CALCULUS

Contents

1 Real numbers 7

1.1 Number Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.3 The Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.4 The Principle of Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Sequences 17

2.1 Types of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.2 Properties of limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Functions 31

3.1 Monotone and Bounded Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.2 Types of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.3 Combining Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.4 Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5 Differentiation 59

5.1 Differentiation formulae and techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4 calculus
5.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.3 L’Hôpital’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6 Integration 77

6.1 Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

6.2 Anti-derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6.3 Some Anti-Differentiation Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

6.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

6.5 Techniques of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

7 Introduction to functions of several variables 89

7.1 Function of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

7.2 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

7.3 Total Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

7.4 Chain Rules for Functions of Several Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

7.5 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3 Functions

3.1 Monotone and Bounded Functions

Definition 3.1 (Monotone functions).

Definition 3.1 (a) A function f is monotone increasing on an interval [ a, b] if for all points x and y in [ a, b]
with
x < y then f ( x ) ≤ f (y)

Definition 3.1 (b) A function f is strictly increasing on an interval [ a, b] if for all points x and y in [ a, b] with

x<y then f ( x ) < f (y)

Definition 3.1 (c) A function f is monotone decreasing on an interval [ a, b] if for all points x and y in [ a, b]
with
x < y then f ( x ) ≥ f (y)

Definition 3.1 (d) A function f is strictly decreasing on an interval [ a, b] if for all points x and y in [ a, b]
with
x < y then f ( x ) > f (y)

Definition 3.1 (e) A function f is monotone on interval [ a, b] if f is either monotone increasing or monotone
decreasing.

Example 3.1.
Consider the function
f ( x ) = (2x − 1)( x + 5)
We observe that f is increasing on the interval (−9/4, ∞) and is decreasing on the interval (−∞, −9/4).
 32 calculus
Definition 3.2 (Bounded Functions).
A function f is

1. bounded above if there is a real number M such that f ( x ) ≤ M for all points x in its domain. The number
M is then called an upper bound of f .

2. bounded below if there is a real number m such that f ( x ) ≥ m for all points x in its domain. The number
m is then called a lower bound of f .

3. bounded if f is bounded above and below, that is, there exist real numbers M and m such that m ≤ f ( x ) ≤ M
for all points x in its domain.

Example 3.2.
The function f ( x ) = x + 3 is bounded in −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. An upper bound is 4 (or any number greater than 4). A
lower bound is 2 (or any number less than 2).

Observe that boundedness depends on the domain. For example, the function h( x ) = tan x is bounded
   
on the interval 0, π4 but not bounded on the interval 0, π2

3.2 Types of Functions

Elementary Functions

Definition 3.3 (Polynomial Function).

These are functions of the form

f ( x ) = a 0 x n + a 1 x n −1 + · · · + a n −1 x + a n (3.1)

where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants and n is a positive integer called the degree of the polynomial provided a0 ̸= 0.

Example.
x5 + 10x3 − 2x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

Definition 3.4 (Rational Functions).

These are functions of the form
P( x )
f (x) = (3.2)
Q( x )
where P( x ) and Q( x ) are polynomial functions and Q( x ) ̸= 0.

Example.
An example of a rational function is
x3 + x + 5
f (x) =
x2 − 3x − 4
is a rational function. Since ( x + 1)( x − 4) = 0 for x = −1 and x = 4, the domain of f is the set of all real
numbers except −1 and 4.
 functions 33

Definition 3.5 (Power Function).

These are functions of the form
f ( x ) = [ P( x )]n , (3.3)
n a real number..

Example.
Examples of power functions are

1
y=
x
1
y = x2
2
y = x3

A function need not be defined by a single formula.

Piecewise Defined Functions

Definition 3.6.
A piecewise defined function is a function described by using different formula on different parts of its domain.

Example.

1. 
−1,

 x<0
f (x) = 0, x=0


x + 2, x>0


The graph of this function is given by

x
34 calculus
2.

− x + 2, x<0


g( x ) = 2
x , 0≤x≤1


4, x > 1.


The graph of this function is given by

Transcendental Functions

The following are sometimes called elementary transcendental functions.

1. Exponential function, f ( x ) = a x , a ̸= 0, 1.

10 y

x y = 2x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

2. Logarithmic function, f ( x ) = loga x, a ̸= 0, 1.

 functions 35

4
y = log2 ( x )
2

1 2 3 4 5
−2

−4

−6

3. Trigonometric functions
sin x
sin x, cos x, tan x = , csc x, cot x, sec x
cos x
. The graph of y = sin x is given below

y
y = sin x
1

x
100 200 300

−1

4. Inverse trigonometric functions,

y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x

π/2 y = arcsin x

x
−1 1

−π/2
36 calculus
5. Hyperbolic Functions,

sinh x, cosh x, tanh x, coth x

y = tanh x

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

Definition 3.7 (Even and Odd Functions).1. Let f ( x ) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is
even if

f ( x ) = f (− x )

y
y = cos x
1

x
−300 −200 −100 100 200 300

−1

2. Let f ( x ) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is even if

f ( x ) = f (− x )
 functions 37

y
y = sin x
1

x
−300 −200 −100 100 200 300

−1

Example.1. Examples of odd functions are

| x |, x2 , x4 , cos x, cosh x

2. Examples of even functions are

x, x3 , sin x, sinh x

Definition 3.8.
Determine whether the following function is odd or even
3x
f (x) =
x2 + 1
Solution.
Observe that
3(− x ) 3x
f (− x ) = 2
=− 2 = − f ( x ).
(− x ) + 1 x +1
The function is odd.

3.3 Combining Functions

A function f can be combined with another function g by means of arithmetic operations to form other
f
functions, the sum f + g, difference f − g, product f g and quotient g are defined as :

Let f and g denote functions, then

1. ( f + g)( x ) = f ( x ) + g( x ).

2. ( f − g)( x ) = f ( x ) − g( x ).

3. ( f g)( x ) = f ( x ) g( x ).
 
f f (x)
4. g ( x ) = g(x) , g( x ) ̸= 0.
 38 calculus
f
Example: If f ( x ) = 2x2 − 5 and g( x ) = 3x + 4. Find f + g, f − g, f g, g .

Solution:

( f + g)( x ) = (2x2 − 5) + (3x + 4) = 2x2 + 3x − 1.

( f − g)( x ) = (2x2 − 5) − (3x + 4) = 2x2 − 3x − 9.
( f g)( x ) = (2x2 − 5)(3x + 4) = 6x3 + 8x2 − 15x − 20
2x2 − 5
 
f
(x) = .
g 3x + 4

3.4 Limits and Continuity

3.4.1 Limit of a function

Let f be a function, then we say

lim f ( x ) = A,
x→a

if the value of f ( x ) gets arbitrarily closer to L as x gets closer and closer to a. For example,

lim x2 = 9
x →3

since x2 gets arbitrarily close to 9 as x approaches as close as one wishes to 3. That is if we can choose
any ε > 0 such that | f ( x ) − L| < ε we can always find another positive real number, called δ such
| x − a| < δ. This leads us to a formal definition of limit of a function.
Definition 3.9 (The ε − δ definition for limit of a function).
Let f be a function. Then a real number L is called the limit of f at a if for any chosen real number ε > 0, there
exists a positive number δ (possibly depending onε), such that

| f ( x ) − L| < ε whenever | x − a| < δ

We denote this limit by

lim f ( x ) = L
x→a

In other words, if f ( x ) can get as close to L “as we like”, then we can always demonstrate that x gets
close to a

Example 3.3.
Use the ε − δ definition to show that
lim( x + 1) = 2
x →1

Solution.
Looking at figure below we see that as x → 1 we have f ( x ) → 2.
 functions 39

x y = x+1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−2

−4

However on a precise limit definition is able to definitively prove that such a limit exist.

To be certain that lim f ( x ) = 2, we need to show that ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
x →1

| f ( x ) − 2| < ε whenever | x − 1| < δ

We proceed as follows;

| f ( x ) − L| = |( x + 1) − 2|
= | x + 1 − 2|
= | x − 1|

If we take δ = ε, then we have

| f ( x ) − L | = | x − 1| < δ = ε

Thus whenever | x − 1| < δ, we have | f ( x ) − 2| < ε. Hence the limit is proved.

Example 3.4.
Use the ε − δ definition to show that

lim(4x − 3) = 5
x →2

Solution.
Looking at figure below we see that as x → 2 we have f ( x ) → 5.
40 calculus
10 y

x y = (4x − 3)
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−5

To show that lim f ( x ) = 5, we need to show that for a given ε > 0, we can find δ > 0 such that,
x →2

| f ( x ) − 5| < ε whenever | x − 2| < δ

To proceed we have

| f ( x ) − L| = |(4x − 3) − 5|
= |4x − 8|
= 4| x − 2|
< 4δ
ϵ
= ε if we take δ = .
4
Thus if we take ϵ
4 then whenever | x − 2| < δ, we have | f ( x ) − 5| < ε.

Example 3.5.
Show that lim( x2 + 1) = 2.
x →1

Solution.
To show that lim f ( x ) = 2, we need to show that for a given ε > 0, we can find δ > 0 such that,
x →1

| f ( x ) − 2| < ε whenever | x − 1| < δ

To proceed

| f ( x ) − 2| = | x 2 + 1 − 2|
= | x 2 − 1|
= |( x + 1)( x − 1)|
= | x + 1|| x − 1|
< | x + 1| δ
 functions 41

In order to determine how small the δ we choose can be, we need to put a bound on the term x + 1. To do this,
we take an initial value δ = 1 (you could choose any number for initial δ but 1 is convenient!).

| x − 1| < 1
−1 < x − 1 < 1
0<x<2
1 < x+1 < 3

Therefore going back to the previous calculation we have

| f ( x ) − 2| = | x 2 + 1 − 2|
= | x + 1|| x − 1|
< | x − 1| δ
< 3δ since 1 < x + 1 < 3
<ε

and hence |( x2 + 1) − 2| < ε whenever | x − 1| < δ. Hence the limit is proved.


if we choose δ = min 1, 3ε

Example 3.6.
Show that lim( x2 + 3x ) = 10.
x →2

Solution.
Let ε > 0, our goal is to find δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − 10| < ε whenever | x − 2| < δ.

To proceed

| f ( x ) − 10| = | x2 + 3x − 10|
= |( x + 5)( x − 2)|
= | x + 5|| x − 2|

We need to put a bound on the term ( x + 5). To do this, we take an initial value δ = 1. Then

| x − 2| < 1
−1 < x − 2 < 1
1 < x < 3.
6 < x+5 < 8

. Therefore,

| f ( x ) − 10| = | x2 + 3x − 10|
= | x + 5|| x − 2|
< 8δ

If we take δ = min 1, 8ε , then |( x2 + 3x ) − 10| < ε whenever | x − 2| < δ. Hence the limit is proved.

42 calculus
Example 3.7.
Prove that
2 2
lim =
x →5 x 5
Solution.
Let ε > 0, our goal is to find δ > 0 such that
2
| f ( x ) − | < ε whenever | x − 5| < δ.
5
To proceed
2 2 2
f (x) − = =
5 x 5
|2(5 − x )|
=
5| x |
|2( x − 5)|
=
5| x |
2| x − 5|
=
5| x |
1 2δ
<
|x| 5
1
We need to put a bound on the term |x| . Taking an initial value δ = 1. Then

| x − 5| < 1
−1 < x − 5 < 1
4<x<6
1 1 1
< <
6 x 4
Therefore

2 |2( x − 5)|
f (x) − =
5 5| x |
1 2δ
<
|x| 5
1 2δ
< ·
4 5
2δ
<
20
δ
=
10
2 2
If we take δ = min {1, 10ϵ}, then x = 5 < ε whenever | x − 5| < δ. Hence the limit is proved.
Example 3.8.
Prove that  
x+4 1
lim =−
x →−6 2−x 4
 functions 43

Solution.
Let ε > 0, our goal is to find δ > 0 such that
 
1
f (x) − − <ε whenever | x − (−6)| < δ.
4
To proceed
x+4 1
| f ( x ) − L| = −
2−x 4
4( x + 4) − (2 − x )
=
4(2 − x )
3 x+6
=
4 x−2
3 | x + 6|
=
4 | x − 2|
3δ 1
<
4 | x − 2|
1
Next we need to find a bound for | x −2| . Take an initial value of δ = 1. Then

| x − (−6)| = | x + 6| < 1
−1 < x + 6 < 1
−7 < x < −5
−9 < x − 2 < −7
7 < | x − 2| < 9
1 1 1
< <
9 | x − 2| 7
Therefore
x+4 1
| f ( x ) − L| = −
2−x 4
3 x+6
=
4 x−2
3 δ
< ·
4 7
3
= ε
28
x +4
Take δ = min 1, 28 1

3 ε , then 2− x − 4 < ε whenever | x − (−6)| < δ. Hence the limit is proved.
Example 3.9.
Use ϵ − δ definition to prove that
√
lim ( 19 − x ) = 3
n→10

Solution.
Let ε > 0, our goal is to find δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − 3| < ε whenever | x − 10| < δ.

44 calculus
To proceed

√
| f ( x ) − L| = | 19 − x − 3|

Using the same approach as in 2.11 (c), we have

√ √ √ √
√ √ ( x + a − b) · ( x + a + b)
x+a− b= √ √
x+a+ b
x+a−b
= √ √
x+a+ b
√
This for 19 − x − 3 this becomes

√ √
19 − x − 9
√ √
√ √ 19 − x + 9
= ( 19 − x − 9) · √ √
19 − x + 9
√ √ √ √
( 19 − x − 9) · ( 19 − x + 9)
= √ √
19 − x + 9
19 − x − 9
= √ √
19 − x + 9
10 − x
= √ √
19 − x + 9

Therefore

√
| f ( x ) − L| = | 19 − x − 3|
10 − x
= √ √
19 − x + 9
| x − 10|
= √ p
| 19 − x + 9|

1 √
As before, we have to look for a bound for √
19− x + 9
. We begin by taking a preliminary δ = 1. This implies

−1 < | x − 10| < 1

9 < x < 11
8 < 19 − x < 10
√
√ √
8 < 19 − x < 10
√ √ √
8 + 3 < 19 − x + 3 < 10 + 3
1 1 1
√ < √ < √
10 + 3 19 − x + 3 8+3
 functions 45

Therefore, we have
√
| f ( x ) − L| = | 19 − x − 3|
| x − 10|
= √ p
| 19 − x + 9|
| x − 10|
< √
8+3
1
< √ δ
8+3
n √ o
If we take δ = min 1, ( 8 + 3)ε , we have | f ( x ) − L| < ε whenever | x − 10| < δ. Hence the limit is proved.

Example 3.10.
Use ϵ − δ definition to prove that  
3
lim =3
n →1 x
Solution.
Let ε > 0, our goal is to find δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − 3| < ε whenever | x − 1| < δ.

To proceed
3
| f ( x ) − L| = −3
x
3 − 3x
=
x
|3 − 3x |
=
|x|
| x − 1|
=3
|x|
1
< 3δ
|x|

1
As before, we have to look for a bound for |x| . We begin by taking a preliminary δ = 1. This implies

−1 < | x − 1| < 1
0<x<2
1
Unfortunately we can’t find a bound for |x| using δ = 1 as before. So we try δ = 12 . Then we have

1 1
− < | x − 1| <
2 2
1 3
<x<
2 2
2 1
< <2
3 x
46 calculus
Therefore, we have

3
| f ( x ) − L| = −3
x
1
< 3δ
|x|
< 3δ · 2
= 6δ
3

If we take δ = min 1, 6ε , we have x − 3 < ε whenever | x − 1| < δ. Hence the limit is proved.