Variables

● Variable Definition: A variable is a characteristic that can change or vary, and it

can have different values across individuals, groups, or institutions.
● Role in Research: Variables are crucial in research as they enable researchers to
convert abstract concepts into something measurable and useful for empirical
studies and hypothesis testing.

● Example 1: Gender as a Variable:

● Abstract Concept: Gender is an abstract idea representing being male or
female.
● Transformation: Researchers can assign numerical values (0 for male, 1 for
female) to turn "gender" into a variable.
● Impact Analysis: This variable allows researchers to study how gender
affects outcomes like income or health.

● Example 2: Social Class as a Variable:

● Abstract Concept: Social class represents socio-economic positions, such as

lower class, middle class, and upper class.
● Transformation: Researchers assign numerical values or categories to social
classes to create a variable.
● Research Utility: This variable is useful for studying how social class
influences various factors, such as education, employment, or health.

● Overall Purpose: Variables serve the purpose of making abstract concepts

measurable and applicable in research.
● Outcome Analysis: These variables, with specific values or categories, facilitate
researchers in conducting analyses and tests to better understand relationships and
patterns in their data.
● In summary, variables play a pivotal role in research by allowing researchers to
quantify and analyze abstract concepts, enabling a deeper understanding of how
various factors influence outcomes and behaviors.

Dependent and Independent Variable

Dependent Variable:

Definition: The dependent variable is the phenomenon that researchers aim to explain
or understand, and its changes are being observed.
Example: In the context of risky sexual behavior among young people, "unsafe sex
participation" is the dependent variable. Researchers want to understand why some
engage in risky sexual activities more than others.

Independent Variable (Explanatory Variable):

Definition: The independent variable is the factor that researchers believe influences
or explains changes in the dependent variable.
Example: In the same context, "low parental supervision" is the independent variable.
Researchers hypothesize that it plays a role in influencing the dependent variable,
"unsafe sex participation."

Role Reversal of Variables:

● The roles of dependent and independent variables can change based on the
research objective.
● For example, if researchers want to explain variation in risky sexual behavior,
then "risky sexual behavior" becomes the dependent variable, and "parental
supervision" is treated as the independent variable. If the goal is to understand
changes in parental supervision, then "parental supervision" becomes the
dependent variable, and various risk behaviors of the child become independent
variables.

Complexity of Social Phenomena:

● Social science research often involves considering multiple independent variables

to explain variations in one or more dependent variables.
● Multiple independent variables are introduced because one independent variable
usually explains only a portion of the changes observed in the dependent variable.

Example with Multiple Independent Variables:

● In the study of risky sexual behavior among young people, researchers consider
additional independent variables such as "age," "gender," "educational
attainment," "living in a distressed neighborhood," and "peer-group influence."
● These variables are introduced to provide a more comprehensive explanation for
variations in the dependent variable, "unsafe sex participation."

Equation Explanation:

● In research, we often use equations to show the relationship between these

variables:
● Y = f(X)
Here's what this equation means:
● Y is like the result or what we're trying to explain.
● X is like the reason or factor we believe influences Y.
● The "f" symbol means that X explains or predicts Y. When X changes, it leads to
changes in Y.

In summary, dependent variables are what researchers want to explain, while

independent variables are the factors believed to influence or explain the changes in
the dependent variable. Depending on the research question, these roles can be
reversed. Social phenomena are often complex, requiring the consideration of
multiple independent variables to provide a more complete understanding of the
dependent variable's variations.
Control Variables in Research
Purpose: Control variables are used in research to prevent spurious (misleading)
relationships between independent and dependent variables. They help ensure that the
observed relationships are genuine.

Spurious Relationships: Spurious relationships are observed connections between

two variables that can be explained by hidden factors not initially considered in the
research.

Example 1: Fire Damage and Firefighters:

● Initial Observation: More firefighters at a fire scene are associated with greater
fire damage.
● Hypothesis: Number of firefighters (independent) affects fire damage
(dependent).
● Issue: Firefighters aren't the direct cause of fire damage; it's the fire's size.
● Solution: Introduce "fire size" as a control variable to validate the relationship.

Example 2: Political Participation and Government Expenditures:

● Initial Observation: Political participation influences government expenditures.

● Hypothesis: Political participation (independent) affects government
expenditures (dependent).
● Issue: The relationship disappears when "economic development" is considered
as a control variable.
● Solution: "Economic development" affects both government expenditures and
political participation, revealing the true relationship.

Control Variables' Role: Control variables help researchers make sure that the
relationships they study are not misleading due to unconsidered factors. They validate
the relationships and establish causality more accurately in research.

In summary, control variables are like safeguards in research, ensuring that the
relationships we're studying are real and not influenced by other hidden factors. They
help us avoid drawing incorrect conclusions.
Continuous and Discrete Variables

Continuous Variables:

Definition: Continuous variables have no minimum-sized unit by nature. They lack

an inherent, clear internal division into precise units.
Examples: Length and time are classic examples of continuous variables.
Measurement: When measuring continuous variables, units are imposed using
instruments like rulers, clocks, or calendars.
Precision: Continuous variables can have infinite levels of precision, down to very
small divisions, conceptually.
No Subdivision Limit: These variables can be divided into smaller units without
limit, even if practical instruments may have their constraints.

Discrete Variables:

Definition: Discrete variables have a minimum-sized unit, and one unit can be clearly
distinguished from another.
Examples: The amount of money in a bank account (measured in cents) and the
number of children in a family are examples of discrete variables.
Minimum Unit: Discrete variables have a minimum-sized unit, such as one cent for
money or one child for family size.
Limited Subdivision: These variables cannot be subdivided further beyond the
defined minimum unit.

Research Implications:

● The nature of continuous and discrete variables directly impacts research

operations:
● Measurement Procedures: Researchers need to choose appropriate instruments
and units for measuring these variables.
● Data Analysis: Analysis methods differ for continuous and discrete variables due
to their nature.
● Statistical Inference: Researchers use specific statistical techniques based on the
type of variable to make accurate inferences and generalizations in their research.
In summary, whether a variable is continuous or discrete influences how it is
measured and analyzed in research, as well as the statistical methods used for drawing
meaningful conclusions.

Types of Variables
● Dependent variable: The variable the researcher is trying to explain.
● Independent variable: The variable that causes a change in the dependent
variable.
● Control variable: The variable used to test the possibility that the relation
between the dependent and independent variables is spurious—in other words,
that it can be explained only by the effect of another variable.
● Continuous variable: A variable that does not have a minimum-sized unit, such
as length.
● Discrete variable: A variable that does have a minimum-sized unit, such as the
number of children in a family.

Spurious relationships and non-spurious relationships differ in their nature and

significance in research:
● Spurious Relationships: These relationships occur when two variables appear to
be connected, but the connection is misleading. It's not due to a direct cause-and-
effect relationship but is influenced by a third, unaccounted-for variable. Spurious
relationships are often the result of confounding variables, leading to incorrect
conclusions and potentially misinforming decision-making.
● Non-Spurious Relationships: In contrast, non-spurious relationships are genuine
and direct connections between two variables. They reflect a real cause-and-effect
relationship, supported by rigorous research methods. Researchers seek non-
spurious relationships as they provide meaningful insights, contribute to
knowledge, and are valuable for understanding, prediction, and decision-making
in various fields.
● The key distinction is the presence or absence of a confounding variable that
creates misleading associations in spurious relationships. Researchers aim to
identify and eliminate spurious relationships to uncover true cause-and-effect
dynamics.

Levels of measurement:
Nominal Level of Measurement:

● At the nominal level of measurement, data is categorized into different groups or

categories based on specific characteristics. It is the simplest level of
measurement and is used for classification purposes. Here are the key points:
● Classification: Nominal data is used to classify objects or events into distinct
categories. These categories are exhaustive (they cover all possibilities) and
mutually exclusive (each item falls into only one category).
● Examples: Nominal variables include characteristics like gender (male, female),
nationality (e.g., American, Canadian, Indian), religious affiliation (Christian,
Jewish, Muslim), marital status (never married, married, widowed, divorced), and
political party affiliation (e.g., Democrat, Republican).
● Symbolic Representation: In nominal measurement, we use symbols or numbers
to represent categories. These numbers are arbitrary and can be assigned without
any specific quantitative meaning. For example, we might use 1 for male and 2
for female, but these numbers don't indicate that one gender is "higher" than the
other.
● Flexibility: The symbols or numbers used for classification can be changed as
long as the changes are consistent and complete. For instance, we could use
different numbers to represent religious affiliations, such as 272 for Christians,
498 for Jews, and 723 for Muslims, without affecting the data's meaning.
● In summary, at the nominal level, data is classified into categories, and the
numbers or symbols used are for identification and grouping purposes. These
numbers don't imply any quantitative ranking or order among the categories; they
are simply labels for different groups.
Examples:
● Gender (e.g., "male" and "female")
● Marital Status (e.g., "single," "married," "divorced," "widowed")
● Nationality (e.g., "American," "Canadian," "British")
● Religious Affiliation (e.g., "Christian," "Muslim," "Buddhist," "Hindu")
● Political Party Affiliation (e.g., "Democrat," "Republican," "Independent")
● Hair Color (e.g., "blonde," "brunette," "redhead," "black")
● Blood Type (e.g., "A," "B," "AB," "O")
● Types of Pets (e.g., "cat," "dog," "fish," "bird")
● College Majors (e.g., "Psychology," "Engineering," "History," "Biology")
● Vehicle Types (e.g., "sedan," "SUV," "truck," "motorcycle")

Ordinal level of measurement:

The ordinal level of measurement is more advanced than the nominal level and allows
for classification and ranking of objects or events based on their characteristics.
● Ordinal measurement classifies and ranks objects or events based on relations like
"greater than" or "less than."
● Examples of variables measured at the ordinal level include productivity,
socioeconomic status, democracy, intelligence, education, and motivation.
● Symbols such as ">" (greater than) and "<" (less than) are used to indicate these
ordinal relations.
● For example, we can rank countries by their level of democracy: Russia < France
< England.
● Properties of ordinal measurement include irreflexivity (a property can't be less or
greater than itself), asymmetry (if A is less than B, then B can't be less than A),
and transitivity (if A < B and B < C, then A < C).
● Self-rated health is often measured on an ordinal scale, ranging from, for
instance, 1 (very poor health) to 5 (excellent health).
● When ranking objects, researchers assign rank values based on the order of
properties.
● Ordinal numbers represent rank order but don't indicate the exact differences
between categories.
● Mathematical and statistical operations can be performed as long as they preserve
the order of properties being measured. For example, the median is a suitable
statistic for ordinal data as it's unaffected by changes in values above or below it,
provided the number of ranked observations remains the same.
In essence, ordinal measurement allows us to classify and rank objects based on
relations, but it doesn't provide information about the precise intervals between ranks.

the ordinal level of measurement is used for variables that can be ranked or ordered
but do not have consistent or meaningful intervals between categories. Here are some
examples:

Education Levels:
High School Diploma
Associate's Degree
Bachelor's Degree
Master's Degree
Doctorate Degree

Socioeconomic Status:
Lower Class
Working Class
Middle Class
Upper-Middle Class
Upper Class

Survey Responses:
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree

Customer Satisfaction:
Very Dissatisfied
Dissatisfied
Neutral
Satisfied
Very Satisfied

Job Performance Ratings:

Poor
Below Average
Average
Above Average
Excellent

Movie Ratings:
1 Star
2 Stars
3 Stars
4 Stars
5 Stars

Interval level of measurement:

The interval level of measurement is characterized by the following key features:

● Precise Distances: At the interval level, you can not only rank observations but
also measure the exact distance between them. This distance is constant and
meaningful. For example, if one person earns $5,000 more than another, you can
quantify this difference precisely.
● Common Unit of Measurement: Interval measurement requires a common and
constant unit of measurement. In other words, you need a consistent scale to
assign real numbers to the objects being measured.
● Ratio Independence: The ratios of differences between intervals are independent
of the chosen unit of measurement. This means that changing the measurement
unit doesn't affect the relative differences between values. For instance, a 2:3
ratio remains the same whether you use percentages or a different measurement
system.
● Arithmetic Operations: Interval measurement allows meaningful application of
various arithmetic operations to the differences between numbers assigned to
objects. You can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
operations on interval data.
● Formal Properties: Interval measurement adheres to formal properties, such as
uniqueness, symmetry, commutation, substitution, and association. These
properties ensure that any changes in the assigned numbers maintain the order
and relative differences among observations.
Variables measured at the interval level include income, IQ scores, SAT scores, voter
turnout percentages, and crime rates. Interval data are suitable for various descriptive
and inferential statistical analyses.

Ratio level of measurement:

The ratio level of measurement is characterized by the following key features:

● Absolute Zero Point: Variables measured at the ratio level have an absolute,
fixed natural zero point. This means there is a true zero, and values can be
quantified from this point. For example, weight, time, length, and area have such
zero points.
● Arithmetic Independence: Similar to the interval level, the ratio level maintains
the independence of ratios between values from the chosen unit of measurement.
Ratios remain consistent regardless of the measurement unit.
● Precision and Exact Measurement: The arithmetic operations and numbers are
applied to the total amount measured from the absolute zero point. This allows
for precise and exact measurements of differences.
● Four Key Relations: To achieve the ratio level of measurement, four critical
relations must be satisfied: equivalence, greater than, known distance of any two
intervals, and a true zero point.

Examples of variables measured at the ratio level in social science research might
include the length of time migrant workers stay at a single job site, the number of
community affiliations, or the number of occupations held by individuals at a certain
age. The precision of numerical measures in the ratio level enables powerful statistical
analyses.