CERTIFICATE

It is certified that Subhajit Mandal has

successfully completed his Chemistry project
titled, “TO COMPARE FOAMING CAPACITIES
OF FIVE DIFFERENT COMMERCIAL SOAPS”
under the supervision and guidance of Mr.
Partha Datta in the partial fulfillment of the
Chemistry practical assessment conducted
during the academic year 2024-25.

External Examiner Internal Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My heartfelt thanks extend to my instructor,
Mr. Partha Datta, for their guiding influence in
achieving the successful outcome of this
project. Their guidance, unwavering
encouragement, and relentless motivation
significantly contributed to every stage of this
endeavor.

I also express my sincere gratitude to our

principal, Mr. Arvind Sharma for providing the
necessary support and facilities that enabled
me to prepare this project.

In closing, I would like to acknowledge all

who provided the motivation to persist in this
endeavor.

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 INDEX
CONTENT PAGE NO
1
Certificate

Acknowledgement 2

Aim 4

Introduction 5

Preparation of soap 7-9

Experiment 10

Theory and materials 10

required
Procedure 10-11

Observation 11

Result 12

Bibliography 13

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 AIM
“To compare the foaming capacities of five different
commercial soaps”

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 INTRODUCTION
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like
stearic, palmitic and oleic acids can be either saturated or
unsaturated. They contain a long hydrocarbon chain of about
10-20 carbon with one carboxylic acid group as the functional
group. A soap molecule a tadpole shaped structure, whose
ends have different polarities. At one end is the long
hydrocarbon chain that is non- polar and hydrophobic, i.e.,
insoluble in water but oil soluble. At the other end is the short
polar carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic i.e., water soluble
but insoluble in oil and grease. Long Hydrocarbon Chain
contain Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic end. When soap is
shaken with water it becomes a soap solution that is colloidal in
nature. Agitating it tends to concentrate the solution on the
surface and causes foaming. This helps the soap molecules
make a unimolecular film on the surface of water and to
penetrate the fabric. The long non-polar end of a soap molecule
that are hydrophobic, gravitate towards and surround the dirt
(fat or oil with dust absorbed in it). The short polar end
containing the carboxylate ion, face the water away from the
dirt. A number of soap molecules surround or encircle dirt and
grease in a clustered structure called ‘micelles’, which encircles
such particles and emulsify them. Cleansing action of soaps
decreases in hard water. Hard water contains Calcium and
magnesium ions which react with sodium carbonate to produce
insoluble carbonates of higher fatty acids. This hardness can be
removed by addition of Sodium Carbonate.

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COMMERCIAL PREPARATION OF SOAPS

The most popular soap making process today is the cold

process method, where fats such as olive oil react
with strong alkaline solution, while some soapers use
the historical hot process. Handmade soap differs from
industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is
sometimes used to consume the alkali (super fatting),
and in that the glycerine is not removed, leaving a
naturally moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are
added ‘at trace’ (the point at which the saponification
process is sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun
to thicken), after most of the oils have saponified, so that
they remain unreacted in the finished soap.

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 FAT IN SOAP

Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal

fats. Sodium Tallowate, a common ingredient in much
soap, is derived from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be
made of vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and the
product is typically softer. An array of specifiable oils
and fats are used in the process such as olive, coconut,
palm, cocoa butter to provide different qualities. For
example, olive oil provides mildness in soap; coconut oil
provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils
provide hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also be used
as an ebullient. Smaller amounts of unsaponifiable oils
and fats that do not yield soap are sometimes added for
further benefits.

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 PREPARATION OF SOAPS
In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat
may be required for saponification. Cold-process
soap making takes place at a sufficient
temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat
being used. Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-
processed soap can be used right away because the
alkali and fat saponify more quickly at the higher
temperatures used in hot-process soap making.
Hot-process soap making was used when the
purity of alkali was unreliable. Cold-process soap
making requires exact measurements of alkali and
fat amounts and computing their ratio, using
saponification charts to ensure that the finished
product is mild and skin-friendly.
Hot process:
In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled
together at 80–100 °C until saponification occurs,
which the soap maker can determine by taste or by
eye. After saponification has occurred, the soap is
sometimes precipitated from the solution by
adding salt, and the excess liquid drained off. The
hot, soft soap is then spooned into a mould.

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Cold process:
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the
saponification value of the fats being used on a
saponification chart, which is then used to
calculate the appropriate amount of alkali. Excess
unreacted alkali in the soap will result in a very
high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough
alkali and the soap are greasy. The alkali is
dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted
if they are solid at room temperature. Once both
substances have cooled to approximately 100-
110°F (37-43°C), and are no more than 10°F
(~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined. This alkali-
fat mixture is stirred until “trace”. There are
varying levels of trace. After much stirring, the
mixture turns to the consistency of a thin pudding.
“Trace” corresponds roughly to viscosity.
Essential and fragrance oils are added at light
trace. Introduction to the experiment Soap samples
of various brands are taken and their foaming
capacity is noticed. Various soap samples are
taken separately and their foaming capacity is
observed. The soap with the maximum foaming

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capacity is thus, said to be having the best cleaning
capacity.
INTRODUCTION TO THE EXPERIMENT:
Soap samples of various brands are taken and their foaming
capacity is noticed. Various soap samples are taken separately
and their foaming capacity is observed. The soap with the
maximum foaming capacity is thus, said to be having the best
cleaning capacity. The test requires to be done with distilled
water as well as with tap water. The test of soap on distilled
water gives the actual strength of the soaps cleaning capacity.
The second test with tap water tests the effect of Ca 2+ and
Mg2+ salts on their foaming capacities.

AIM:
To compare the foaming capacity of five different
commercial soaps.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes, 100ml
measuring cylinder, test tube stand, weighing machine,
stop watch, test tube stand, burner.

CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
Five different soap samples, distilled water, tap water.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1,2,3,4,5. Put
16ml of water in each flask and add 8 grams of soap.
2. Warm the contents to get a solution
3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution in different test tubes.
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4. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for a
minute. Do the same for all test tubes and with equal force.

5. Start the timer immediately and notice the rate of

disappearance of 2mm of froth.

6. Record the observation in tabular form

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OBSERVATION:

RESULT:
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in the order:

Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor has the

highest foaming capacity, in other words, highest
cleaning capacity. Lux, on the other hand is found to
have taken the least amount of time for the
disappearance of foam produced and thus is said to be
having the least foaming capacity and cleansing
capacity.

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The tests show negative results for the presence of the
salts causing hardness in water. The water used does
not contain salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water
provided is soft and thus, the experimental results and
values hold good for distilled water and tap water.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Books:
• Lab Manual Chemistry-XII
• Comprehensive Chemistry – 12

Internet sources:
• www.wikipedia.org
• www.google.com
• www.yahoo.com
• https://www.icbse.com

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Thank
You

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