2  2x 17 x 2 2x 17

 x 2 3x  46  2  2 x  4
(x 3)(x  2x 17) x 3 x 2x 17
2