Lecturer Neesha Rajkarnikar

SoB, PU
Pokhara
2.1 Basic Components: Input, Output, Processing, Storage
2.2 Types of Computers (Desktops, Laptops, Servers, Mobile Devices)
2.3 Hardware Components
2.4 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2.5 Memory (RAM, ROM)
2.6 Storage Devices (Hard Drives, SSDs, External Storage)
2.7 Input and Output Devices (Working principle, application)
2.7.1 Keystroke Devices
2.7.2 Touch Devices
2.7.3 Voice-Controlled Devices
2.7.4 Movement-Controlled Devices
Game Controllers (joysticks, gamepads, and VR controllers.),
Gesture-Control Devices, Leap Motion for touchless interaction.
2.7.5 Brain-Computer Interface (BCI):
2.7.6 Wearables:
Smart glasses, AR/VR headsets (e.g., Oculus, HoloLens).
2.7.7 Haptic Feedback Gloves:
Used in VR and advanced interaction systems.
2.7.8 Biosensors:
Devices that track physiological data (e.g., heart rate monitors).
2.7.9 Data Scanning Devices
Barcodes, QR code scanners.
RFID: Radio Frequency Identification scanners for contactless identification.
Biometric Scanners: Fingerprint, iris scanners.

2.7.10 Digitizers:
Graphics tablets, touch-sensitive stylus input.
2.7.11 Microphones:
Analog, digital, condenser microphones for voice input.
2.7.12 Electronic Cards Based Devices
Smart cards, debit/credit cards with NFC/RFID technology.
2.7.13 Speech Recognition Devices
2.7.14 Vision-Based Devices
Cameras, LiDAR, infrared sensors, facial recognition systems.
2.8 Output Devices (Working principle, application)
Monitors: CRT, LED, OLED screens.
Printers: Inkjet, laser, 3D printers.
Projectors: DLP, LCD.
Audio Output: Speakers, headphones, and surround sound systems.
Tactile Output: Braille readers, haptic feedback systems.
1. Input

 Function: Receives data and instructions from the user or external environment.

 Examples of Input Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Microphone, Scanner, Camera

 Purpose: Converts external data into a digital format understandable by the computer.

2. Processing

 Function: Processes input data and performs calculations or decision-making based on

instructions (programs).

 Core Components: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Graphics Processing Unit (GPU),

Memory (RAM)

 Purpose: Acts as the "brain" of the computer, executing instructions to transform data into

useful outputs.
3. Output

 Function: Displays or conveys processed data in a usable form to the user or another

system.

 Examples of Output Devices: Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Projectors

 Purpose: Converts processed data from digital to a human-readable or usable form.

4. Storage

 Function: Retains data and programs for immediate or future use.

 Types of Storage: Primary Storage (Volatile), RAM, Secondary Storage (Non-Volatile): Hard

Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid-State Drive (SSD), Optical Disks (CD/DVD) and Flash Drives,
Cloud Storage

 Purpose: Ensures data persistence even after the computer is turned off.
1. Desktops
 Description:
A desktop computer is a stationary computing device designed for use at a single location,
typically on a desk.
 Key Characteristics:
 Composed of separate components: monitor, CPU tower, keyboard, and mouse.
 High performance and durability due to larger hardware components.
 Easily upgradable and customizable.

 Use Cases:
 Home or office tasks, gaming, graphic design, and software development.

 Advantages:
 Powerful performance.
 Cost-effective compared to laptops with similar specifications.

 Limitations:
 Lack of portability.
 Requires a dedicated workspace.
2. Laptops
 Description:
A portable, all-in-one computing device with an integrated screen, keyboard, and
touchpad.
 Key Characteristics:
 Lightweight and compact, designed for mobility.
 Powered by rechargeable batteries or an AC adapter.
 Typically less powerful than desktops of similar price ranges but offer adequate
performance for most users.
 Use Cases:
 Students, professionals, travelers, and remote workers.

 Advantages:
 Portability and convenience.
 Wireless connectivity features like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

 Limitations:
 Limited upgrade options.
 Smaller screens and keyboards may be less ergonomic.
3. Servers
 Description:
A server is a specialized computer designed to provide services, manage resources,
or store data for other computers (clients) in a network.
 Key Characteristics:
 High processing power, large memory, and robust storage.
 Operates 24/7 with minimal downtime.
 Often housed in data centers, using server racks.

 Use Cases:
 Hosting websites, managing databases, running enterprise applications, and
supporting cloud services.
 Advantages:
 Reliable and scalable for multi-user environments.
 Optimized for specific tasks like data processing or hosting.

 Limitations:
 Expensive and requires technical expertise to manage.
 Not suitable for general-purpose computing.
4. Mobile Devices
 Description:
Compact, handheld computing devices such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices.
 Key Characteristics:
 Small form factor with touch-based interfaces.
 Powered by mobile operating systems like Android, iOS, or HarmonyOS.
 Integrates cellular, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth for connectivity.

 Use Cases:
 Communication, entertainment, navigation, and lightweight productivity tasks.

 Advantages:
 Highly portable and always connected.
 User-friendly and designed for personal use.

 Limitations:
 Limited processing power and storage compared to desktops or laptops.
 Shorter lifespan due to rapid technological advancements.
 The hardware components of a computer are the physical parts that

work together to perform computing tasks.

 They can be broadly categorized into five main groups:

 Input Devices,
 Output Devices,
 Processing Unit,
 Storage Devices, and
 Peripheral Devices.
Central Processing Unit
 Control Unit
•4 basic operations:
• Fetch – obtain a program instruction or data item from memory

• Decode - translate the instruction into commands

• Execute - carry out the command

• Store - write the result to memory

directs and coordinates most of the computer operations

 Memory is a device or unit that is used to store data and

instruction (programs).

 Memory is divided into a number of location called Memory

Blocks or Memory Cells.

 Every Block is capable of certain amount of information.

 Every memory cell has its own unique address and this address

is used to store and read information from memory.

MEMORY HIERARCHY
MU
CPU Speed
Registers Cost per byte
Storage Capacity

Cache

Primary
RAM, ROM

Secondary
Hard disks, CD, DVD,
Floppy
MEMORY HIERARCHY OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Memory Unit (MU):-

• These memory is also called internal processor memory.

• The memory unit is in the form of CPU register and some
internal cache memory.
 The computer systems have basically two types of memory.

 Primary Memory or Main Memory

 Secondary Memory or Auxiliary Memory or

Secondary Storage Device.

 TYPES OF PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary
Memory

RAM ROM

SRAM DRAM PROM EPROM EEPROM

 can write or read instructions or data as when required.

 any memory location can be accessed without going to any other memory

location.

 It is a volatile memory.

 They are very much faster than secondary memory.

 The size of RAM is normally measured in terms of Giga Byte (GB) (1 GB, 2

GB, 4GB etc.)

 RAM is further classified as:

 DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
 SRAM (Static RAM)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SRAM AND DRAM
 contents can be read as many time as required.

 a non-volatile memory.

 contains system information which is required to start up a computer

system.

 types of ROM:

 PROM (Programmable ROM)

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)

 are hardware components used to store data and software.

 vary in technology, capacity, and speed

Hard Drives (HDDs):

 Traditional storage devices that use spinning magnetic disks to read

and write data.

 They are affordable and available in large capacities but are slower

compared to SSDs.

 Ideal for storing large amounts of data like documents, media, and

backups.
Solid-State Drives (SSDs):
 Use flash memory with no moving parts, making

them faster, more durable, and energy-efficient.

 Provide quicker boot times, faster file transfers,

and improved overall system performance.

 They are more expensive per GB compared to

HDDs but offer better reliability and speed.

External Storage:
 Includes portable HDDs, SSDs, or USB drives that connect via

USB or other ports.

 Useful for backing up data, transferring files, and expanding

storage capacity without opening the computer.

 Offers flexibility and portability, making them ideal for on-

the-go data storage.

 Each type of storage device serves different needs, and users

often combine them for an optimal balance of speed, capacity,

and cost.
1. Keystroke Devices (e.g., Keyboards)
Working Principle:

 Each key on a keyboard is connected to a circuit.

 Pressing a key completes the circuit, sending a signal to the computer

that is interpreted as a specific character or function using a key matrix.

Applications:

 Text input in word processors, programming, and data entry.

 Command execution in gaming and software applications.

 Shortcut-based system control (e.g., CTRL+C for copy).

2. Touch Devices (e.g., Touchscreens)
Working Principle:

 Use capacitive, resistive, or infrared sensors to detect touch input.

 The touch location is calculated by measuring changes in electrical

signals or disruptions in a light grid.

 The device translates the touch into commands or gestures.

Applications:

 Mobile devices, tablets, and kiosks for intuitive user interaction.

 Point-of-sale systems in retail and restaurants.

 Interactive displays in education, healthcare, and gaming.

3. Voice-Controlled Devices (e.g., Smart Speakers)
Working Principle:
 Use microphones to capture voice input.

 Convert voice into digital signals through analog-to-digital conversion.

 Process the data with Natural Language Processing (NLP) to interpret commands

or queries.
 Use machine learning to improve recognition over time.

Applications:
 Hands-free operation in smart home devices (e.g., controlling lights, appliances).

 Voice assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa) for information retrieval and task automation.

 Accessibility tools for users with physical disabilities.

1. Game Controllers (e.g., Joysticks, Gamepads, VR Controllers)
Working Principle:
 Joysticks/Gamepads: Use sensors like potentiometers or capacitive touch to detect

movement, button presses, or tilt.

 VR Controllers: Combine accelerometers, gyroscopes, and sometimes infrared

tracking to detect orientation and movement in 3D space.

 Signals are transmitted to the computer or console, which interprets them as in-game

actions.
Applications:
 Gaming for controlling character movements, actions, and immersive experiences.

 Simulation training in aviation, automotive, and military scenarios.

 Virtual reality (VR) environments for enhanced interactivity.

2. Gesture-Control Devices
Working Principle:
 Utilize cameras, depth sensors, or infrared to

capture physical gestures.

 Sensors track hand or body movements and process them through

algorithms to recognize predefined gestures.

 The gestures are translated into commands or inputs for the system.

Applications: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TjgG0c94skg
 Touchless navigation in smart TVs, laptops, and AR/VR applications.

 Sign language interpretation tools.

 Interactive displays for presentations, retail, and museums.

3. Leap Motion for Touchless Interaction
Working Principle:
 Uses infrared LEDs and cameras to create a 3D

interaction space above the device.

 Tracks hand and finger movements in real-time with high precision.

 Software maps these movements to specific actions or commands.

Applications:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AgiEdoEnPT4
 3D modeling and design for artists and engineers.

 Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) for intuitive interaction.

 Medical imaging systems and robotic surgery for precise control.

 Gaming and educational platforms for engaging, hands-free interaction.

BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACE (BCI)
Working Principle:
 Signal Acquisition: BCIs capture electrical signals from the brain

using sensors like EEG (Electroencephalography) placed on the

scalp or implanted electrodes for more direct signal access.
 Signal Processing: The captured signals are amplified, filtered, and

translated into digital data. Advanced algorithms interpret the

patterns of neural activity.
 Command Execution: These interpreted signals are mapped to

specific commands, allowing the user to control devices or perform

actions without physical movement.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7t84lGE5TXA
 BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACE (BCI)
Applications:
 Healthcare and Rehabilitation:
 paralysis or motor disabilities to control prosthetics or wheelchairs.
 Helping stroke patients regain motor skills

 Assistive Technologies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nGznIPmZUhY

 severe speech impairments (e.g., ALS patients) through virtual keyboards or text-
to-speech systems.
 Gaming and Entertainment:
 gaming experiences controlled by thought alone.

 Research:
 Understanding brain function in neuroscience studies.

 Military and Aerospace:

 Enhancing pilot or soldier performance by reducing reaction time.

 Smart Environment Control:

 Operating smart home devices like lights, thermostats, or appliances
1. Smart Glasses

Working Principle:

 Smart glasses use micro-displays and optics to overlay digital

information onto the real world, creating an augmented reality (AR)

experience.

 Sensors (e.g., cameras, accelerometers, and gyroscopes) track the

user's surroundings and movements.

 Processors interpret data from sensors and provide real-time

information or controls through a heads-up display (HUD).

Applications:

 Navigation: Step-by-step directions displayed directly in the user’s

field of view.

 Workplace Productivity: Hands-free access to instructions, data, or

remote collaboration in industries like manufacturing and healthcare.

 Entertainment: AR gaming or immersive experiences blending

digital and physical environments.

 Accessibility: Assisting visually impaired users with object

recognition and navigation.

2. AR/VR Headsets (e.g., Oculus, HoloLens)

Working Principle:

 AR Headsets (e.g., HoloLens): Overlay digital objects onto the real world

using transparent displays, cameras, and depth sensors.

 VR Headsets (e.g., Oculus): Use stereoscopic displays and motion tracking

to fully immerse the user in a virtual environment, blocking out the physical
world.

Both types use motion sensors (accelerometers, gyroscopes) and sometimes

external trackers to monitor head and hand movements for interaction.
Applications:

 Gaming: Immersive experiences where users interact with virtual worlds or

augmented reality games.

 Training and Simulations: Safe, controlled environments for training in

healthcare, aviation, and military operations.

 Education: Virtual field trips or interactive learning experiences.

 Design and Visualization: Architectural walkthroughs or product design in

3D spaces.

 Remote Collaboration: Virtual meetings and shared AR spaces for real-time

interaction.
Working Principle:

 Sensors: Haptic gloves are equipped with motion sensors, accelerometers,

and sometimes optical trackers to capture hand and finger movements.

 Actuators: Small motors or other feedback mechanisms (e.g., pneumatic

systems) provide tactile sensations, simulating touch, pressure, or vibrations.

 Software Integration: The gloves communicate with VR systems, translating

virtual interactions (like grabbing an object) into corresponding physical

sensations. This creates a realistic sense of touch in the virtual environment.

Some gloves also include force feedback mechanisms to resist finger

movement, simulating the weight or texture of virtual objects.
Applications:

 Virtual Reality (VR):

 Enhancing immersion in gaming, training, and entertainment by allowing

users to feel and interact with virtual objects.

 Healthcare:

 Medical training simulations for procedures like surgery, where tactile

precision is essential.

 Robotics:

 Controlling robotic arms with precise feedback for tasks like remote

surgery or hazardous material handling.

Applications:
 Education and Training:
 Simulating realistic scenarios for learning, such as mechanical repairs or
scientific experimentation.
 Design and Prototyping:
 Testing virtual models of products with realistic touch and feedback,
speeding up the design process.
 Accessibility Tools:
 Assisting individuals with disabilities by providing enhanced sensory
input for interaction with digital or virtual interfaces.
 Haptic feedback gloves bridge the gap between virtual and physical
worlds, offering a transformative way to interact with digital environments.
Working Principle:

 Detection: Biosensors detect physiological signals,

such as heart rate, blood pressure, or glucose levels, using specialized sensors
(e.g., optical, electrochemical, or piezoelectric).

 Signal Processing: The captured signals are converted into electrical signals.

 Data Analysis: The signals are analyzed and interpreted by algorithms to

extract meaningful metrics like pulse rate or oxygen levels.

 Output: The processed data is displayed on connected devices (e.g., screens,

apps) for monitoring or analysis.

Applications:
 Healthcare and Fitness:
 Heart Rate Monitors: Used in wearable fitness devices like smartwatches
to track cardiovascular activity.
 Glucose Monitors: Used by diabetic patients for non-invasive or
minimally invasive glucose level tracking.
 Blood Pressure Monitors: Assist in managing hypertension.

 Sports and Athletics:

 Monitoring performance metrics like heart rate, oxygen levels, and
recovery times to optimize training.
 Clinical Diagnostics:
 Biosensors in medical devices (e.g., electrocardiograms or oximeters) for
continuous patient monitoring.
Applications:
 Remote Health Monitoring:
 IoT-connected biosensors enable healthcare
providers to monitor patients' health remotely.
 Research and Development:
 Measuring physiological responses in neuroscience, psychology, and
human-computer interaction studies.
 Smart Devices:
 Integration in wearable technology like smart rings and wristbands for
real-time health insights.
Biosensors play a crucial role in health monitoring and early detection of
medical conditions, enhancing both preventive and personalized healthcare.
1. Barcodes and QR Code Scanners

Working Principle:

 Barcodes: Use lasers or LED lights to scan the black-and-white lines

on barcodes. The pattern reflects light differently, which is

interpreted into numeric or alphanumeric data.

 QR Codes: A camera-based scanner captures the grid pattern, and

software decodes the information embedded in the code.

Barcodes and QR Code Scanners

Applications:

 Retail and inventory management for product identification and

tracking.

 Digital payments and ticketing using QR codes.

 Logistics and supply chain for shipment tracking.

2. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) Scanners

Working Principle:

 An RFID system consists of a tag (with a microchip and antenna) and

a reader.

 The reader emits radio waves, powering the tag, which then transmits

its stored data back to the reader.

 Works over short or long distances, depending on the system's

frequency.
2. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) Scanners

Applications:

 Contactless payment systems like credit cards or toll payments.

 Access control for secured areas (e.g., offices, parking).

 Asset tracking in warehouses and libraries.

 Healthcare for patient identification and equipment

tracking.
3. Biometric Scanners (Fingerprint, Iris Scanners)

Working Principle:

 Fingerprint Scanners: Use optical, capacitive, or ultrasonic

technology to capture unique ridge patterns of a fingerprint and

compare them with stored data.

 Iris Scanners: Capture a detailed image of the unique patterns in

the iris using infrared light, ensuring accurate identification.

Biometric Scanners (Fingerprint, Iris Scanners)

Applications:

 Security and access control in smartphones, buildings, and sensitive

facilities.

 Time and attendance systems in workplaces.

 Law enforcement for identity verification.

 Financial transactions for enhanced authentication.

These devices streamline data capture, enhance security, and improve

operational efficiency across industries.
Working Principle:

 A digitizer converts analog input (e.g., hand-drawn sketches or

handwriting) into digital data that a computer can process.

 Graphics Tablets and Stylus Input:

 The tablet has a grid of sensors that detect the position

and movement of the stylus or pen.

 Pressure-sensitive technology captures varying levels of force,

enabling dynamic line thickness or shading.

 Signals from the stylus are transmitted to the computer, where

specialized software interprets the input into digital artwork or text.

Applications:
 Digital Art and Design:
 Used by artists and designers for creating detailed illustrations, animations,
and 3D models.
 Popular in industries like graphic design, animation, and gaming.

 Education:
 Facilitates online teaching and note-taking with stylus-enabled devices.

 Interactive whiteboards allow teachers to draw or write directly on the display.

 Engineering and Architecture:

 Used for CAD (Computer-Aided Design) to create precise technical drawings
or blueprints.
 Medical Applications:
 Digitizing patient records, X-rays, and annotations on medical images.

 Signatures and Document Editing:

 Signing digital documents or annotating PDFs directly with a stylus.

 Virtual Collaboration:
 Enhancing real-time collaboration in virtual meetings or brainstorming
sessions.

Digitizers bridge the gap between traditional handwriting/drawing and

modern digital workflows, providing precision and efficiency.
Working Principle:
 Analog Microphones:
 Convert sound waves (vibrations in the air) into electrical signals using a
diaphragm that vibrates when sound hits it.
 The movement of the diaphragm generates a corresponding analog
electrical signal.
 Digital Microphones:
 Combine a microphone capsule with an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) to directly output a digital signal.
 The ADC converts the analog sound signal into digital
data for use in computers and other digital systems.
 Condenser Microphones:
 Use a thin, electrically charged diaphragm placed near a metal backplate.
 Vibrations caused by sound waves change the capacitance, producing an
electrical signal.
 Require external power (e.g., phantom power) to operate.
Applications:
 Voice Communication:
 Used in telephony, video conferencing, and voice-over-IP (VoIP)
applications like Zoom or Skype.

 Recording and Broadcasting:

 Essential for professional audio recording in studios, podcasts, and
live broadcasts.
 Used by musicians, streamers, and YouTubers.

 Speech Recognition and AI Assistants:

 Microphones capture voice input for virtual assistants like Siri,
Alexa, and Google Assistant.
 Public Address Systems:

 Used in events, presentations, and concerts for amplifying speech or music.

 Surveillance and Security:

 Integrated into security systems for audio monitoring.

 Education and E-Learning:

 Facilitate online teaching, lectures, and webinars.

Microphones are versatile input devices, enabling seamless communication,

content creation, and interaction with digital systems.
1. Smart Cards

Working Principle:

 A smart card contains an embedded microchip that can store and

process data.

 The card interacts with a reader through contact (via gold-plated

terminals) or contactless (via RFID/NFC) mechanisms.

 The microchip performs secure data exchanges, such as

authentication or encryption, ensuring data protection.

Applications:

 Banking: Secure transactions for ATMs and online banking.

 Identification: Employee ID cards, e-passports, and access control

systems.

 Healthcare: Storing patient records and insurance information.

 Public Transport: Ticketing and fare payment systems.

2. Debit/Credit Cards with NFC/RFID Technology

Working Principle:

 NFC (Near Field Communication): Allows cards to communicate

with readers over short distances (usually less than 4 cm).

 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification): Uses radio waves for

contactless communication between the card and the reader.

 The card reader generates a signal that powers the card’s chip to

transmit data wirelessly for authentication and payment processing.

2. Debit/Credit Cards with NFC/RFID Technology

Applications:

 Contactless Payments: Fast and secure payments at point-of-sale terminals.

 Access Control: Secure entry to restricted areas or facilities.

 Public Transport: Tap-and-go ticketing systems.

 Loyalty Programs: Integrated cards for rewards tracking and redemption.

These devices enhance convenience, security, and efficiency in financial

transactions, identification, and everyday services.
Working Principle:

 Audio Capture:

 A microphone captures the user’s voice and converts the sound

waves into an analog signal.

 Signal Processing:

 The analog signal is digitized using an analog-to-digital converter

(ADC).

 The system processes the digitized audio to filter noise and

identify key features such as pitch, tone, and phonemes.

 Speech-to-Text Conversion:

 Advanced algorithms, including Natural Language Processing

(NLP) and machine learning, analyze the audio to match it with

predefined patterns in a language model.

 The system translates spoken words into text or commands.

 Command Execution:

 If linked to a device or software, the system executes

corresponding actions, such as searching the web or controlling

devices.
Applications:
 Virtual Assistants:
 Devices like Siri, Alexa, and Google Assistant use speech
recognition for user queries and commands.
 Accessibility:
 Enables people with physical disabilities to control devices or type
using voice commands.
 Customer Support:
 Automated voice systems handle queries in call centers (e.g., IVR
systems).
 Education:
 Speech-to-text tools aid in language learning and transcription.
 Smart Devices:

 Controls smart home systems, such as adjusting lighting or temperature,

via voice commands.

 Healthcare:

 Facilitates hands-free record entry and transcription in medical settings.

 Navigation:

 Voice-controlled GPS systems for hands-free operation in vehicles.

Speech recognition devices enhance convenience, accessibility, and

automation in various domains.
1. Cameras
Working Principle:
 A camera captures light from a scene through a lens and focuses it on
a sensor (e.g., CMOS or CCD).
 The sensor converts the light into electrical signals, which are
processed into digital images or videos.
Applications:
 Photography and Videography: Capturing images and videos for
personal or professional use.
 Surveillance: Security cameras monitor activities in real-time.

 Augmented Reality (AR): Capturing real-world visuals

to overlay digital content.

 Machine Vision: Quality control in manufacturing.
2. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
Working Principle:
 LiDAR emits laser pulses and measures the time taken

 for the light to bounce back from an object.

 The data is used to create precise 3D maps of the surrounding environment.

Applications:
 Autonomous Vehicles: Detecting obstacles and navigating in real-time.

 Surveying: Creating detailed topographic maps.

 Archaeology: Mapping and discovering hidden structures.

 Gaming and AR/VR: Enhancing spatial awareness for immersive

experiences.
3. Infrared Sensors

Working Principle:

 Detect infrared radiation (heat) emitted by objects.

 Convert the radiation into an electrical signal,

which can be visualized or used for measurements.

Applications:

 Thermal Imaging: Night vision cameras and fire detection.

 Healthcare: Monitoring body temperature or detecting heat patterns.

 Industrial Use: Checking heat signatures for equipment maintenance.

 Gesture Recognition: Detecting hand movements in touchless systems.

4. Facial Recognition Systems
Working Principle:
 Cameras capture facial images, and software analyzes
features like the distance between eyes, nose shape, and jawline.
 The system compares these features with a stored database for
identification or authentication.
Applications:
 Security and Surveillance: Identifying individuals in public spaces or
restricted areas.
 Device Unlocking: Face ID on smartphones and computers.
 Marketing: Personalizing advertisements based on demographic analysis.
 Access Control: Securing workplaces or restricted facilities.
These vision-based devices enable advanced detection, interaction, and
automation across industries
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors
Working Principle:
 CRT monitors use an electron gun that shoots electrons onto a
phosphorescent screen, which is coated with phosphor material.
 The screen is divided into millions of small pixels, and when electrons hit the
phosphor coating, it emits light, creating an image.
 The electron gun scans across the screen in a pattern,
refreshing the image many times per second.
Applications:
 Older Television and Computer Displays: CRT monitors were the standard
for TVs and computer screens before the advent of flat-panel displays.
 Analog Signals: Used in some oscilloscopes and older devices for analog
signal processing.
2. LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitors
Working Principle:
 LED monitors use a matrix of light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
to produce light. Unlike traditional CRTs, they don't use electron guns.
 In most LED monitors, there is a backlight that shines through an LCD (liquid
crystal display) panel, which controls the passage of light to produce images.
 In OLED LED, each individual pixel emits light, allowing for a self-
illuminating display without the need for a backlight.
Applications:
 Flat-Screen Displays: Commonly used in TVs, computer monitors, and
mobile devices for its energy efficiency, slim profile, and high brightness.
 Digital Signage: Used in advertising displays and information boards.
 Gaming Monitors: Widely used for their fast refresh rates and high color
accuracy.
3. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) Monitors
Working Principle:
 OLED monitors use organic compounds that emit light when an electric current passes
through them.
 Unlike LED screens, OLED displays don’t need a backlight, as each individual pixel is
self-illuminating, allowing for deeper blacks and greater contrast ratios.
 OLED screens also provide more flexibility and can be made into curved or even
foldable displays.
Applications:
 Smartphones and Tablets: Used in high-end phones (e.g., iPhone, Samsung Galaxy)
due to their deep blacks, vibrant colors, and energy efficiency.
 Television: High-end TVs offering excellent picture quality and contrast.
 Wearables: Used in devices like smartwatches for better display performance and
battery life.
 Flexible Displays: OLED technology is being used in foldable phones and other
flexible screen devices.
Summary of Differences:
 CRT: Large, bulky, outdated technology, now largely replaced by more efficient
display types.
 LED: Slim, energy-efficient, and widely used in modern monitors and TVs.
Typically uses backlighting with an LCD panel.
 OLED: Offers superior contrast, faster response times, and no backlight,
making it ideal for high-end devices and displays with flexibility and color
accuracy.
These monitors are crucial components for visual output, with each technology
offering unique features suited to different needs and applications.
1. Inkjet Printers
Working Principle:
 Inkjet printers work by spraying tiny droplets of liquid ink onto the paper

through microscopic nozzles.

 The printhead moves back and forth across the paper, depositing ink in

precise patterns to form images or text.

Applications:
 Home and Office Printing: Used for printing high-quality color images,

photographs, and documents.

 Photo Printing: Preferred for printing photographs due to the ability to blend

colors smoothly.
2. Laser Printers
Working Principle:
 Laser printers use a laser beam to project an image of the
document onto a rotating drum coated with a photosensitive material.
 The laser creates an electrostatic pattern on the drum, which attracts toner
(powdered ink) to the paper, creating the text or image.
 The toner is then fused to the paper with heat and pressure.
Applications:
 High-Volume Printing: Ideal for office environments that require fast and
efficient monochrome (or color) document printing.
 Professional Documents: Used for printing high-quality text and graphics at a
high speed.
3. 3D Printers
Working Principle:
 3D printers create objects layer by layer from digital designs.
 They use materials such as plastic, metal, or resin, which are extruded
through a heated nozzle or cured with light to form solid layers.
 The object is built up in successive layers based on a 3D digital model.
Applications:
 Prototyping: Used in product development for creating physical
models of designs.
 Medical Devices: Producing custom prosthetics and implants.
 Manufacturing: For creating complex parts and models in industries
like aerospace and automotive.
1. DLP (Digital Light Processing) Projectors
Working Principle:
 DLP projectors use Digital Micromirror Devices (DMD) chips, which consist
of thousands or even millions of tiny mirrors.
 The mirrors tilt toward or away from the light source (such as a high-
intensity lamp or LED), reflecting light onto the screen.
 A color wheel or LEDs are used to generate color, with the projected image
being created by rapidly switching the mirrors to form the full image.
Applications:
 Home Theater Systems: Providing high-quality, bright images for movie
watching.
 Business Presentations: Used in conference rooms for clear, sharp
presentations.
 Cinema Projection: Often used in theaters for bright, high-definition
movie projections.
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Projectors
Working Principle:
 LCD projectors use three liquid crystal panels (one for each primary color:
red, green, and blue) that control the passage of light through the crystals.
 Light from a lamp or laser is passed through these panels, which modulate
the light and produce the image by varying the transparency of the liquid
crystals.
Applications:
 Education: Used in classrooms and lecture halls for presentations.

 Business: Projecting slides, videos, and digital content in corporate

meetings.
 Home Entertainment: Employed in some home theater setups for
watching movies or gaming.
1. Speakers
Working Principle:
 Speakers convert electrical audio signals into sound. They use a diaphragm
(usually made of paper, plastic, or metal) that vibrates when an electrical
signal is passed through a coil in a magnetic field.
 The movement of the diaphragm pushes and pulls air particles, producing
sound waves that we hear as audio.
 The size of the speaker and its components, like the woofer and tweeter, affect
the range of sound frequencies (bass and treble) it can produce.
Applications:
 Home Audio Systems: For music, movies, and TV audio.
 Public Address Systems: Amplifying sound in public venues such as schools,
stadiums, or concerts.
 Computers and Laptops: Built-in or external speakers for sound output in
multimedia applications.
2. Headphones
Working Principle:
 Headphones work similarly to speakers, but they are designed for personal
use. An audio signal is sent to small speakers inside the earcups.
 They use a magnet and coil system to create vibrations that produce sound,
directly transmitted into the ear canal.
 There are different types: wired, wireless (Bluetooth), over-ear, on-ear, and
in-ear, each designed for different use cases and comfort levels.
Applications:
 Personal Listening: For music, podcasts, gaming, and phone calls.
 Studio Monitoring: Used by audio professionals for accurate sound
reproduction in music and video production.
 Noise Cancelling: Some headphones use active noise cancellation (ANC) to
reduce ambient noise, making them ideal for travel or work in noisy
environments.
3. Surround Sound Systems
Working Principle:
 Surround sound systems use multiple speakers arranged around the listener
to create a three-dimensional audio experience.
 These systems use several speakers: front (left, center, right), rear (left and
right), and a subwoofer for bass sounds.
 Audio is processed and split into different channels (e.g., 5.1, 7.1) to simulate
realistic, immersive sound effects by surrounding the listener.
Applications:
 Home Theater Systems: For movie-watching, creating
an immersive cinematic audio experience.
 Gaming: Providing immersive soundscapes for a better
gaming experience with spatial awareness of sound.
 Audiophile Systems: High-end audio setups for those
seeking superior sound quality and depth.
1. Braille Readers
Working Principle:
 Braille readers are devices designed for individuals with visual
impairments to read text through tactile means.
 These devices consist of a set of small, movable pins arranged in a grid
that represents the Braille alphabet. The pins rise and fall to form Braille
characters when a signal is sent from a connected device (like a computer
or smartphone).
 The user feels these raised dots, which are combinations of six to eight
dots per character, representing letters, numbers, and punctuation in
Braille.
 Modern Braille readers may include a refreshable Braille display that
dynamically changes the character set as the text is updated.
Applications:
 Assistive Technology for Visually
Impaired Individuals: Enabling
people with blindness or low vision to
read documents, books, and electronic
content.
 Computers and Mobile Devices:
Used as an input/output interface for
users to interact with digital devices
through Braille.
 Education and Work: Tools to support
learning and accessibility in schools
and workplaces.
2. Haptic Feedback Systems
Working Principle:
 Haptic feedback systems provide tactile sensations to the user in response
to interactions with digital devices, simulating touch, texture, or force.
 The system uses actuators (vibration motors, piezoelectric devices, or
electrostatic displays) to generate physical sensations, such as vibration,
force, or texture.
 These sensations are used to convey information about interactions, such as
pressing a button, receiving a notification, or feeling the contours of a
virtual object.
 Haptic feedback is commonly integrated into touchscreens, game
controllers, VR/AR devices, and wearable devices.
Applications:
 Smartphones and Wearables: For vibrations in response to notifications or
user interactions.
 Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Providing immersive
tactile sensations to enhance user experience and interaction with virtual
environments.
 Gaming Controllers: Giving physical feedback during gameplay, such as
feeling vibrations from in-game actions or impacts.
 Assistive Technology: Providing users with sensory input, for example,
helping visually impaired individuals feel the presence or movement of
objects in virtual environments or on screens.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8yMOYr64HN4
 THANK YOU

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