LAKE2K

Version 1.05
A Modeling Framework for Simulating Lake Water Quality
(BETA TEST VERSION)

Draft User's Manual

and Documentation

Walden Pond at Concord, MA

Steve Chapra, James Martin & Kyle Flynn

November 15, 2023

Chapra, S.C., Martin, J.L., and Flynn, K.F. 2023. LAKE2K: A Modeling Framework for
Simulating Lake Water Quality (Version 1.05): Documentation and User’s Manual. Civil and
Environmental Engineering Dept., Tufts University, Medford, MA., [email protected]

LAKE2K 1 November 15, 2023

 CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 5
2 GETTING STARTED ............................................................................................................. 7
3 USERS MANUAL ................................................................................................................ 11
3.1 OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................. 11
3.2 MODEL PARAMETER WORKSHEETS .................................................................... 12
3.2.1 LAKE2K Worksheet ............................................................................................. 12
3.2.2 Elevation-Area Worksheet .................................................................................... 13
3.2.3 Inflow Data Worksheet.......................................................................................... 13
3.2.4 Outflow Worksheet ............................................................................................... 14
3.2.5 Initial Conditions Worksheet ................................................................................. 15
3.2.6 Vertical Mixing Worksheet ................................................................................... 15
3.2.7 Meteorology Worksheet ........................................................................................ 16
3.2.8 Ice Worksheet ........................................................................................................ 17
3.2.9 Light and Heat Worksheet ..................................................................................... 17
3.2.10 Rates Worksheet .................................................................................................... 18
3.3 DATA WORKSHEETS ................................................................................................ 20
3.3.1 Physical Data Worksheet ....................................................................................... 21
3.3.2 Water Quality Data Worksheets ............................................................................ 21
3.3.3 Miscellaneous Data Worksheet ............................................................................. 21
3.4 Output Worksheets ........................................................................................................ 22
3.5 Output Charts ................................................................................................................ 24
3.6 Navigating the Sheets and Charts .................................................................................. 25
4 PHYSICS............................................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Water Balance ............................................................................................................... 28
4.1.1 Inflow .................................................................................................................... 29
4.1.2 Precipitation........................................................................................................... 29
4.1.3 Evaporation............................................................................................................ 29
4.1.4 Outflow .................................................................................................................. 29
4.2 Vertical Segmentation and Mixing ................................................................................ 30
5 TEMPERATURE MODEL ................................................................................................... 33
5.1 Surface Heat Flux .......................................................................................................... 33
5.1.1 Solar Radiation ...................................................................................................... 34
5.1.2 Atmospheric Long-wave Radiation ....................................................................... 35
5.1.3 Water Long-wave Radiation.................................................................................. 36
5.1.4 Conduction and Convection .................................................................................. 36

LAKE2K 2 November 15, 2023

 5.1.5 Evaporation and Condensation .............................................................................. 37
5.2 Ice Model ....................................................................................................................... 37
6 CONSTITUENT MODEL .................................................................................................... 41
6.1 Constituents and General Mass Balance ....................................................................... 41
6.2 Reaction Fundamentals ................................................................................................. 42
6.2.1 Biochemical Reactions .......................................................................................... 42
6.2.2 Stoichiometry of Organic Matter........................................................................... 43
6.2.3 Temperature Effects on Reactions......................................................................... 44
6.3 Constituent Reactions .................................................................................................... 44
6.3.1 Specific Conductance (s) ....................................................................................... 45
6.3.2 Phytoplankton (ap) ................................................................................................. 45
6.3.3 Herbivorous zooplankton (zh) ................................................................................ 48
6.3.4 Carnivorous zooplankton (zc) ................................................................................ 49
6.3.5 Particulate Organic Carbon (cp) ............................................................................. 50
6.3.6 Dissolved Organic Carbon (cd) .............................................................................. 50
6.3.7 Organic Nitrogen (no) ............................................................................................ 51
6.3.8 Ammonia Nitrogen (na) ......................................................................................... 51
6.3.9 Nitrate Nitrogen (nn) .............................................................................................. 52
6.3.10 Organic Phosphorus (po)........................................................................................ 52
6.3.11 Inorganic Phosphorus (pi) ...................................................................................... 53
6.3.12 Inorganic Suspended Solids (mi) ........................................................................... 53
6.3.13 Dissolved Oxygen (o) ............................................................................................ 53
6.4 LIGHT MODEL AND SECCHI DEPTH ..................................................................... 55
6.5 SOD/Nutrient Flux Model ............................................................................................. 56
6.5.1 Diagenesis.............................................................................................................. 57
6.5.2 Ammonium ............................................................................................................ 59
6.5.3 Nitrate .................................................................................................................... 60
6.5.4 Methane ................................................................................................................. 61
6.5.5 SOD ....................................................................................................................... 62
6.5.6 Inorganic Phosphorus ............................................................................................ 63
6.5.7 Solution Scheme .................................................................................................... 64
6.5.8 Supplementary Fluxes ........................................................................................... 65
7 APPENDIX A: DENSITY OF WATER ............................................................................... 67
8 APPENDIX B: O’CONNOR’S GAS TRANSFER MODEL ............................................... 69
9 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 71

LAKE2K 3 November 15, 2023

 Part I
User’s Manual
Thid section provides a description of how to apply the model.

LAKE2K 4 November 15, 2023

 1 INTRODUCTION
LAKE2K (L2K) is a model designed to compute seasonal trends of water quality in one-
dimensionally (1D) vertically stratified lakes. L2K is implemented within the Microsoft Windows
environment. It is programmed in the Windows macro language Visual Basic for Applications
(VBA). Excel is used as the graphical user interface.

This documentation and user's manual has been written for the beta version of the model. The
model has already been alpha tested; that is, it has been debugged and subjected to numerical
tests to confirm that it yields numerically accurate results. A beta version represents software that
is intended to be run by selected users prior to general distribution.

LAKE2K 5 November 15, 2023

 2 GETTING STARTED
Installation is required for many water-quality models. This is not the case for LAKE2K because
the model is packaged as an Excel Workbook. The program is written in Excel’s macro language:
Visual Basic for Applications or VBA. The Excel Workbook’s worksheets and charts are used to
enter data and display results. Consequently, you merely have to open the Workbook to begin
modeling. The following are recommended step-by-step instructions on how to obtain your first
model run.

Step 1: Create a folder named LAKE2K to hold the workbook and its data files. For example, in
the following example, a folder named LAKE2K is created on the C:\ drive. Create a subdirectory
of LAKE2K called DataFiles.

Step 2: Copy the L2KMaster file (L2KMaster0105.xlsm) to C:\LAKE2K.

Step 3: Open Excel and make sure that your macro security level is set to medium. This can be
done using the menu commands: Tools o Macro o Security. Make certain that the Medium
radio button is selected as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The Excel Macro Security Level dialogue box. In order to run L2K, the Medium
level of security should be selected.

Step 4: Open L2KMaster0105.xlsm. When you do this, the Macro Security Dialogue Box will be
displayed (Figure 2). Alternatively, on newer PCs, you may find that Microsoft has blocked
macros from the source because the file is untrusted.

LAKE2K 7 November 15, 2023

Figure 2 The Excel Macro security dialogue box. To run L2K, the Enable Macros button
must be selected as indicated in the top panel. Alternatively, if macros are
blocked in newer Excel versions, you will need to modify the
L2KMaster0105.xlsm file properties as shown in the bottom panel

Click on the Enable Macros button. Or for newer PCs, provide file permissions to open the
workbook. To do this, browse to the folder where the L2KMaster0105.xlsm file is located and
right click on the file and then open Properties (Alt+Enter). Then make sure the Unblock button is
checked on the General tab (Figure 2).

LAKE2K 8 November 15, 2023

Step 5: Immediately save the file as L2K0105.xlsm. This will be the Excel Workbook that you
will use on a routine basis. If for some reason, you modify L2K0105.xlsm in a way that makes it
unusable, you can always go back to L2KMaster0105.xlsm as a backup.

Step 6: On the LAKE2K worksheet, go to cell B10 and enter the path to the file directory where
L2K0105.xlsm is located: C:\LAKE2K\DataFiles as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 The LAKE2K worksheet showing the entry of the file path into cell B10.

Step 7: Click on the Run button. LAKE2K will begin to execute. You can follow the progress of
the execution on the status bar that is shown in the bottom left corner of the worksheet (Figure 4).

Figure 4 The LAKE2K Status Bar is positioned at the lower left corner of the worksheet. It
allows you to follow the progress of a model run.

If the program runs properly, the temperature plot will be displayed at the end of the run. If it
does not work properly, two possibilities exist:

First, you may be using an old version of Microsoft Office. Although Excel is downwardly
compatible for some earlier versions, L2K will not work with very old versions.

LAKE2K 9 November 15, 2023

 Second, you may have made a mistake in implementing the preceding steps. A common
mistake is to have mistyped the file path that you entered in cell B10. If this is the case, you will
receive an error message (Figure 5).

Figure 5 An error message that will occur if you type the incorrect file path into cell B10 on
the LAKE2K worksheet.

If this occurs, click on the end button. This will terminate the run and bring you back to the
Excel Workbook. You should then move back to the LAKE2K worksheet and correct the file path
entry on the LAKE2K worksheet. Note that the same error will occur if you did not set up your
directories with the correct names as was specified above.

Step 8: On the LAKE2K worksheet click on the Open Old File button. Browse to get to the
directory: C:\LAKE2K\DataFiles. You should see that a new file has been created with the name
specified in cell B9 and the extension .l2k. Click on the Cancel button to return to L2K.

Note that every time that L2K is run, a data file will be created with the file name specified in
cell B9 on the LAKE2K worksheet (Figure 3). The program automatically affixes the extension
.l2k to the file name and stores the file in the directory specified in cell B10. Since this will
overwrite the file, make certain to change the file name when you perform a new application.

LAKE2K 10 November 15, 2023

 3 USERS MANUAL

3.1 OVERVIEW

The computer code used to implement the calculations for LAKE2K is written in Visual Basic for
Applications (VBA). Excel serves as the user interface. A series of worksheets is used to enter
model parameters and lake data. Model results and data are displayed on worksheets and as a
series of Excel charts.

Color is used to signify whether information is to be input by the user or output by the
program:

x Pale Blue designates variable and parameter values that are to be entered by the user.
x Pale Yellow designates data that the user enters. The data are then displayed on graphs
generated by L2K. Hence, such data is optional.
x Pale Green designates output values generated by L2K.
x Pale Pink is graphical output of computations generated by L2K.
x Dark solid colors are used for labels and should not be changed.

All worksheets include two buttons (Figure 6):

x Open Old File. When this button is clicked, the file browser will automatically open to
allow you to access a data file that was previously generated by L2K. All LAKE2K data
files have the extension, *.l2k.
x Run. This button causes L2K to execute and to create a data file that holds the input
values. The data file can then be accessed later using the Open Old File button.

Figure 6. The buttons used in L2K.

The following sections describe the worksheets that comprise the L2K interface.

LAKE2K 11 November 15, 2023

3.2 MODEL PARAMETER WORKSHEETS

A series of worksheets are used to enter information required to run the model. In current
versions of Microsoft Office, these worksheets are distinguished by turquoise tabs.

3.2.1 LAKE2K Worksheet

The LAKE2K Worksheet (Figure 7) is used to enter general information regarding a particular
model application.

Figure 7. The LAKE2K worksheet.

Lake name. Name of the lake being modeled. After the program is run, this name along with the
date, is displayed on all sheets and charts.
File name. This is the name of the data file generated when L2K is run.
Directory where file saved. This specifies the complete path to the directory where the data file
is saved.
Latitude. The user must enter the lake’s latitude in decimal degrees.
Elevation. The user must enter the lake’s surface elevation above sea level in meters.
Calculation step. This is the time step used for the calculation. It must be less than or equal to a
day. If the user enters a value greater than 1 day, the program automatically sets the calculation
step to 1 day.
Print step. This is the time step for which results are displayed. It must be greater than or equal
to the calculation step. If the user enters a value less than the calculation step, the program
automatically sets the print step to 1 day.
Initial time. This is the start time of the calculation entered as a data using the format
MM/DD/YR.
Final time. This is the end time of the calculation entered as a data using the format
MM/DD/YR.
Time of last calculation (output). The computer automatically displays the computer time
required for the simulation.

LAKE2K 12 November 15, 2023

3.2.2 Elevation-Area Worksheet

This worksheet (Figure 8) is used to enter the lake’s hypsographic information in the form of an
elevation-area curve. This information is entered from the deepest part of the lake to the highest
possible surface elevation. When the program is executed, the volume below each elevation is
computed and displayed in column C. A plot of the area and volume versus elevation is also
displayed.

Figure 8. The Elevation-Area worksheet that is used to enter the lake’s hypsographic data.

3.2.3 Inflow Data Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter time series of the inflow data as series of dates and values. The
lake’s inflow is entered in columns A and B whereas the time series of inflow temperature and
concentrations are entered in the remaining columns (Figure 9). The program uses linear
interpolation to determine intermediate values. Note that each time series must encompass the
simulation time series as specified in cells B16 and B17 of the LAKE2K worksheet.

Figure 9. The Inflow Data worksheet.

LAKE2K 13 November 15, 2023

3.2.4 Outflow Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter information required to compute the lake’s outflow (Figure 10).

Figure 10. The Outflow worksheet.

Seven approaches can be used to compute outflow. The desired method is chosen using the
pull-down menu in cell B6.

1. Flowout(epi)=Flowin. The outflow is set equal to the inflow, and none of the other
inputs on the Outflow worksheet are used. For this case, the outflow exits the lake from
the epilimnion. Note that if the Outflow Mode is left blank, this is the default option.

2. Flowout(meta)=Flowin. The outflow is set equal to the inflow, and none of the other
inputs on the Outflow worksheet are used. For this case, the outflow exits the lake from
the metalimnion.

3. Flowout(hypo)=Flowin. The outflow is set equal to the inflow, and none of the other
inputs on the Outflow worksheet are used. For this case, the outflow exits the lake from
the hypolimnion.

4. Time Series (epi). The user can enter a time series of outflows into columns A and B.
The program uses linear interpolation to determine values between the entered dates. For
this case, the outflow exits the lake from the epilimnion.

5. Time Series (meta). The user can enter a time series of outflows into columns A and B.
The program uses linear interpolation to determine values between the entered dates. For
this case, the outflow exits the lake from the metalimnion.

6. Time Series (hypo). The user can enter a time series of outflows into columns A and B.
The program uses linear interpolation to determine values between the entered dates. For
this case, the outflow exits the lake from the hypolimnion.

LAKE2K 14 November 15, 2023

 7. Stage-Discharge. The user can enter a stage-discharge curve in tabular form in columns
D and E. The program uses linear interpolation to determine intermediate.

Note that if any of the time series options are chosen (4 through 6) the series must encompass
the simulation time series as specified in cells B16 and B17 of the LAKE2K worksheet.

3.2.5 Initial Conditions Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter initial conditions for lake elevation and the model state variables.
As in Figure 11, values are entered for epilimnion, metalimnion and hypolimnion. The elevation
corresponds to the depth of the top of each layer as measured upwards from the lake’s bottom (by
definition, the lake bottom equals an elevation of zero).

Figure 11. The Initial Conditions worksheet.

3.2.6 Vertical Mixing Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter information related to vertical mixing between the lake’s layers
(Figure 12). Two options (Mixing modes) are specified using the pull-down menu in cell b6.
These are as follows (described more in Section 4.0):

1. Munk-Anderson. This approach employs a model to compute vertical mixing between

layers based on wind speed and water density. Note that this is the default option.

LAKE2K 15 November 15, 2023

 2. Time series (below). Vertical turbulent diffusion coefficients between the layers can be
entered as a time series. The program uses linear interpolation to determine the mixing
coefficients between the entered dates.

Figure 12. The Vertical Mixing worksheet.

Note that if the time series option is chosen, the series must encompass the simulation time
series as specified in cells B16 and B17 of the LAKE2K worksheet.

3.2.7 Meteorology Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter time series of meteorological data for the lake (Figure 13). The
program uses linear interpolation to determine values between the entered dates. Note that each
time series must encompass the simulation time series as specified in cells B16 and B17 of the
LAKE2K worksheet. Also, note that the program internally calculates and displays values for the
average daily solar radiation and the photoperiod in columns H and I.

Figure 13. The Meteorological Data worksheet.

LAKE2K 16 November 15, 2023

3.2.8 Ice Worksheet

This worksheet enters values that are used to compute ice thickness and to parameterize its
impact on light transmission into the lake. During ice cover, the vertical turbulent dispersion
coefficient is assumed to be zero (Figure 14). Details on the ice simulation are found in Section
5.0 of this document.

Figure 14. The Ice Parameters Worksheet.

3.2.9 Light and Heat Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter information related to the lake’s light regime and heat balance.
Details on the heat balance are found in Section 5.0 of this document.

Figure 15. The Light and Heat Worksheet used to input light-related parameters.

LAKE2K 17 November 15, 2023

3.2.10 Rates Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter the model’s rate coefficients. It consists of many entries and is
broken down into several parts (Figure 16 through Figure 19). Full details about these inputs can
be found in Section 6.0 of this documentation, as described in the constituent model.

Figure 16. The part of the Rates Worksheet used to input stoichiometry and rate
parameters for inorganic suspended solids, POC, and DOC.

Stoichiometry. The first section is model stoichiometry. The model assumes a fixed
stoichiometry of plant and detrital matter. Recommended values for these parameters are 100
gD:40 gC:7.2 gN:1 gP : 1 gA. Chlorophyll is the most variable of these values with a range from
about 0.5 to 2 gA. It is suggested that the dry weight be set to 100 gD and the other values scaled
accordingly.

Inorganic suspended solids. This input defines the velocity (m/d) at which inorganic suspended
solids particles settle in each layer. The velocity is size, shape, and density specific, and can be
estimated using Stokes’ law.

Nutrients and dissolved oxygen. These inputs control the cycling of carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and silica in the waterbody. Processes represented by the model include particulate
carbon hydrolysis and settling, dissolved organic carbon oxidation, organic nitrogen hydrolysis
and settling, nitrification, denitrification, organic phosphorus hydrolysis and settling, and
dissolved oxygen reactions (sources and sinks).

LAKE2K 18 November 15, 2023

Plankton. Plankton in the waterbody can be simulated by up to three phytoplankton groups (e.g.,
diatoms, green algae, and blue green algae) and two zooplankton groups (herbaceous and
carnivorous). Coefficients controlling metabolic processes (e.g., growth rate, respiration, death),
temperature limitation, nutrient limitation, and grazing of phytoplankton and zooplankton are all
represented.

Figure 17. The part of the Rates Worksheet used to input parameters for organic nitrogen,
ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, organic phosphorus, organic silica, and
dissolved oxygen.

LAKE2K 19 November 15, 2023

Figure 18. The part of the Rates Worksheet used to input rate parameters for up to three
phytoplankton assemblages.

Figure 19. The part of the Rates Worksheet used to input rate parameters for herbivorous
and carnivorous zooplankton.

3.3 DATA WORKSHEETS

These worksheets are used to enter measured data that is displayed on plots. As such, they are
optional. They are distinguished by pale yellow tabs.

Note that this data can be arranged in any order. However, no blank rows should be included.
If the program encounters a blank row below the first row, all data in lower rows will not be
saved when the program is run.

LAKE2K 20 November 15, 2023

3.3.1 Physical Data Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter a time series of measured lake depths and solar radiation as a
function of date (Figure 20).

Figure 20. The Physical Data Worksheet.

3.3.2 Water Quality Data Worksheets

There are three worksheets that are used to enter model data for water quality in the epilimnion,
metalimnion, and hypolimnion. Figure 21 shows the epilimnion data sheet.

Figure 21. The Epilimnion Data Worksheet.

3.3.3 Miscellaneous Data Worksheet

This worksheet is used to enter data for Secchi depths and light extinction coefficients (Figure
22).

LAKE2K 21 November 15, 2023

 Figure 22. The Miscellaneous Data Worksheet.

3.4 Output Worksheets

Output is presented in the form of numerical time series output tables generated by L2K. Most of
this information is displayed in graphical form in subsequent charts as will be described in
Section 3.5. These worksheets are distinguished by pale green tabs.

Hydraulics Output Worksheet. This worksheet summarizes the flow, precipitation, volume,
depth, and ice thickness time series computed by the model (Figure 23).

Figure 23. The Hydraulics Output Worksheet.

Water Quality Variables Output Worksheet. This worksheet presents the time series of all the
model variables for each layer of the lake (Figure 24).

LAKE2K 22 November 15, 2023

 Figure 24. The WQ Variables Output Worksheet.

Miscellaneous Output. This worksheet presents the time series of miscellaneous variables that
are computed by L2K. As in Figure 25, quantities include the DO saturation of the epilimnion as
well as the total phosphorus, total nitrogen and total silica concentrations for all three layers and
the lake as a whole. The total phytoplankton and total suspended solids concentrations are
displayed for each layer. In addition, computed Secchi depths and light extinction coefficients are
listed.

Figure 25. The Miscellaneous Variable Worksheet.

Heat Output Worksheet. This worksheet presents the time series of the heat budget, including
solar shortwave, atmospheric longwave, back radiation, sensible, and latent heat transfer.

Sediment-Water Variables Output Worksheet. This worksheet presents the time series of
sediment-water variables that correspond to the sediments beneath each layer. These include SOD
and nutrient fluxes. Note that a positive SOD signifies a loss of oxygen from the layer to the
sediments. In contrast, a positive nutrient flux signifies a transfer of nutrients from the sediments
to the water.

LAKE2K 23 November 15, 2023

 Figure 26. The Sediment Flux Output Worksheet.

3.5 Output Charts

Along with the tabular output, there are numerous charts that display model output graphically.
These are all clustered after the tabular output and are indicated with pale pink tabs:

We have tried to make these plots self-explanatory by including a yellow key at the bottom.
The Temperature Plot (Figure 27) displays the temperature time series for the three layers along
with ice thickness. As described in the key, the model predictions are represented with different
colored lines and the measured data with different shaped symbols with colors corresponding to
the lines. Because the temperatures use a different scale than the ice thickness, a secondary scale
is used for the latter.

Figure 27. The Temperature Plot which displays the temperatures of the three layers along
with ice thickness. As described by the key, the model predictions are

LAKE2K 24 November 15, 2023

 represented with different colored lines and the measured data with different
shaped symbols with the same colors as the lines.

3.6 Navigating the Sheets and Charts

Because there are so many sheets and charts, it can be cumbersome selecting the ones you desire.
A neat trick to do that is to place the mouse pointer on the button at the bottom left of the
Excel screen and right click. As illustrated in Figure 28, an activation window will open listing all
the sheets and charts in Lake2K. Then, by selecting your desired target, you will immediately
jump to that sheet or chart.

Figure 28. How to jump to any sheet or chart by positioning the mouse pointer on the
arrow on the lower left corner of the Excel screen.

LAKE2K 25 November 15, 2023

 Part II
Documentation
This section provides a description of the model theory.

LAKE2K 27 November 15, 2023

 4 PHYSICS
The model presently simulates the lake as a one-dimensional system consisting of three vertical
layers (Figure 29). The volumes of the two deeper layers (metalimnion and hypolimnion) are held
fixed whereas the epilimnion is allowed to change as a function of the balance between inflows
and outflows.

Qp Qe
A0
Qout
epi (1) H1
Qin
Temp
cond A1
Qout H2
meta (2)
H
A2

hypo (3)
Qout H3

Figure 29 LAKE2K water balance and vertical segmentation scheme.

The inflow is routed into one of the layers depending on the density of the inflow and the
layer according to the algorithm:

x If the inflow density is less than the average of the epilimnion and metalimnion
densities, the inflow enters the epilimnion.
x If the inflow density is greater than the average of the metalimnion and hypolimnion
densities, the inflow enters the hypolimnion.
x Otherwise, the inflow enters the metalimnion.

If necessary (that is, if the flow enters the hypolimnion or metalimnion), the flow is routed
through the other layers and exits through either the epilimnion or the hypolimnion depending on
the user’s choice of outflow mode. The density is related to water temperature and dissolved
solids by an equation of state as described in Appendix A.
4.1 Water Balance

A dynamic water balance is computed for the overall volume of the lake as in

LAKE2K 28 November 15, 2023

 dV
Qin  Q p  Qe  Qout (1)
dt

where V = lake volume [m3], t = time (d), Qin = inflow [m3/d], Qp = precipitation volume [m3/d],
Qe = evaporation flow [m3/d], and Qout = outflow [m3/d]. This equation is integrated to simulate
how the lake’s volume changes as a function of time. Each term in the balance is described next.

4.1.1 Inflow

The inflow represents the sum of all the flows entering the lake from tributaries, and direct point
and nonpoint sources. The user enters these values as a single time series of dates and flows.

4.1.2 Precipitation

Precipitation flow is entered as a time series of dates and precipitation rates. The program then
computes the precipitation flow as

Qp PA0 (2)

where P = the precipitation rate [m/d], and A0 = the lake’s surface area [m2/d].

4.1.3 Evaporation

The model internally computes the loss of water due to evaporation. This flow is computed as

J e A0 m
Qe u (3)
ULe 100 cm

where Je = the heat flux due to evaporation [cal/cm2/d], U = the density of water [=1 g/cm3], and
Le = the latent heat of vaporization [cal/g]. The latent heat is related to temperature by

dV
Qin  Q p  Qe  Qout (4)
dt

where T1 = the temperature of the epilimnion [oC]. The heat flux lost due to evaporation is
computed as a function of wind speed, the dew-point temperature and the epilimnion temperature
as described below in Sec. 5.1.5.

4.1.4 Outflow

Seven options are available to compute outflow. The desired method is chosen using the pull-
down menu in cell B6 on the Outflow worksheet (Figure 10).

x Flowout(epi)=Flowin. The outflow is set equal to the inflow. For this case, the outflow
exits the lake from the epilimnion. Note that if the Outflow Mode is left blank, this is the
default option.

LAKE2K 29 November 15, 2023

 x Flowout(meta)=Flowin. The outflow is set equal to the inflow. For this case, the outflow
exits the lake from the metalimnion.

x Flowout(hypo)=Flowin. The outflow is set equal to the inflow. For this case, the outflow
exits the lake from the hypolimnion.

x Time Series (epi). The user can enter a time series of outflows into columns A and B.
The program uses linear interpolation to determine values between the entered dates. For
this case, the outflow exits the lake from the epilimnion.

x Time Series (meta). The user can enter a time series of outflows into columns A and B.
The program uses linear interpolation to determine values between the entered dates. For
this case, the outflow exits the lake from the metalimnion.

x Time Series (hypo). The user can enter a time series of outflows into columns A and B.
The program uses linear interpolation to determine values between the entered dates. For
this case, the outflow exits the lake from the hypolimnion.

x Stage-Discharge. The user can enter a stage-discharge curve in tabular form in columns
D and E. The program uses linear interpolation to determine intermediate values.

Note that if any of the time series options are chosen the series must encompass the
simulation time series as specified in cells B16 and B17 of the LAKE2K worksheet.

4.2 Vertical Segmentation and Mixing

The lake is divided vertically into three layers as depicted in Figure 29. The model uses turbulent
diffusion to mix water between the layers. For a conservative substance with no flow, a mass
balance for the metalimnion can be written as

dc 2 E1' E'
c1  c 2  2 c3  c 2 (5)
dt V2 V2

where ci = the concentration in layer i [g/m3], i = 1, 2, and 3 for the epi-, meta- and hypolimnion,
respectively, Ei’ = the bulk turbulent diffusion coefficient across the lower boundary of layer i
[m3/d], and Vi = the volume of layer i [m3]. The bulk dispersion coefficient is related to more
fundamental quantities by

E i Ai
E i' (6)
( H i  H i 1 ) / 2

where Ei = the turbulent diffusion coefficient across the lower boundary of layer i [m2/d], Ai = the
surface area of the boundary of layer i [m2], and Hi = the thickness of layer i [m] (see Figure 29).

Two options (Mixing modes) are available to determine the turbulent diffusion coefficients as
specified using the pull-down menu in cell B6 of the Vertical Mixing Worksheet (Figure 12).
These are:

LAKE2K 30 November 15, 2023

Munk-Anderson. This approach employs a model to compute vertical mixing between layers
based on wind speed and water density developed originally by Munk and Anderson (1948). The
vertical turbulent diffusion coefficient is computed as

E0
E (7)
(1  aRi ) 0.5

where E0 = the maximum diffusion coefficient [m2/d], a = a tuning coefficient, and Ri = the
Richardson number.

The maximum diffusion coefficient is proportional to the shear velocity (Sundaram and
Rehm 1973),

E0 cU * (8)

where c = a tuning coefficient and U* = the shear velocity [m/s]. The shear velocity is computed
as

U air C d U w2
U* (9)
U

where Uair = the density of the air (assumed equal to 1.2 kg/m3), Cd = a dimensionless drag
coefficient (assumed equal to 1.3u103), Uw = the wind speed [m/s], and U = the density of the
water [kg/m3]. In our case, U is the density of the water in the lake’s epilimnion.

The Richardson number is a dimensionless number that represents the ratio of buoyancy to
shear forces. Ford and Johnson (1986) have proposed the following formula to compute the
Richardson number,

( g / U )(wU / wz )
Ri  (10)
U * /( z s  z ) 2

where g = the acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s2), U = the water density at the depth at
which the Richardson number is computed [kg/m3], wU/wz = the gradient of density with depth, zs
= the water surface elevation and z = the elevation at which the Richardson number is computed
[m].

The density gradient at the interface between layers is computed with a finite divided
difference

wU U i  U i 1
(11)
wz z i  z i 1

where Ui = the density for layer i [kg/m3] and zi = the elevation at the midpoint of layer i [m].

LAKE2K 31 November 15, 2023

 The model is tuned by adjusting the coefficients a and c until there is an acceptable match
between simulated and measured temperatures for each model layer. The default value for a is 30
with a range from 10 to 60. A default value for c is estimated as

H max
c (12)
34

where Hmax = the maximum depth of the lake [m].

Time series (below). Vertical turbulent diffusion coefficients between the layers can be entered
as a time series. The program uses linear interpolation to determine the mixing coefficients
between the entered dates.

LAKE2K 32 November 15, 2023

 5 TEMPERATURE MODEL
A heat balance is written for each vertical layer. For the epilimnion for the case where the inflow
and outflow pass through the epilimnion and there is no ice cover, the balance is written as

dHeat1 § 10 6 cm 3 · § 10 6 cm 3 · § 10 6 cm 3 ·
Qin UC p Tin ¨¨ 3
¸  Q p UC p Tair ¨
¸ ¨ m3 ¸
¸  Qout UC p T1 ¨
¨ m3 ¸
¸
dt © m ¹ © ¹ © ¹
(13)
§ 10 6 cm 3 · § 10 4 cm 2 ·
 E1' UC p T2  T1 ¨¨ 3
¸  J h A0 ¨
¸ ¨ m2
¸
¸
© m ¹ © ¹

where Heat1 = heat of the epilimnion [cal], t = time [d], U = the density of water [g/cm3], Cp = the
specific heat of water [cal/(g oC)], Tin = temperature of the inflow [oC], Ti = temperature in layer i
[oC], Tair = air temperature [oC], E’i = the bulk dispersion coefficient across the lower boundary of
layer i [m3/d], Ai = the area at the bottom of layer i [m2], and Jh = the air-water heat flux [cal/(cm2
d)]. Similar balances are written for the other layers with the noteworthy exception that the surface
heat flux is omitted.

5.1 Surface Heat Flux

As depicted in Figure 30, surface heat exchange is modeled as a combination of five processes:

Jh I (0)  J an  J br  J c  J e (14)

where I(0) = net solar shortwave radiation at the water surface, Jan = net atmospheric longwave
radiation, Jbr = longwave back radiation from the water, Jc = conduction, and Je = evaporation.
All fluxes are expressed as cal/cm2/d.

radiation terms non-radiation terms

air-water
interface

solar atmospheric water conduction evaporation

shortwave longwave longwave and and
radiation radiation radiation convection condensation

net absorbed radiation water-dependent terms

Figure 30 Components of surface heat exchange.

LAKE2K 33 November 15, 2023

5.1.1 Solar Radiation

The model computes the amount of solar radiation entering the water at a particular latitude (Lat)
on the earth’s surface. This quantity is a function of the radiation at the top of the earth’s
atmosphere which is attenuated by atmospheric transmission, cloud cover, and reflection,

I (0) I0 at ac (1  Rs )

(15)
extraterrestrial atmospheric cloud reflection
radiation attenuation attenuation
where I(0) = solar radiation at the water surface [cal/cm2/d], I0 = extraterrestrial radiation (i.e., at
the top of the earth’s atmosphere) [cal/cm2/d], at = atmospheric attenuation, CL = fraction of sky
covered with clouds, and Rs = albedo (fraction reflected).

Extraterrestrial radiation. The extraterrestrial radiation is computed as (TVA 1972)

W0
I0 sin D (16)
r2

where W0 = the solar constant [1367 W/m2 or 2823 cal/cm2/d], r = normalized radius of the
earth’s orbit (i.e., the ratio of actual earth-sun distance to mean earth-sun distance), and D = the
sun’s altitude [radians], which can be computed as

sin D sin G sin Lat  cos G cos Lat (17)

where G = solar declination [radians], and Lat = local latitude [radians].

The normalized radius can be estimated as

§ 2S ·
r 1  0.017 cos¨ (186  Dy ) ¸ (18)
© 365 ¹

where Dy = Julian day (Jan. 1 = 1, Jan. 2 = 2, etc.).

The solar declination can be estimated as

S § 2S ·
G 23.45 cos¨ (172  Dy ) ¸ (19)
180 © 365 ¹

The photoperiod f [hours] is computed as

2 180 ª § L · º
f «arctan¨¨ ¸¸  2 arctan(1)» (20)
(15)24 S ¬ © 1 Lu L ¹ ¼

LAKE2K 34 November 15, 2023

where

§ S ·
L  tan ¨ G ¸ tan Lat (21)
© 180 ¹

Atmospheric attenuation. Various methods have been published to estimate the fraction of the
atmospheric attenuation from a clear sky (at). L2K uses the method developed by Bras (1990),

 n fac a1m
at e (22)

where nfac is an atmospheric turbidity factor that varies from approximately 2 for clear skies to 4
or 5 for smoggy urban areas. The molecular scattering coefficient (a1) is calculated as

a1 0.128  0.054 log10 m (23)

where m is the optical air mass, calculated as

1
m (24)
sin D  0.15(D d  3.885) 1.253

where Dd is the sun’s altitude in degrees from the horizon = D u (180o/S).

Cloud Attenuation. Attenuation of solar radiation due to cloud cover is computed with

ac 1  0.65C L2 (25)

where CL = fraction of the sky covered with clouds.

Reflectivity. Reflectivity is calculated as

AD d
B
Rs (26)

where A and B are coefficients related to cloud cover (Table 1).

Table 1 Coefficients used to calculate reflectivity based on cloud cover.

Cloudiness Clear Scattered Broken Overcast

CL 0 0.1-0.5 0.5-0.9 1.0
Coefficients A B A B A B A B
1.18 0.77 2.20 0.97 0.95 0.75 0.35 0.45

5.1.2 Atmospheric Long-wave Radiation

The downward flux of longwave radiation from the atmosphere is one of the largest terms in the
surface heat balance. This flux can be calculated using the Stefan-Boltzmann law

LAKE2K 35 November 15, 2023

 4
J an V Tair  273 H sky 1  RL (27)

where V = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 11.7x10-8 cal/(cm2 d K4), Tair = air temperature [oC],
İsky = effective emissivity of the atmosphere [dimensionless], and RL = longwave reflection
coefficient [dimensionless]. Emissivity is the ratio of the longwave radiation from an object
compared with the radiation from a perfect emitter at the same temperature. The reflection
coefficient, RL, is generally small and in typically assumed to equal 0.03. The effective emissivity
is computed with

H sky  Aa  Ab eair (28)

where Aa and Ab are empirical coefficients, and eair = the air vapor pressure [in mm Hg], which is
computed as (Raudkivi 1979):

17.27Td
237.3Td
eair 4.596e (29)

where Td = the dew-point temperature [oC]. Values of Aa have been reported to range from
about 0.5 to 0.7 and values of Ab have been reported to range from about 0.031 to 0.076 mmHg-0.5
for a wide range of atmospheric conditions. LAKE2K uses a default mid-range value of Aa = 0.6
with Ab = 0.031 mmHg-0.5.

5.1.3 Water Long-wave Radiation

The back radiation from the water surface is represented by the Stefan-Boltzmann law,

4
J br HV T1  273 (30)

where H = emissivity of water (= 0.97) and T = the water temperature [oC].

5.1.4 Conduction and Convection

Conduction is the transfer of heat from molecule to molecule when matter of different
temperatures are brought into contact. Convection is heat transfer that occurs due to mass
movement of fluids. Both can occur at the air-water interface and can be described by,

Jc c1 f U w T1  Tair (31)

where c1 = Bowen's coefficient (= 0.47 mmHg/oC). The term, f(Uw), defines the dependence of
the transfer on wind velocity over the water surface where Uw is the wind speed measured a fixed
distance above the water surface.

There are a variety of formulas that have been proposed to define the wind dependence
conduction/convection (and evaporation). The following form is used in L2K,

f (U w ) aUw  bUwU wcUw (32)

LAKE2K 36 November 15, 2023

where Uw = wind speed at a height of 7 m [m/s], and aUw, bUw and cUw are user-specified
coefficients. If the user leaves these values blank, the coefficients default to the relationship that
was proposed by Brady, Graves and Geyer (1969) based on data from cooling ponds,

f (U w ) 19.0  0.95U w2 (33)

The height of wind speed measurements is also an important consideration for estimating
conduction/convection and evaporation. The input values for wind speed (Figure 13) are assumed
to be representative of conditions at a height of 7 meters above the water surface. To convert
wind speed measurements (Uw,z in m/s) taken at any height (zw in meters) to the equivalent
conditions at a height of 7 m, the exponential wind law equation may be used (TVA, 1972):

0.15
§ z ·
Uw U wz ¨¨ ¸¸ (34)
© zw ¹

For example, if wind speed data were collected from a height of 2 m, then the wind speed at 7 m
for input to the Meteorology worksheet (Figure 13) would be estimated by multiplying the
measured wind speed by a factor of 1.2.

5.1.5 Evaporation and Condensation

The heat loss due to evaporation can be represented by Dalton’s law,

Je f (U w )(e s  eair ) (35)

where es = the saturation vapor pressure at the water surface [mmHg], which is computed as

17.27T1

es 4.596e 237.3T1 (36)

and eair = the air vapor pressure of the overlying air [mmHg] as computed with Eq. (29).

5.2 Ice Model

The model computes ice thickness using a heat balance written at the air-water interface (Figure
31). The result is the following differential equation for ice thickness (Ashton 1986),

dhi 1 ª 1 º 86,400 s
« Ta  H wi T1 » u (37)
dt Ui L f ¬ hi / k i  hs / k s  1 / H ia ¼ d

where hi = ice thickness [m], Ui = ice density [kg/m3], Lf = latent heat of fusion of ice [J/kg], ki =
ice thermal conductivity [W/(m oC)], hs = snow thickness [m], ks = snow thermal conductivity
[W/(m oC)], Hia = heat transfer coefficient between ice and atmosphere [W/(m2 oC)], and Hwi =
heat transfer coefficient between water and ice [W/(m2 oC)]. Recommended values for several of
the model parameters are listed in Table 2.

LAKE2K 37 November 15, 2023

 Air
wind Ta

Boundary Layer Hia(Ts – Ta ) Ts

Tm – Ts
Ice Hice ki
Hice

Boundary Layer Hwi (Tw – Tm ) Tm

Water
Tw

Figure 31 Components of surface heat exchange.

The heat transfer coefficient between the ice and the atmosphere is a function of the wind
velocity (Martin and McCutcheon 1999),

H ia 5.7  3.8U w (38)

Table 2 Recommended values for ice parameters

Parameter Symbol Value Units

ice thermal conductivity ki 2.24 W/(m oC)
snow thermal conductivity ks 0.2 W/(m oC)
ice density Ui 916 kg/m3
latent heat of fusion for ice Lf 334,000 J/kg

Both the snow thickness and the heat transfer coefficient between the water and ice varies
considerably from system to system and are considered tuning parameters in the present version
of the model. Snow acts as an insulator that retards heat transfer between the ice and the
atmosphere. The water-ice heat transfer coefficient detracts from the rate of ice formation.

Equation (37) is integrated to determine ice thickness. If ice is formed, several model
mechanisms are modified:

Surface heat flux. The atmospheric heat flux is set to zero and is replaced by the heat
transfer from the water to the ice. Thus, Eq. (13) becomes

dHeat1 cal 86,400 s

[Flow & Dispersion Terms]  H wi A0T1 u u (39)
dt 4.1868 J d

Evaporative water loss. An impact of atmospheric heat flux being set to zero is that the loss
of water via evaporation does not occur [that is, Je = 0 in Eq. (14)].

LAKE2K 38 November 15, 2023

 Gas transfer. In the presence of ice, the model automatically sets the oxygen mass transfer
rate to zero.

Light penetration. Light penetration is affected by ice and snow cover. The Beer-Lambert
law is used to compute this reduction as in

PAR(0) PARis e  K di hi  K ds hs (40)

where PAR(0) = the mean daytime photosynthetically available radiation (PAR) at the water
surface [ly/d], PARis = the PAR at the top of the ice-snow layer [ly/d], Kdi = the ice light
extinction coefficient [m1], and Kds = the snow light extinction coefficient [m1].

Vertical mixing. The presence of ice greatly diminishes vertical turbulent diffusion. At
present, the model sets the values of the vertical diffusion coefficients to zero to reflect this
impact (Figure 12)

LAKE2K 39 November 15, 2023

 6 CONSTITUENT MODEL

6.1 Constituents and General Mass Balance

The model constituents are listed in Table 3.

Table 3 Model state variables

Variable Symbol Units*

Conductivity s Pmhos
Inorganic suspended solids mi mgD/L
Dissolved oxygen o mgO2/L
Particulate organic carbon cp mgC/L
Dissolved organic carbon cf mgC/L
Organic nitrogen no PgN/L
Ammonia nitrogen na PgN/L
Nitrate nitrogen nn PgN/L
Organic phosphorus po PgP/L
Inorganic phosphorus pi PgP/L
Organic silica so mgSi/L
Inorganic silica si mgSi/L
Phytoplankton ap1 PgA/L
Herbivorous zooplankton zh mgC/L
Carnivorous zooplankton zc mgC/L
Phytoplankton2 ap2 PgA/L
Phytoplankton3 ap3 PgA/L
* mg/L { g/m3 and Pg/L { mg/m3

A mass balance is written for each vertical layer. For the epilimnion for the case where the
inflow and outflow pass directly through the epilimnion, the balance is written as

dc1
V1 Qin cin  Qout c1  E1' c 2  c1  S1V1 (41)
dt

where ci = the concentration of layer i [mg/L or Pg/L], cin = the concentration of the inflow [mg/L
or Pg/L], and Si = sources and sinks of the constituent due to reactions and mass transfer
mechanisms [g/m3/d or mg/m3/d]. Similar balances are written for the other layers.

The sources and sinks for the state variables are depicted in Figure 32. Note that although the
model allows the simulation of three phytoplankton groups, for simplicity, the figure shows a
single phytoplankton state variable. In addition, silica is omitted. The mathematical representation
of these processes is presented in the following sections.

LAKE2K 41 November 15, 2023

 re

o
h sod
cp cd
x
s sw
o d r
zc
h n dn
rnc no na nn e
s sw sw
g
d r
zh
rpc rnc rca
s
ran e
p d g
mi h r
s po pi rap ap rca
s sw s
rpc o

Figure 32 Model kinetics and mass transfer processes. The state variables are defined in
Table 3. Kinetic processes are hydrolysis (h), oxidation (x), nitrification (n),
denitrification (dn), photosynthesis (p), respiration (r), death (d), grazing (g), and
egestion (e). Mass transfer processes are reaeration (re), settling (s), sediment
oxygen demand (sod), and sediment-water exchange (sw).

6.2 Reaction Fundamentals

6.2.1 Biochemical Reactions

The following chemical equations are used to represent the major biochemical reactions that take
place in the model (Stumm and Morgan 1996):

Plant Photosynthesis:

Ammonium as substrate:

106CO 2  16 NH 4  HPO 24  108H 2 O o C106 H 263 O110 N 16 P1  107O 2  14H  (42)

Nitrate as substrate:

106CO 2  16 NO 3  HPO 24  122H 2 O + 18H + o C106 H 263 O110 N 16 P1  138O 2 (43)

Plant Respiration:

C106 H 263 O110 N 16 P1  107O 2  14H  o 106CO 2  16 NH 4  HPO 24  108H 2 O (44)

LAKE2K 42 November 15, 2023

Nitrification:

NH 4  2O 2 o NO 3  H 2 O  2H  (45)

Denitrification:

5CH 2 O  4NO 3  4H  o 5CO 2  2N 2 7H 2 O (46)

6.2.2 Stoichiometry of Organic Matter

The model assumes a constant stoichiometry for organic matter (i.e., phytoplankton and
zooplankton). The following representation is suggested as a first approximation (Redfield et al.
1963, Chapra 1997),

100 gD : 40 gC : 7200 mgN :1000 mgP :1000 mgA (47)

where gX = mass of element X [g] and mgY = mass of element Y [mg]. The terms D, C, N, P,
and A refer to dry weight, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and chlorophyll a, respectively. It should
be noted that chlorophyll a is the most variable of these values with a range of approximately
500-2000 mgA (Laws and Chalup 1990, Chapra 1997).

These values are then combined to determine stoichiometric ratios as in

gX
rxy (48)
gY

For example, the milligrams of organic nitrogen that is released when 1 gC of carnivorous
zooplankton die can be computed as

7200 mgN mgN

rnc 180
40 gC gC
dV
Qin  Q p  Qe  Qout (49)
dt

Recommended values for stoichiometry are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Recommended values for stoichiometry.

Dry weight 100 gD

Carbon 40 gC
Nitrogen 7.2 gN
Phosphorus 1 gP
Chlorophyll 1 gA

LAKE2K 43 November 15, 2023

6.2.2.1 Oxygen Generation and Consumption

The model requires that the rates of oxygen generation and consumption be prescribed. If
ammonia is the substrate, the following ratio (based on Eq. 42) can be used to determine the
grams of oxygen generated for each gram of plant matter carbon that is produced through
photosynthesis.

107 moleO 2 (32 gO 2 /moleO 2 ) gO 2

roca 2.69 (50)
106 moleC(12 gC/moleC) gC

If nitrate is the substrate, the following ratio (based on Eq. 43) applies

138 moleO 2 (32 gO 2 /moleO 2 ) gO 2

rocn 3.47 (51)
106 moleC(12 gC/moleC) gC

Note that Eq. (50) is also used to determine the amount of oxygen consumed per the amount of
organic carbon produced for both plant respiration and DOC oxidation.

For nitrification, the following ratio based on Eq. (45) represents the amount of oxygen
consumed per the mass of ammonia nitrogen converted to nitrate

2 moleO 2 (32 gO 2 /moleO 2 ) 1 gN gO 2

ron u 0.00457 (52)
1 moleN(14 gN/moleN) 1000 mgN mgN

6.2.2.2 DOC Utilization Due to Denitrification

Based on Eq. (46), DOC is utilized during denitrification,

5 moleC u 12 gC/moleC 1 gN gC
rcndn u 0.0009375 (53)
4 moleN u 14 gN/moleN 1000 mgN mgN

6.2.3 Temperature Effects on Reactions

With the exception of phytoplankton photosynthesis, the temperature effect for all first-order
reactions used in the model is represented by the simplified Arrhenius or “theta” model,

k (T ) k (20)T T  20 (54)

where k(T) = the reaction rate [/d] at temperature T [oC] and T = the temperature parameter for the
reaction.

6.3 Constituent Reactions

The mathematical relationships that describe the individual reactions and concentrations of the
model state variables (Table 3) are presented in the following paragraphs.

LAKE2K 44 November 15, 2023

6.3.1 Specific Conductance (s)

It is assumed that the specific conductance is conservative:

Ss = 0 (55)

6.3.2 Phytoplankton (ap)

Note that the model can be used to simulate three phytoplankton groups. Since all use identical
formulations the following description applies to all groups. Distinctions between the groups are
represented by using different parameter values.

Phytoplankton biomass increases due to photosynthesis. It is lost via respiration, death,

grazing and settling

S ap PhytoPhoto  PhytoResp  PhytoDeath  HZooGraz  PhytoSettl (56)

6.3.2.1 Photosynthesis

Phytoplankton photosynthesis is a function of temperature, nutrients, and light

PhytoPhoto P p a p (57)

where Pp = phytoplankton photosynthesis rate [/d], which is calculated as

Pp k gp (T )I Np I Lp (58)

where kgp(T) = the maximum photosynthesis rate at temperature T [/d], INp = phytoplankton
nutrient attenuation factor [dimensionless number between 0 and 1], and ILp = the phytoplankton
light attenuation coefficient [dimensionless number between 0 and 1].

Note that as with other model rates, the temperature dependence of phytoplankton
photosynthesis can be modeled with the theta model (Eq. 54). In addition, it can also be
represented by an asymmetric bell-shaped model (Cerco and Cole 1994),

N 1 (T Topt ) 2
k gp (T ) k gp ,opt e T d Topt (59)

N 2 (T Topt ) 2
k gp (T ) k gp ,opt e T ! Topt (60)

where N1 and N2 are parameters that determine the shape of the relationship of growth to
temperature below and above the optimal temperature, respectively.

LAKE2K 45 November 15, 2023

Nutrient Limitation. Michaelis-Menten equations are used to represent growth limitation for
inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus. The minimum value is then used to compute the nutrient
attenuation factor,

§ na  nn pi ·
I Np min¨¨ , ¸¸ (61)
© K sN  n a  n n K sP  p i ¹

where KsN = nitrogen half-saturation constant [PgN/L] and KsP = phosphorus half-saturation
constant [PgP/L]. Note that silica can be included if diatoms are being simulated,

§ na  nn pi si ·
I Np min¨¨ , , ¸¸
© K sN  n a  n n K sP  p i K sS  s i ¹

where KsS = silica half-saturation constant [PgSi/L] and si = concentration of available inorganic
silica [mgSi/L].

Light Limitation. It is assumed that light attenuation through the water follows the Beer-Lambert
law,

PAR( z ) PAR(0)e  K d z (62)

where daytime PAR(z) = the mean daytime photosynthetically available radiation (PAR) at depth
z below the water surface [ly/d] 1, and Kd = the light extinction coefficient [m1]. Note that the
relationship of the extinction coefficient to the model variables is discussed in Section 6.4.

The PAR at the water surface is related to the mean daily solar radiation at the water surface
by (Szeicz 1984, Baker and Frouin 1987)

0.47 I (0)
PAR(0) (63)
f

where f = the photoperiod expressed as the fraction of a day.

1 Steele Smith

Half-saturation

0.5

0
0 100 200 300 400 500

1
ly/d = langley per day. A langley is equal to a calorie per square centimeter. Note that a ly/d is related to
the PE/m2/s by the following approximation: 1 PE/m2/s # 0.45 Langley/day (LIC-OR, Lincoln, NE).

LAKE2K 46 November 15, 2023

Figure 33 The three models used for phytoplankton photosynthetic light dependence. The
plot shows growth attenuation versus PAR intensity [ly/d].

Three models are used to characterize the impact of light on phytoplankton photosynthesis
(Figure 33):

Half-Saturation (Michaelis-Menten) Light Model (Baly 1935):

PAR( z )
FLp (64)
K Lp  PAR( z )

where FLp = phytoplankton growth attenuation due to light and KLp = the phytoplankton light
parameter. In the case of the half-saturation model, the light parameter is a half-saturation
coefficient [ly/d].

This function can be combined with the Beer-Lambert law and integrated over water depth to
yield the phytoplankton light attenuation coefficient for layer i

f § K Lp  PAR(d i ) ·
I Lp ,i ln¨ ¸ (65)
K d ,i H i ¨ K Lp  PAR(d i )e  K d ,i H i ¸
© ¹

where Kd,i = the light extinction coefficient of layer i [/m], Hi = the thickness of layer i [m], and
di = the distance from the water surface to the top of layer i [m].

Steele’s Equation (Steele 1962):

PAR ( z )
PAR( z ) 1  K Lp
FLp e (66)
K Lp

where KLp = the PAR at which phytoplankton growth is optimal [ly/d]. This function can be
combined with the Beer-Lambert law and integrated over water depth to yield

§  PAR ( d i ) e  K d ,i H i 
PAR ( d i )
·
2.718282 f ¨ K Lp K Lp ¸
I Lp ,i ¨¨ e  e ¸¸ (67)
K d ,i H i
© ¹

Smith’s Function (Smith 1936):

PAR( z )
FLp (68)
2
K Lp  PAR( z ) 2

where KLp = the light parameter for the Smith model [ly/d]; that is, the PAR at which growth is
70.7% of the maximum. This function can be combined with the Beer-Lambert law and
integrated over water depth to yield

LAKE2K 47 November 15, 2023

 § PAR(d i ) / K Lp  1  PAR(d i ) / K Lp 2 ·
f ¨ ¸
I Lp ,i ln¨ ¸ (69)
K d ,i H i ¨ PAR(d ) / K e  K d ,i H i  1  PAR(d ) / K e  K d ,i H i 2 ¸
© i Lp i Lp ¹

6.3.2.2 Losses

Note that the model includes two forms of phytoplankton death: first-order death and grazing by
herbivorous zooplankton. In the former, the loss of phytoplankton is represented as a simple first-
order loss. This option is used when (a) herbivorous zooplankton are not explicitly simulated or
(b) there are additional sources of phytoplankton mortality beyond herbivore grazing. An
example would be where grazing losses by plankton-feeding fish was significant.

Respiration. Phytoplankton respiration is represented as a first-order rate,

PhytoResp k rp (T ) a p (70)

where krp(T) = temperature-dependent phytoplankton respiration rate [/d].

Death. Phytoplankton death is represented as a first-order rate,

PhytoDeath k dp (T )a p (71)

where kdp(T) = temperature-dependent phytoplankton death rate [/d].

Grazing. Phytoplankton are lost due to herbivorous zooplankton grazing,

§ Fg a p ·
HZooGraz ¨ C ghT gh
T 20
z h ¸ Fg a p (72)
¨ k sa  Fg a p ¸¹
©

where Cgh = herbivorous zooplankton grazing rate [m3/(gC d)], Tgh = temperature parameter for
herbivorous zooplankton grazing [dimensionless], ksa = chlorophyll half-saturation constant
[mgA/m3], and Fg = the grazability of the phytoplankton by the herbivorous zooplankton
(dimensionless number: 0-1).

Settling. Phytoplankton settling is represented for layer i as

Ai 1 A
PhytoSettl  v a a p ,i 1  v a i a p ,i (73)
Vi Vi

where va = phytoplankton settling velocity [m/d], Ai = the surface area of the bottom boundary of
layer i [m2], and Vi = the volume of layer i [m3]. Note that for all settling computations, the input
from above is set to zero for the top layer.

6.3.3 Herbivorous zooplankton (zh)

LAKE2K 48 November 15, 2023

Herbivorous zooplankton increase due to grazing on phytoplankton. They are lost via respiration
and carnivorous zooplankton grazing.

S zh rca H h HZooGraz  HZooResp  HZooDeath  CZooGraz (74)

where Hh = herbivorous zooplankton grazing efficiency [dimensionless].

6.3.3.1 Losses

Note that the model includes two forms of herbivorous zooplankton death: first-order death and
grazing by carnivorous zooplankton. In the former, the loss of herbivorous zooplankton is
represented as a simple first-order loss. This option is used when (a) carnivorous zooplankton are
not explicitly simulated or (b) there are additional sources of herbivorous zooplankton mortality
beyond carnivorous zooplankton grazing. An example would be where grazing losses by
plankton-feeding fish was significant.

Respiration. Herbivorous zooplankton respiration is represented as a first-order rate,

HZooResp k rh (T ) z h (75)

where krh(T) = temperature-dependent herbivorous zooplankton respiration rate [/d].

Death. Herbivorous zooplankton death is represented as a first-order rate,

HZooDeath k dh (T ) z h (76)

where kdh(T) = the temperature-dependent herbivorous zooplankton death rate [/d].

Grazing. Herbivorous zooplankton are lost due to carnivorous zooplankton grazing,

§ T 20 zh ·
CZooGraz ¨¨ C gcT gc z c ¸¸ z h (77)
© k sh  z h ¹

where Cgc = carnivorous zooplankton grazing rate [m3/(gC d)], Tgc = temperature parameter for
carnivorous zooplankton grazing [dimensionless], and ksh = herbivore carbon half-saturation
constant [gC/m3].

6.3.4 Carnivorous zooplankton (zc)

Carnivorous zooplankton increase due to grazing on herbivorous zooplankton. They are lost via
respiration and death.

S zc H c CZooGraz  CZooResp  CZooDeath (78)

where Hc = carnivorous zooplankton grazing efficiency [dimensionless].

LAKE2K 49 November 15, 2023

6.3.4.1 Losses

Respiration. Carnivorous zooplankton respiration is represented as a first-order rate,

CZooResp k rc (T ) z c (79)

where krc(T) = temperature-dependent carnivorous zooplankton respiration rate [/d].

Death. Carnivorous zooplankton death is represented as a first-order rate,

CZooDeath k dtc (T ) z c (80)

where kdtc(T) = the temperature-dependent carnivorous zooplankton death rate [/d].

6.3.5 Particulate Organic Carbon (cp)

Particulate organic carbon (POC) increases due to zooplankton egestion of phytoplankton and
herbivorous zooplankton, and death of phytoplankton, herbivorous zooplankton, and carnivorous
zooplankton. It is lost via hydrolysis and settling.

S cs rca 1  H h HZooGraz  1  H c CZooGraz  a ca PhytoDeath

(81)
HZooDeath  CZooDeath  POCHydr  POCSettl

where

POCHydr k hc (T )c p (82)

where khc(T) = the temperature-dependent POC hydrolysis rate [/d].

POC settling is represented for layer i by

Ai 1 A
POCSettl  v oc c p ,i 1  v oc i c p ,i (83)
Vi Vi

where voc = POC settling velocity [m/d].

6.3.6 Dissolved Organic Carbon (cd)

Fast reacting CBOD is gained via the hydrolysis of slowly-reacting CBOD. It is lost via oxidation
and denitrification.

S cf POCHydr  DOCOxid  rcndn Denitr (84)

where

DOCOxid Foxcd k dc (T )c d (85)

LAKE2K 50 November 15, 2023

where kdc(T) = the temperature-dependent DOC oxidation rate [/d] and Foxcd = attenuation due to
low oxygen [dimensionless]. The parameter rcndn is the ratio of organic carbon lost per nitrate
nitrogen that is denitrified (Eq. 49). The term Denitr is the rate of denitrification [PgN/L/d]. It
will be defined in Section 6.3.9 below.

Two formulations are used to represent the oxygen attenuation of the oxidation rate:

Saturating Exponential:

Foxcd (1  e  K socd o ) (86)

where Ksocd = exponential coefficient for the effect of oxygen on DOC oxidation [L/mgO2].

Half-Saturation:

o
Foxcd (87)
K socd  o

where Ksocd = half-saturation constant for the effect of oxygen on DOC oxidation [mgO2/L].

6.3.7 Organic Nitrogen (no)

Organic nitrogen increases due to zooplankton egestion of phytoplankton and herbivorous

zooplankton, and death of phytoplankton, herbivorous zooplankton, and carnivorous zooplankton.
It is lost via hydrolysis and settling.

S no rna 1  H h HZooGraz  rnc 1  H c CZooGraz  rna PhytoDeath

(88)
 rnc HZooDeath  rnc CZooDeath  NorgHydr  NorgSettl

where

NorgHydr k hn (T )no (89)

where khn(T) = the temperature-dependent organic nitrogen hydrolysis rate [/d].

Organic N settling is represented for layer i by

Ai 1 A
NorgSettl  v on no,i 1  v on i no ,i (90)
Vi Vi

where von = organic nitrogen settling velocity [m/d].

6.3.8 Ammonia Nitrogen (na)

LAKE2K 51 November 15, 2023

Ammonia nitrogen increases due to organic nitrogen hydrolysis and respiration. It is lost via
nitrification and plant photosynthesis:

S na NorgHydr  rna PhytoResp  rnc HZooResp  rnc CZooResp

(91)
 NH4Nitrif  rna Pap PhytoPhoto

The ammonia nitrification rate is computed as

NH4Nitrif Foxna k n (T )n a (92)

where kn(T) = the temperature-dependent nitrification rate for ammonia nitrogen [/d] and Foxna =
attenuation due to low oxygen [dimensionless]. Oxygen attenuation is modeled by Eqs. (86) and
(87) with the oxygen dependency represented by the parameter Ksona.

The coefficient Pap is the phytoplankton preference for ammonium as a nitrogen source,

na nn n a k hnxp
Pap  (93)
(k hnxp  n a )(k hnxp  n n ) (n a  n n )(k hnxp  n n )

where khnxp = preference coefficient of phytoplankton for ammonium [mgN/m3].

6.3.9 Nitrate Nitrogen (nn)

Nitrate nitrogen increases due to nitrification of ammonia. It is lost via denitrification and plant
photosynthesis:

S ni NH4Nitrif  Denitr  rna (1  Pap ) PhytoPhoto (94)

The denitrification rate is computed as

cd
Denitr (1  Foxdn ) k dn (T )n n (95)
K sdoc  c d

where kdn(T) = the temperature-dependent denitrification rate of nitrate nitrogen [/d], Ksdoc = DOC
half-saturation constant for denitrification [gC/m3], Foxdn = effect of low oxygen on denitrification
[dimensionless] as modeled by Eqs. (86) and (87) with the oxygen dependency represented by the
parameter Ksodn.

6.3.10 Organic Phosphorus (po)

Organic phosphorus increases due to zooplankton egestion of phytoplankton and herbivorous

zooplankton, and death of phytoplankton, herbivorous zooplankton, and carnivorous zooplankton.
It is lost via hydrolysis and settling.

LAKE2K 52 November 15, 2023

 S po r pa 1  H h HZooGraz  r pc 1  H c CZooGraz  r pa PhytoDeath
(96)
 r pc HZooDeath  r pc CZooDeath  PorgHydr  PorgSettl

where

PorgHydr k hp (T ) p o (97)

where khp(T) = the temperature-dependent organic phosphorus hydrolysis rate [/d].

Organic P settling is represented for layer i by

Ai 1 A
PorgSettl  v op p o ,i 1  v op i p o ,i (98)
Vi Vi

where vop = organic phosphorus settling velocity [m/d].

6.3.11 Inorganic Phosphorus (pi)

Inorganic phosphorus increases due to organic phosphorus hydrolysis and respiration. It is lost via
plant photosynthesis:

S pi PorgHydr  r pa PhytoResp  r pc HZooResp  r pc CZooResp  r pa PhytoPhoto (99)

6.3.12 Inorganic Suspended Solids (mi)

Inorganic suspended solids are lost via settling,

Smi = – InorgSettl

where for layer j,

A j 1 Aj
InorgSettl  vi mi , j 1  vi mi , j (100)
Vj Vj

where vi = inorganic suspended solids settling velocity [m/d].

6.3.13 Dissolved Oxygen (o)

Dissolved oxygen increases due to plant photosynthesis. It is lost via DOC oxidation, nitrification
and respiration. Depending on whether the water is undersaturated or oversaturated it is gained or
lost via reaeration,

So rca ro ca Pap  ro cn (1  Pap ) PhytoPhoto  roca FastCOxid  ron NH4Nitr

(101)
 rca roca PhytoResp  roca HZooResp  roca CZooResp  OxReaer

LAKE2K 53 November 15, 2023

where

K L A0
OxReaer o s (T1 , elev)  o (102)
V1

where KL = the oxygen mass-transfer coefficient [m/d], os(T1, elev) = the saturation concentration
of oxygen [mgO2/L] at the temperature of the surface layer, T1 [oC], and elevation above sea level
of the lake’s surface, elev.

The following equation is used to represent the dependence of oxygen saturation on

temperature (APHA 1995)

1.575701 u 10 5 6.642308 u 10 7
ln o s (T1 , 0) 139.34411  
Ta Ta2
(103)
10 11
1.243800 u 10 8.621949 u 10
 
Ta3 Ta4

where os(T1, 0) = the saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen in freshwater at 1 atm

[mgO2/L] and Ta = absolute temperature [K] where Ta = T1 +273.15.

The effect of atmospheric pressure on gas saturation at elevation is based on the standard
atmosphere as described by the cubic polynomial (Camacho and Chapra 2020):

Ielev 1  0.11988 elev  6.10834 u 103 elev 2  1.60747 u 104 elev3 (104)

where elev = the elevation above sea level of the lake’s surface [km]. Note that the software has
elevation in meters and then internally changes it to km.

6.3.13.1 Reaeration Formulas

Three methods are used to represent the dependence of oxygen gas transfer on temperature and
wind speed. Two consist of simple formulas, whereas the third consists of a more elaborate
algorithm.

Banks-Herrera formula (Banks 1975, Banks and Herrera 1977):

T  20
Kl 0.728U w0.5  0.317U w  0.0372U w2 T ka (105)

Wanninkhof formula (Wanninkhof 1991):

T  20
Kl 0.0986U w1.64 T ka (106)

where Kl = the oxygen mass-transfer coefficient [m d1], Uw = wind speed measured 10 meters
above the water surface [m s1] and Tka = the temperature parameter for oxygen gas transfer

LAKE2K 54 November 15, 2023

[suggested value: 1.024]. Note that the model uses Eq. (34) to correct the wind velocity (7 meters
above the surface) entered on the Meteorology worksheet (Figure 13) so that it is scaled to the 10-
m height.

O’Connor Algorithm (O’Connor 1983):

O’Connor (1983) has developed a theoretically based set of formulas to compute gas transfer for
low-solubility gases such as oxygen. Appendix B describes how the O’Connor algorithm is
computed.

6.4 LIGHT MODEL AND SECCHI DEPTH

The extinction coefficient is related to model variables by (Di Toro 1978)

Kd a  (1  J )b (107)

where a = the absorption coefficient [m1], J = the fraction of particle scattering that is directly
forward scattered [dimensionless], and b = the scattering coefficient [m1].

The absorption coefficient is related to the model variables by

a a w  a c  D chl a p  D POC rdc c p  D i mi (108)

where aw = the absorption coefficient due to water [m1], ac = the absorption coefficient due to
color [m1], Dchl = absorption proportionality constant for chlorophyll a [m2/mgA], DPOC =
absorption proportionality constant for POC expressed as dry weight [m2/gD], and Di =
absorption proportionality constant for inorganic solids [m2/gD].

The scattering coefficient is related to the model variables by

b bw  E chl a p  E POC rdc c p  E i mi (109)

where bw = the scattering coefficient due to water [m1], Echl = scattering proportionality constant
for chlorophyll a [m2/mgA], EPOC = scattering proportionality constant for POC expressed as dry
weight [m2/gD], and Ei = scattering proportionality constant for inorganic solids [m2/gD].
Recommended values for the light-related coefficients are listed in Table 5.

Table 5 Suggested values for light extinction coefficients

Symbol Value Reference

J 0.94 Di Toro (1978)
aw 0.012 Kirk (1994)
ac system specific
Dchl 0.030 Di Toro (1978)
DPOC 0.16 Di Toro (1978)
Di 0.031 Di Toro (1978)

LAKE2K 55 November 15, 2023

 bw 0.0027 Kirk (1994)
Echl 0.010 Di Toro (1978)
EPOC 0.24 Di Toro (1978)
Ei 0.37 Di Toro (1978)

The Secchi depth, SD [m], is calculated with (Tyler 1968, Preisendorfer 1986),

8.7
SD (110)
Kd  c

where c = beam attenuation coefficient [m1], which is equal to the sum of the absorption and
scattering coefficients,

c ab (111)

6.5 SOD/Nutrient Flux Model

Sediment nutrient fluxes and sediment oxygen demand (SOD) are based on a model originally
developed by Di Toro (Di Toro et al. 1991, Di Toro and Fitzpatrick. 1993, Di Toro 2001).

A schematic of the model is depicted in Figure 34. As can be seen, the approach allows
oxygen and nutrient sediment-water fluxes to be computed based on the downward flux of
particulate organic matter from the overlying water. The sediments are divided into 2 layers: a
thin (# 1 mm) surface aerobic layer underlain by a thicker (10 cm) lower anaerobic layer. Organic
carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are delivered to the anaerobic sediments via the settling of
particulate organic matter (i.e., phytoplankton and detritus). There they are transformed by
mineralization reactions into dissolved methane, ammonium and inorganic phosphorus. These
constituents are then transported to the aerobic layer where some of the methane and ammonium
are oxidized. The flux of oxygen from the water required for these oxidations is the sediment
oxygen demand. The following sections provide details on how the model computes this SOD
along with the sediment-water fluxes of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus that are also generated
in the process.

LAKE2K 56 November 15, 2023

WATER
AEROBIC
Jpom cf o na o nn pi

CH4 CO2 NH4p NH4d NO3 N2 PO4p PO4d

CH4(gas)
POC
ANAEROBIC

PON NH4p NH4d NO3 N2

POP PO4p PO4d

DIAGENESIS METHANE AMMONIUM NITRATE PHOSPHATE

Figure 34 Schematic of SOD-nutrient flux model of the sediments.

6.5.1 Diagenesis

As summarized in Figure 35, the first step in the computation involves determining how much of
the downward flux of particulate organic matter (POM) is converted into soluble reactive forms
in the anaerobic sediments. This process is referred to as diagenesis. First the total downward flux
is computed as the sum of the fluxes of phytoplankton and detritus settling from the water column

J POM rda v a a p  v dt mo (112)

where JPOM = the downward flux of POM [gD m2 d1], rda = the ratio of dry weight to
chlorophyll a [gD/mgA], va = phytoplankton settling velocity [m/d], ap = phytoplankton
concentration [mgA/m3], vdt = detritus settling velocity [m/d], and mo = detritus concentration
[gD/m3].

LAKE2K 57 November 15, 2023

 JPOC, G1 JC, G1
vaap vdtmo POC2,G1
fG1
JC
rda JPOC JPOC, G2 JC, G2
fG2 POC2,G2
fG3
JPOM roc JPOC, G3 POC2,G3

rcd JN, G1
JPON, G1 PON2,G1
fG1 JN
JN, G2
rnd JPON fG2 JPON, G2 PON2,G2
fG3
JPON, G3 PON2,G3
rpd
JP, G1
JPOP, G1 POP2,G1
fG1 JP
JP, G2
JPOP fG2 JPOP, G2 POP2,G2

fG3
JPOP, G3 POP2,G3

Figure 35 Representation of how settling particulate organic particles (phytoplankton and

detritus) are transformed into fluxes of dissolved carbon (JC) , nitrogen (JN) and
phosphorus (JP) in the anaerobic sediments.

Stoichiometric ratios are then used to divide the POM flux into carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus. Note that for convenience, we will express the particulate organic carbon (POC) as
oxygen equivalents using the stoichiometric coefficient roc. Each of the nutrient fluxes is further
broken down into three reactive fractions: labile (G1), slowly reacting (G2) and non-reacting
(G3).

These fluxes are then entered into mass balances to compute the concentration of each
fraction in the anaerobic layer. For example, for labile POC, a mass balance is written as

dPOC 2,G1 T  20
H2 J POC ,G1  k POC ,G1T POC ,G1 H 2 POC 2 ,G1  w2 POC 2 ,G1 (113)
dt

where H2 = the thickness of the anaerobic layer [m], POC2,G1 = the concentration of the labile
fraction of POC in the anaerobic layer [gO2/m3], JPOC,G1 = the flux of labile POC delivered to the
anaerobic layer [gO2/m2/d], kPOC,G1 = the mineralization rate of labile POC [d1], TPOC,G1 =
temperature parameter for labile POC mineralization [dimensionless], and w2 = the burial velocity
[m/d]. At steady state, Eq. (113) can be solved for

J POC ,G1
POC 2,G1 T  20
(114)
k POC ,G1T POC ,G1 H 2  v b

The flux of labile dissolved carbon, JC,G1 [gO2/m2/d], can then be computed as

LAKE2K 58 November 15, 2023

 T  20
J C ,G1 k POC ,G1T POC ,G1 H 2 POC 2 ,G1 (115)

In a similar fashion, a mass balance can be written and solved for the slowly reacting
dissolved organic carbon (G2). This result is then added to Eq. (115) to arrive at the total flux of
dissolved carbon generated in the anaerobic sediments.

JC J C ,G1  J C ,G 2 (116)

Similar equations are developed to compute the diagenesis fluxes of nitrogen, JN [gN/m2/d], and
phosphorus JP [gP/m2/d].

6.5.2 Ammonium

Based on the mechanisms depicted in Figure 34, mass balances can be written for total
ammonium in the aerobic layer and the anaerobic layers,

dNH 4,1
H1 Z12 f pa 2 NH 4, 2  f pa1 NH 4,1  K L12 f da 2 NH 4, 2  f da1 NH 4,1  w2 NH 4,1
dt
(117)
· N NH 4,1 T  20
2
§ n K NH 4 o
 s¨ a  f da1 NH 4,1 ¸  T NH 4 f da1 NH 4,1
© 1000 ¹ s K NH 4  NH 4 ,1 2 K NH 4 ,O 2  o

dNH 4, 2
H2 J N  Z12 f pa1 NH 4,1  f pa 2 NH 4, 2  K L12 f da1 NH 4,1  f da 2 NH 4, 2
dt
(118)
 w2 NH 4,1  NH 4, 2

where H1 = the thickness of the aerobic layer [m], NH4,1 and NH4,2 = the concentration of total
ammonium in the aerobic layer and the anaerobic layers, respectively [gN/m3], na = the
ammonium concentration in the overlying water [mgN/m3], NNH4,1 = the reaction velocity for
nitrification in the aerobic sediments [m/d], TNH4 = temperature parameter for nitrification
[dimensionless], KNH4 = ammonium half-saturation constant [gN/m3], o = the dissolved oxygen
concentration in the overlying water [gO2/m3], and KNH4,O2 = oxygen half-saturation constant
[mgO2/L], and JN = the diagenesis flux of ammonium [gN/m2/d].

The fraction of ammonium in dissolved (fdai) and particulate (fpai) form are computed as

1
f dai (119)
1  mi S ai

f pai 1  f dai (120)

where mi = the solids concentration in layer i [gD/m3], and Sai = the partition coefficient for
ammonium in layer i [m3/gD].

LAKE2K 59 November 15, 2023

 The mass transfer coefficient for particle mixing due to bioturbation between the layers, Z12
[m/d], is computed as

T  20
D pT Dp POC 2,G1 / roc o
Z12 (121)
H2 POC R K M , Dp  o

where Dp = diffusion coefficient for bioturbation [m2/d], TDp = temperature coefficient

[dimensionless], POCR = reference G1 concentration for bioturbation [gC/m3] and KM,Dp =
oxygen half-saturation constant for bioturbation [gO2/m3].

The mass transfer coefficient for pore water diffusion between the layers, KL12 [m/d], is
computed as,

T  20
Dd T Dd
K L12 (122)
H2 / 2

where Dd = pore water diffusion coefficient [m2/d], and TDd = temperature coefficient
[dimensionless].

The mass transfer coefficient between the water and the aerobic sediments, s [m/d], is
computed as

SOD
s (123)
o

where SOD = the sediment oxygen demand [gO2/m2/d].

At steady state, Eqs. (117) and (118) are two simultaneous nonlinear algebraic equations. The
equations can be linearized by assuming that the NH4,1 term in the Monod term for nitrification is
constant. The simultaneous linear equations can then be solved for NH4,1 and NH4,2. The flux of
ammonium to the overlying water can then be computed as

§ n ·
J NH 4 s¨ f da1 NH 4,1  a ¸ (124)
© 1000 ¹

6.5.3 Nitrate

Mass balances for nitrate can be written for the aerobic and anaerobic layers as

dNO3,1 § n ·
H1 K L12 NO3, 2  NO3,1  w2 NO3,1  s¨ n  NO3,1 ¸
dt © 1000 ¹ (125)
N NH
2
4 ,1 T  20 K o N NO
2
3,1 T  20
 T NH 4 NH 4
f da1 NH 4,1  T NO 3 NO3,1
s K NH 4  NH 4,1 2 K NH 4,O 2  o s

dNO3, 2 T  20
H2 J N  K L12 NO3,1  NO3, 2  w2 NO3,1  NO3, 2  N NO 3, 2T NO 3 NO3, 2 (126)
dt

LAKE2K 60 November 15, 2023

where NO3,1 and NO3,2 = the concentration of nitrate in the aerobic layer and the anaerobic layers,
respectively [gN/m3], nn = the nitrate concentration in the overlying water [mgN/m3], NNO3,1 and
NNO3,2 = the reaction velocities for denitrification in the aerobic and anaerobic sediments,
respectively [m/d], and TNO3 = temperature parameter for denitrification [dimensionless].

In the same fashion as for Eqs. (117) and (118), Eqs. (125) and (126) can be linearized and
solved for NO3,1 and NO3,2. The flux of nitrate to the overlying water can then be computed as

§ n ·
J NO 3 s¨ NO3,1  n ¸ (127)
© 1000 ¹

Denitrification requires a carbon source as represented by the following chemical equation,

5CH 2 O  4NO 3  4H  o 5CO 2  2N 2 7H 2 O (128)

The carbon requirement (expressed in oxygen equivalents per nitrogen) can therefore be
computed as

gO 2 5 moleC u 12 gC/moleC 1 gN gO 2
rondn 2.67 u 0.00286 (129)
gC 4 moleN u 14 gN/moleN 1000 mgN mgN

Therefore, the oxygen equivalents consumed during denitrification, JO2,dn [gO2/m2/d], can be
computed as

mgN § N NO
2
·
J O 2,dn 1000 u rondn ¨
3,1 T  20 T  20
T NO 3 NO3,1  N NO 3, 2T NO NO ¸ (130)
gN ¨ s 3 3, 2
¸
© ¹

6.5.4 Methane

The dissolved carbon generated by diagenesis is converted to methane in the anaerobic sediments.
Because methane is relatively insoluble, its saturation can be exceeded and methane gas
produced. As a consequence, rather than write a mass balance for methane in the anaerobic layer,
an analytical model developed by Di Toro et al. (1990) is used to determine the steady-state flux
of dissolved methane corrected for gas loss delivered to the aerobic sediments.

First, the carbon diagenesis flux is corrected for the oxygen equivalents consumed during
denitrification,

J CH 4,T J C  J O 2,dn (131)

where JCH4,T = the carbon diagenesis flux corrected for denitrification [gO2/m2/d]. In other words,
this is the total anaerobic methane production flux expressed in oxygen equivalents.

If JCH4,T is sufficiently large (t 2KL12Cs), methane gas will form. In such cases, the flux can be
corrected for the gas loss,

LAKE2K 61 November 15, 2023

 J CH 4,d 2 K L12 C s J CH 4,T (132)

where JCH4,d = the flux of dissolved methane (expressed in oxygen equivalents) that is generated
in the anaerobic sediments and delivered to the aerobic sediments [gO2/m2/d], Cs = the saturation
concentration of methane expressed in oxygen equivalents [mgO2/L]. If JCH4,T < 2KL12Cs, then no
gas forms and

J CH 4,d J CH 4,T (133)

The methane saturation concentration is computed as

§ H·
Cs 100¨1  ¸1.024 20T (134)
© 10 ¹

where H = water depth [m] and T = water temperature [oC].

A methane mass balance can then be written for the aerobic layer as

dCH 4,1 N CH
2
4 ,1 T  20
H1 J CH 4,d  s c f  CH 4,1  T CH 4 CH 4 ,1 (135)
dt s

where CH4,1 = methane concentration in the aerobic layer [gO2/m3], cf = DOC in the overlying
water [gO2/m3], NCH4,1 = the reaction velocity for methane oxidation in the aerobic sediments
[m/d], and TCH4 = temperature parameter [dimensionless]. At steady, state, this balance can be
solved for

J CH 4,d  sc f
CH 4,1 (136)
N CH
2
4 ,1 T  20
s T CH 4
s

The flux of methane to the overlying water, JCH4 [gO2/m2/d], can then be computed as

J CH 4 s CH 4,1  c f (137)

6.5.5 SOD

The SOD [gO2/m2/d] is equal to the sum of the oxygen consumed in methane oxidation and
nitrification,

SOD CSOD  NSOD (138)

where CSOD = the amount of oxygen demand generated by methane oxidation [gO2/m2/d] and
NSOD = the amount of oxygen demand generated by nitrification [gO2/m2/d]. These are
computed as

LAKE2K 62 November 15, 2023

 N CH
2
4 ,1 T  20
CSOD T CH 4 CH 4 ,1 (139)
s

N NH
2
4 ,1 T  20 K NH 4 o
NSOD ron T NH 4 f da1 NH 4,1 (140)
s K NH 4  NH 4,1 2 K NH 4,O 2  o

where ron = the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen consumed during nitrification [= 4.57 gO2/gN].

6.5.6 Inorganic Phosphorus

Mass balances can be written total inorganic phosphorus in the aerobic layer and the anaerobic
layers as

dPO4,1
H1 Z12 f pp 2 PO4, 2  f pp1 PO4,1  K L12 f dp 2 PO4, 2  f dp1 PO4,1
dt
(141)
§ p ·
 w2 PO4,1  s¨ i  f da1 PO4,1 ¸
© 1000 ¹

dPO4, 2
H2 J P  Z12 f pp1 PO4,1  f pp 2 PO4, 2  K L12 f dp1 PO4,1  f dp 2 PO4, 2
dt
(142)
 w2 PO4,1  PO4, 2

where PO4,1 and PO4,2 = the concentration of total inorganic phosphorus in the aerobic layer and
the anaerobic layers, respectively [gP/m3], pi = the inorganic phosphorus in the overlying water
[mgP/m3], and JP = the diagenesis flux of phosphorus [gP/m2/d].

The fraction of phosphorus in dissolved (fdpi) and particulate (fppi) form are computed as

1
f dpi (143)
1  mi S pi

f ppi 1  f dpi (144)

where Spi = the partition coefficient for inorganic phosphorus in layer i [m3/gD].

The partition coefficient in the anaerobic layer is set to an input value. For the aerobic layer,
if the oxygen concentration in the overlying water column exceeds a critical concentration, ocrit
[gO2/m3], then the partition coefficient is increased to represent the sorption of phosphorus onto
iron oxyhydroxides as in

S p1 S p 2 'S PO 4,1 (145)

where 'SPO4,1 is a factor that increases the aerobic layer partition coefficient relative to the
anaerobic coefficient.

LAKE2K 63 November 15, 2023

 If the oxygen concentration falls below ocrit then the partition coefficient is decreased
smoothly until it reaches the anaerobic value at zero oxygen,

o / ocrit
S p1 S p 2 'S PO 4,1 (146)

Equations (141) and (142) can be solved for PO4,1 and PO4,2. The flux of phosphorus to the
overlying water can then be computed as

§ p ·
J PO 4 s¨ PO4,1  i ¸ (147)
© 1000 ¹

6.5.7 Solution Scheme

Although the foregoing sequence of equations can be solved, a single computation will not yield a
correct result because of the interdependence of the equations. For example, the surface mass
transfer coefficient s depends on SOD. The SOD in turn depends on the ammonium and methane
concentrations which themselves are computed via mass balances that depend on s. Hence, an
iterative technique must be used. The procedure used in LAKE2K is

1. Determine the diagenesis fluxes: JC, JN and JP.

2. Start with an initial estimate of SOD,

SODinit J C  ron' J N (148)

where ron’ = the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen consumed for total conversion of ammonium
to nitrogen gas via nitrification/denitrification [= 1.714 gO2/gN]. This ratio accounts for
the carbon utilized for denitrification.

3. Compute s using

SODinit
s (149)
o

4. Solve for ammonium, nitrate and methane, and compute the CSOD and NSOD.

5. Make a revised estimate of SOD using the following weighted average

SODinit  CSOD  NSOD

SOD (150)
2

6. Check convergence by calculating an approximate relative error

SOD  SODinit
Ha u 100% (151)
SOD

LAKE2K 64 November 15, 2023

 7. If Ha is greater than a prespecified stopping criterion Hs then set SODinit = SOD and return
to step 2.

8. If convergence is adequate (Ha d Hs), then compute the inorganic phosphorus

concentrations.

9. Compute the ammonium, nitrate, methane and phosphate fluxes.

6.5.8 Supplementary Fluxes

Because of the presence of organic matter deposited prior to the summer steady-state period (e.g.,
during spring runoff), it is possible that the downward flux of particulate organic matter is
insufficient to generate the observed SOD. In such cases, a supplementary SOD can be
prescribed,

SODt SOD  SODs (152)

where SODt = the total sediment oxygen demand [gO2/m2/d], and SODs = the supplementary SOD
[gO2/m2/d]. In addition, prescribed ammonia and methane fluxes can be used to supplement the
computed fluxes.

LAKE2K 65 November 15, 2023

 7 APPENDIX A: DENSITY OF WATER
The density of water is related to temperature and salinity by (Millero and Poisson 1981):

U U o  AS  BS 3 / 2  CS 2

where U = density [g L1], S = salinity (ppt), and

a 0.824493  0.0040899T  0.000076438T 2  0.00000082467T 3  0.0000000053875T 4

b 0.00572466  0.00010227T  0.0000016546T 2

c 0.00048314

in which T = temperature (oC) and Uo = the density of fresh water [g L1],

ȡo 999.842594  0.06793952T  9.095290 u 10 3 T 2  1.001685 u 10 4 T 3

 1.120083 u 10 6 T 4  6.536332 u 10 9 T 5

The salinity is related to chloride concentration by (Thomann and Mueller 1987),

S 1.80655 u 10 3 Cl

where Cl = chloride concentration. The chloride concentration is related to conductivity by

Cl 0 Cond  84.2 Pmhos

Cl 0.3091 u Cond  26.021 Cond t 84.2 Pmhos

LAKE2K 67 November 15, 2023

8 APPENDIX B: O’CONNOR’S GAS TRANSFER MODEL
O’Connor (1983) has developed a theoretically based set of formulas to compute gas transfer for
low-solubility gases such as oxygen. Three different formulas are used depending on the wind
speed,

Smooth surfaces (Uw < 6 m/s):

2/3
§ Dox · ȡ a ț 1/ 3
Kl ¨¨ ¸¸ Cd Uw (153)
© Qw ¹ ȡw ī 0

where Dox = the diffusivity of oxygen in water [cm s2], Qw = the viscosity of water [cm s2], Cd =
drag coefficient, Ua = air density [g cm3], Uw = water density [= 1 g cm3], N = the Von Karman
constant (= 0.4), and *0 = a Reynold’s number. Several of the model parameters are related to air
and water temperature as in

Dox 0.000000458T1  0.000012 (154)

Qw 0.0164  0.00024514T1 (155)

Ua 0.00129  0.000004Tair (156)

Transitional surfaces (6 m/s d Uw d 20 m/s):

1 1 1
2/3
 (157)
Kl § Dox · ț 1/ 3 ȡa DoxU * ȡ aQ a
¨¨ ¸¸ U*
© Qw ¹ ī U* ) ȡw Nz 0 (U * ) ȡ wQ w

where Qa = the viscosity of air [cm s2]. Other parameters are tabulated (Table 6) or calculated as

Qa 0.133  0.0009Tair (158)

U * U * / U *c 1
*(U * ) *0 e (159)
U *c

1
z 0 (U * ) (160)
1 / z e  O1e U * / U *t

U* Cd U w (161)

Table 6 Parameters for O’Connor gas transfer model. Note that at present, Lake2K uses
the large scale parameters.

Scale O1 U*t *0 U*c ze

Small 10 9 10 22 0.25

LAKE2K 69 November 15, 2023

 Intermediate 3 10 6.5 11 0.25
Large 3 10 5 11 0.35

Rough surfaces (Uw > 20 m/s):

Dox ȡ aQ a
Kl Cd U w (162)
Nz e ȡ wQ w

Note that the drag coefficient is required to implement the foregoing equations. The
following formula relates the drag coefficient to wind speed and other characteristics of the air-
water interface

1 1 ª1000 1000O1 C d U w  C d U w / U *t
º
ln «  e » (163)
Cd N «¬ z e Qa »¼

This equation is solved for Cd with the Newton-Raphson method.

LAKE2K 70 November 15, 2023

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