MODULE III

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
 Connecting Smart Objects: Communication Criteria, IoT Access Technologies
IoT devices and sensors must be connected to the network for their data to be utilized. In addition to the wide
range of sensors, actuators, and smart objects that make up IoT, there are also a number of different protocols
used to connect them.
Two main sections divide this chapter. The first main section, “Communications Criteria,” describes the
characteristics and attributes when selecting and dealing with connecting smart objects. The various
technologies used for connecting sensors can differ greatly depending on the criteria used to analyze them. The
following subsections look closely at these criteria:
❑ Range: The importance of signal propagation and distance.
❑ Frequency Bands: This section describes licensed and unlicensed spectrum, including sub-GHz
frequencies. (The Licensed Electromagnetic Spectrum Is Used For Tightly Controlled Activities Like
Cellular Service And Radio Stations. Portions Of Unlicensed Spectrum, Used By Wi-fi, Are Free And
Open To The Public.)
❑ Power Consumption: This section discusses the considerations required for devices connected to a stable
power source compared to those that are battery powered.
❑ Topology: This section highlights the various layouts that may be supported for connecting multiple smart
objects.
❑ Constrained Devices: This section details the limitations of certain smart objects from a connectivity
perspective.
❑ Constrained-Node Networks: This section highlights the challenges that are often encountered with
networks connecting smart objects.
The second main section of this chapter, “IoT Access Technologies,” provides an in-depth look at some of the
technologies that are considered when connecting smart objects. Currently, the number of technologies connecting
smart objects is quite extensive, but with certain protocols eventually winning out over others in the various IoT
market segments. Other technologies are mentioned in context when applicable. The following subsections cover
technologies for connecting smart objects:

❑ IEEE 802.15.4: This section highlights IEEE 802.15.4, an older but foundational wireless protocol for
connecting smart objects.
❑ IEEE 802.15.4g and IEEE 802.15.4e: This section discusses improvements to 802.15.4 that are targeted to
utilities and smart cities deployments.
❑ IEEE 1901.2a: This section discusses IEEE 1901.2a, which is a technology for connecting smart objects over
power lines.
❑ IEEE 802.11ah: This section discusses IEEE 802.11ah, a technology built on the well-known 802.11 Wi-Fi
standards that is specifically for smart objects.
❑ LoRaWAN: This section discusses LoRaWAN, a scalable technology designed for longer distances with low
power requirements in the unlicensed spectrum.
❑ NB-IoT and Other LTE Variations: This section discusses NB-IoT and other LTE variations, which are often
the choice of mobile service providers looking to connect smart objects over longer distances in the licensed
spectrum.
 Communication Criteria
Wireless communication is prevalent in the world of smart object connectivity, mainly because it eases
deployment and allows smart objects to be mobile, changing location without losing connectivity.

Range
How far does the signal need to be propagated?
What will be the area of coverage for a selected wireless technology?
Should indoor versus outdoor deployments be differentiated? The simplest approach to answering these
types of questions is to categorize these technologies into the following ranges:
Short range: The classical wired example is a serial cable. Wireless short-range technologies are often
considered as an alternative to a serial cable, supporting tens of meters of maximum distance between two
devices.
Examples of short-range wireless technologies are IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.7 Visible
Light Communications (VLC). These short-range communication methods are found in only a minority of IoT
installations.

Medium range: This range is the main category of IoT access technologies. In the range of tens to hundreds
of meters, many specifications and implementations are available. The maximum distance is generally less
than 1 mile between two devices, although RF technologies do not have real maximum distances defined, as
long as the radio signal is transmitted and received in the scope of the applicable specification.
Examples of medium-range wireless technologies include IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4, and
802.15.4g WPAN.

Long range: Distances greater than 1 mile between two devices require long-range technologies. Wireless
examples are cellular (2G, 3G, 4G) and some applications of outdoor IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi and Low-Power
Wide-Area (LPWA) technologies. LPWA communications have the ability to communicate over a large
area without consuming much power. These technologies are therefore ideal for battery-powered IoT
sensors. (LPWA and the other examples just mentioned are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.)
Found mainly in industrial networks, IEEE 802.3 over optical fiber and IEEE 1901 Broadband Power Line
Communications are classified as long range but are not really considered IoT access technologies.
 Frequency Bands
Radio spectrum is regulated by countries and/or organizations, such as the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). These groups define the regulations and
transmission requirements for various frequency bands. For example, portions of the spectrum are allocated to
types of telecommunications such as radio, television, military, and so on.

Focusing on IoT access technologies, the frequency bands leveraged by wireless communications are split
between licensed and unlicensed bands. Licensed spectrum is generally applicable to IoT long-range access
technologies and allocated to communications infrastructures deployed by services providers, public
services (for example, first responders, military), broadcasters, and utilities. Examples of licensed spectrum
commonly used for IoT access are cellular, WiMAX, and Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT) technologies.

Exceptions exist in the licensed spectrum. For example, the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
(DECT) wireless technology operates in licensed bands centered on 1.9 GHz, but no royalty fees apply. Therefore,
DECT Ultra Low Energy (ULE) is defined as an IoT wireless communication standard in the licensed spectrum,
but it does not require a service provider.
The ITU has also defined unlicensed spectrum for the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) portions of the
radio bands. These frequencies are used in many communications technologies for short-range devices (SRDs).
Unlicensed means that no guarantees or protections are offered in the ISM bands for device communications.
For IoT access, these are the most well-known ISM bands:

❑ 2.4 GHz band as used by IEEE 802.11b/g/n Wi-Fi

❑ IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth (The low range of IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth limits its usefulness in most IoT

deployments.)

❑ IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN

An unlicensed band, such as those in the ISM range of frequencies, is not unregulated. National and regional
regulations exist for each of the allocated frequency bands (much as with the licensed bands). These regulations
mandate device compliance on parameters such as transmit power, duty cycle and dwell time, channel
bandwidth, and channel hopping.

Unlicensed spectrum is usually simpler to deploy than licensed because it does not require a service provider.
However, it can suffer from more interference because other devices may be competing for the same frequency
in a specific area. This becomes a key element in decisions for IoT deployments.
The frequency of transmission directly impacts how a signal propagates and its practical maximum range.
Either for indoor or outdoor deployments, the sub-GHz frequency bands allow greater distances
between devices. These bands have a better ability than the 2.4 GHz ISM band to penetrate building
infrastructures or go around obstacles, while keeping the transmit power within regulation.

The disadvantage of sub-GHz frequency bands is their lower rate of data delivery compared to higher
frequencies. However, most IoT sensors do not need to send data at high rates. Therefore, the lower
transmission speeds of sub-GHz technologies are usually not a concern for IoT sensor deployments.

However, most IoT access technologies tend to focus on the two sub-GHz frequency regions around 868
MHz and 915 MHz.
 Power Consumption
❑ IoT device is very broad, there is a clear delineation between powered nodes and battery-powered nodes. A powered
node has a direct connection to a power source, and communications are usually not limited by power consumption criteria.
However, ease of deployment of powered nodes is limited by the availability of a power source, which makes mobility
more complex.
❑ Battery-powered nodes bring much more flexibility to IoT devices. These nodes are often classified by the required
lifetimes of their batteries. Their batteries can be changed or the devices replaced when a street gets resurfaced. For devices
under regular maintenance, a battery life of 2 to 3 years is an option.

❑ IoT wireless access technologies must address the needs of low power consumption and connectivity for battery-powered
nodes. This has led to the evolution of a new wireless environment known as Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA).

❑ Wired IoT access technologies consisting of powered nodes are not exempt from power optimization. In the case of
deployment of smart meters over PLC, the radio interface on meters can’t consume 5 to 10 watts of power, or this will add
up to a 20-million-meter deployment consuming 100 to 200 megawatts of energy for communications.
 Topology

Among the access technologies available for

connecting IoT devices, three main topology
schemes are dominant: star, mesh, and peer-to-
peer.

For long-range and short-range technologies, a

star topology is prevalent, as seen with cellular,
LPWA, and Bluetooth networks.

Star topologies utilize a single central base station

or controller to allow communications with
endpoints.

Fig. Star, Peer-to-Peer, and Mesh Topologies

❑ For medium-range technologies, a star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topology is common.
❑ Peer-to-peer topologies allow any device to communicate with any other device as long as they are in
range of each other. Obviously, peer-to-peer topologies rely on multiple full-function devices. Peer-to-
peer topologies enable more complex formations, such as a mesh networking topology.

❑ For example, indoor Wi-Fi deployments are mostly a set of nodes forming a star topology around their
access points (APs).
❑ Meanwhile, outdoor Wi-Fi may consist of a mesh topology for the backbone of APs, with nodes
connecting to the APs in a star topology.
❑ A mesh topology helps cope with low transmit power, searching to reach a greater overall distance, and
coverage by having intermediate nodes relaying traffic for other nodes.
❑ A node that doesn’t interconnect or relay the traffic of other nodes is known as a leaf node, or reduced-
function device (RFD).
❑ While well adapted to powered nodes, mesh topology requires a properly optimized implementation for
battery-powered nodes. Battery-powered nodes are often placed in a “sleep mode” to preserve battery
life when not transmitting.
 IoT Access Technologies

Familiarization of the following topics are addressed for each IoT access technology:
1. Standardization and alliances: The standards bodies that maintain the protocols for a technology
2. Physical layer: The wired or wireless methods and relevant frequencies
3. MAC layer: Considerations at the Media Access Control (MAC) layer, which bridges the physical layer with
data link control
4. Topology: The topologies supported by the technology
5. Security: Security aspects of the technology
6. Competitive technologies: Other technologies that are similar and may be suitable alternatives to the given
technology
 IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4 is a wireless access technology for low-cost and low-data-rate devices that are powered or run on
batteries. In addition to being low cost and offering a reasonable battery life, this access technology enables easy
installation using a compact protocol stack while remaining both simple and flexible.
IEEE 802.15.4 is commonly found in the following types of deployments:
❑ Home and building automation
❑ Automotive networks
❑ Industrial wireless sensor networks
❑ Interactive toys and remote controls

Criticisms of IEEE 802.15.4 often focus on its MAC reliability, unbounded latency, and susceptibility to
interference and multipath fading (lacks a frequency-hopping technique).

Standardization and Alliances

the IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers are the foundations for several networking
protocol stacks. These protocol stacks make use of 802.15.4 at the physical and link layer
levels, but the upper layers are different. These protocol stacks are promoted separately
through various organizations and often commercialized.
 Table: Protocol Stacks Utilizing IEEE 802.15.4
Protocols Description
ZigBee ZigBee defines upper-layer components (network through application) as
well as application profiles. Common profiles include building automation,
home automation, and healthcare. ZigBee also defines device object
functions, such as device role, device discovery, network join, and security.
6LoWPAN 6LoWPAN is an IPv6 adaptation layer defined by the IETF 6LoWPAN
working group that describes how to transport IPv6 packets over IEEE
802.15.4 layers.
ZigBee IP An evolution of the ZigBee protocol stack, ZigBee IP adopts the 6LoWPAN
adaptation layer, IPv6 network layer, and RPL routing protocol. In addition,
it offers improvements to IP security.
Wireless HART Wireless HART, promoted by the HART Communication Foundation, is a
protocol stack that offers a time-synchronized, self-organizing, and self-
healing mesh architecture, leveraging IEEE 802.15.4-2006 over the 2.4 GHz
frequency band.
Thread Constructed on top of IETF 6LoWPAN/IPv6, Thread is a protocol stack for
a secure and reliable mesh network to connect and control products in the
home.
 ZigBee
❑ Zigbee is a standards-based wireless technology developed to enable low-cost, low-power wireless machine-
to-machine (M2M) and internet of things (IoT) networks.
❑ Zigbee is for low-data rate, low-power applications and is an open standard. ZigBee solutions are aimed at
smart objects and sensors that have low bandwidth and low power needs.
❑ The main areas where ZigBee is the most well-known include automation for commercial, retail, and home
applications and smart energy.
❑ In the industrial and commercial automation space, ZigBee-based devices can handle various functions,
from measuring temperature and humidity to tracking assets.
❑ For home automation, ZigBee can control lighting, thermostats, and security functions.
❑ ZigBee Smart Energy brings together a variety of interoperable products, such as smart meters, that can
monitor and control the use and delivery of utilities, such as electricity and water.
❑ These ZigBee products are controlled by the utility provider and can help coordinate usage between homes
and businesses and the utility provider itself to provide more efficient operations.
 ❑ The ZigBee network and security layer provides
mechanisms for network startup, con figuration,
routing, and securing communications.
❑ This includes calculating routing paths in what is often
a changing topology, discovering neighbors, and
managing the routing tables as devices join for the first
time.
❑ The network layer is also responsible for forming the
appropriate topology, which is often a mesh but could
be a star or tree as well.
Fig. High-Level ZigBee Protocol Stack
❑ The application support layer in Fig. interfaces the
lower portion of the stack dealing with the networking
of ZigBee devices with the higher-layer applications.
❑ ZigBee predefines many application profiles for
certain industries, and vendors can optionally create
their own custom ones at this layer.
❑ Home Automation and Smart Energy are two examples
of popular application profiles.
 Physical Layer
The 802.15.4 standard supports an extensive number of PHY options that range from 2.4 GHz to sub-GHz
frequencies in ISM bands.
The original IEEE 802.15.4-2003 standard specified only three PHY options based on direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) modulation.
DSSS is a modulation technique in which a signal is intentionally spread in the frequency domain, resulting in
greater bandwidth. The original physical layer transmission options were as follows:
1. 2.4 GHz, 16 channels, with a data rate of 250 kbps
2. 915 MHz, 10 channels, with a data rate of 40 kbps
3. 868 MHz, 1 channel, with a data rate of 20 kbps
IEEE 802.15.4-2006, 802.15.4-2011, and IEEE 802.15.4-2015 introduced additional PHY communication
options, including the following:
1. OQPSK PHY: This is DSSS PHY, employing offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) modulation.
OQPSK is a modulation technique that uses four unique bit values that are signaled by phase changes. An
offset function that is present during phase shifts allows data to be transmitted more reliably.
2. BPSK PHY: This is DSSS PHY, employing binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation. BPSK specifies
two unique phase shifts as its data encoding scheme.
3. ASK PHY: This is parallel sequence spread spectrum (PSSS) PHY, employing amplitude shift keying
(ASK) and BPSK modulation. PSSS is an advanced encoding scheme that offers increased range,
throughput, data rates, and signal integrity compared to DSSS. ASK uses amplitude shifts instead of phase
shifts to signal different bit values.
 1. The synchronization header for this frame is
composed of the Preamble and the Start of
Frame Delimiter fields.
2. The Preamble field is a 32-bit 4-byte (for
parallel construction) pattern that identifies
the start of the frame and is used to
synchronize the data transmission.
3. The Start of Frame Delimiter field informs
the receiver that frame contents start
immediately after this byte.
4. The PHY Header portion of the PHY frame
shown in Fig. is simply a frame length
value. It lets the receiver know how much
total data to expect in the PHY service data
Fig. IEEE 802.15.4 PHY Format unit (PSDU) portion of the 802.4.15 PHY.
5. The PSDU is the data field or payload.
 MAC Layer
The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer manages access to the PHY channel by defining how devices in the same area will
share the frequencies allocated. At this layer, the scheduling and routing of data frames are also coordinated. The
802.15.4 MAC layer performs the following tasks:
❑ Network beaconing for devices acting as coordinators (New devices use beacons to join an 802.15.4
network)
❑ PAN association and disassociation by a device
❑ Device security
❑ Reliable link communications between two peer MAC entities

The MAC layer achieves these tasks by using various predefined frame types. In fact, four types of MAC frames
are specified in 802.15.4:
❑ Data frame: Handles all transfers of data
❑ Beacon frame: Used in the transmission of beacons from a PAN coordinator
❑ Acknowledgement frame: Confirms the successful reception of a frame
❑ MAC command frame: Responsible for control communication between devices
 Fig. IEEE 802.15.4 MAC Format

The 802.15.4 MAC frame can be broken down into the MAC Header, MAC Payload, and MAC Footer fields.
 MAC Frame MAC Header
1. Frame Control (2B): This field specifies the type of 1. Frame Control, Sequence Number, and Addressing Fields:
frame, including whether it's a data, beacon, or These fields are part of the MAC header, which provides
acknowledgment frame. It also indicates the frame's information about the frame's structure and addresses.
addressing mode and security options. MAC Payload
2. Sequence Number (1B): This field is used for frame 1. Frame Payload: This is the data content of the frame.
sequencing and retransmission purposes. It increments 2. MAC Footer
for each transmitted frame within a super frame. 3. FCS: This field is part of the MAC footer and is used for error
3. Addressing Fields (Variable): This section contains the detection.
destination and source addresses. The exact length of PHY Frame
this field depends on the addressing mode specified in 1. Preamble (6B): This field consists of a sequence of alternating 1s
the Frame Control field. It can include PAN identifiers and 0s used for synchronization between the transmitter and
(16-bit) and device addresses (64-bit or 16-bit). receiver.
4. Frame Payload (Variable): This field contains the 2. Start of Frame Delimiter (SFD) (1B): This field marks the
actual data being transmitted. The maximum payload beginning of the frame.
size is 127 bytes. 3. Frame Length (1B): This field specifies the length of the PHY
5. Frame Check Sequence (FCS) (2B): This field is a Service Data Unit (PSDU), which includes the MAC frame and any
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) used for error detection. additional PHY-specific information.
It ensures the integrity of the received data. 4. PHY Service Data Unit (PSDU) (0-127B): This field contains the
MAC frame and any additional PHY-specific information, such as
header, footer, or padding.
❑ The MAC Header field is composed of the Frame Control, Sequence Number and the Addressing fields.

❑ The Frame Control field defines attributes such as frame type, addressing modes, and other control flags.

❑ The Sequence Number field indicates the sequence identifier for the frame.

❑ The Addressing field specifies the Source and Destination PAN Identifier fields as well as the Source and
Destination Address fields.

❑ The MAC Payload field varies by individual frame type.

❑ For example, beacon frames have specific fields and payloads related to beacons, while MAC command frames have
different fields present.

❑ The MAC Footer field is nothing more than a frame check sequence (FCS). An FCS is a calculation based on the
data in the frame that is used by the receiving side to confirm the integrity of the data in the frame.

IEEE 802.15.4 requires all devices to support a unique 64-bit extended MAC address, based on EUI-64. However, because
the maximum payload is 127 bytes, 802.15.4 also defines how a 16-bit “short address” is assigned to devices. This short
address is local to the PAN and substantially reduces the frame overhead compared to a 64-bit extended MAC address.
However, you should be aware that the use of this short address might be limited to specific upper-layer protocol stacks.
 Topology
❑ IEEE 802.15.4–based networks can be built as star, peer-to-
peer, or mesh topologies.
❑ Mesh networks tie together many nodes. This allows nodes
that would be out of range if trying to communicate directly
to leverage intermediary nodes to transfer communications.
❑ Every 802.15.4 PAN should be set up with a unique ID.
All the nodes in the same 802.15.4 network should use the
same PAN ID.
❑ Fig. shows an example of an 802.15.4 mesh network with a
PAN ID of 1. Fig. 802.15.4 Sample Mesh Network
❑ Full-function devices (FFDs) and reduced-function devices Topology
(RFDs) are defined in IEEE 802.15.4.
❑ A minimum of one FFD acting as a PAN coordinator is
required to deliver services that allow other devices to
associate and form a cell or PAN.
❑ In Fig. a single PAN coordinator is identified for PAN ID 1.
❑ FFD devices can communicate with any other devices,
whereas RFD devices can communicate only with FFD
devices.
 Security

Fig. Frame Format with the Auxiliary Security Header Field for 802.15.4-2006 and Later Versions
1. AES Encryption: IEEE 802.15.4 uses Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a 128-bit key length for data
security.
2. Block Cipher: AES is a block cipher, meaning it works on fixed-size data blocks.
3. Symmetric Key Cryptography: AES uses the same key for both encryption and decryption (symmetric key).
4. Widespread Adoption: AES, established by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology in 2001, is widely
used by the US government and the private sector.
5. Data Validation: AES in 802.15.4 also validates data via a Message Integrity Code (MIC), calculated using the same
AES key.
6. Security Enabled Field: The Security Enabled field in the Frame Control portion of the 802.15.4 header enables AES
encryption when set to 1.
7. Frame Format Changes: Enabling security modifies the frame format by adding an Auxiliary Security Header,
reducing the payload size.
How encryption and security features are integrated into the Media Access Control (MAC) frame.
Frame Components:
1.Frame Control (2 Bytes): This segment includes essential control settings for the frame, such as the frame type and
acknowledgement request settings. It also includes the Security Enabled bit, which, when set to 1, indicates that the frame will be
secured using encryption.
2.Sequence Number (1 Byte): Used to keep track of frame order and ensure data integrity across transmission.
3.Addressing Fields (4 - 20 Bytes):
1. Destination PAN Identifier and Destination Address: These fields identify the destination's network and device
address.
2. Source PAN Identifier and Source Address: These identify the source network and device address.
4.Auxiliary Security Header (Variable Size): Added to the MAC frame when the Security Enabled bit is set. This header
manages encryption settings, such as key identifiers and nonce values, necessary for securing the frame.
5.Frame Payload (Variable): The actual data being transmitted. The size of the payload can be affected by the inclusion of the
Auxiliary Security Header, which reduces the available space for data.
6.Frame Check Sequence (2 Bytes): A checksum field used for error detection to ensure the integrity of the frame during
transmission.
 MAC Payload and MAC Footer:
1. The MAC Payload includes the addressing fields, Auxiliary Security Header, and Frame Payload. The entire payload is
subject to encryption when security is enabled.
2. The MAC Footer contains the Frame Check Sequence, providing error detection functionality.
Security Features:
1. Encryption: The presence of the Auxiliary Security Header indicates that the frame payload is encrypted using the AES
algorithm with a 128-bit key.
2. Data Integrity and Authentication: The encryption process also involves the calculation of a Message Integrity Code
(MIC) using the same AES key, ensuring that the data has not been tampered with in transit.

Practical Example
If you use an AES encryption tool or software:
1. Input: "Hello, World!"
2. Key: A 128-bit key (for example, a random sequence like "09af30f2eff07429128a20f1abcd1234").
3. Output: Ciphertext (a sequence of bytes, which may be represented in hexadecimal).
 Competitive Technologies

❑ The IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers form the foundation for several IoT networking profiles, with vendors

building upper-layer protocols on top of this core to differentiate their offerings.

❑ In contrast, DASH7, based on the ISO18000-7 standard, is a competitive radio technology designed for industrial

communications and active RFID, with a focus on logistics.

❑ DASH7 offers low power consumption, a compact stack, long range (up to 1 mile), AES encryption, and operates at

frequencies of 433 MHz, 868 MHz, and 915 MHz with data rates up to 166.667 kbps and a 256-byte maximum

payload.
 LoRaWAN
LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) is a protocol for wide-area networks designed to allow low-powered
devices to communicate with Internet-connected applications over long range wireless connections. It is primarily used
for connecting low-power Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
Key Characteristics of LoRaWAN
1. Long Range: Capable of covering distances up to 15 km under ideal conditions.
2. Low Power: Designed for battery-operated devices with long lifespans.
3. Secure: Multiple layers of encryption for network, application, and device-level security.
4. Bi-directional Communication: Supports both uplink and downlink transmissions.
5. Adaptive Data Rate: Optimizes data rates, airtime, and energy consumption based on network conditions.
6. Scalability: Designed to support millions of devices over large areas with minimal infrastructure.
Applications:
1. Smart cities: Monitoring traffic, pollution, and infrastructure.
2. Agriculture: Tracking livestock, monitoring crops, and optimizing irrigation.
3. Asset tracking: Locating valuable items like containers, equipment, and vehicles.
4. Environmental monitoring: Measuring temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors.
Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) technologies have garnered significant interest in recent years for their suitability in long-
range and battery-powered IoT applications. They offer new business opportunities for service providers and enterprises
exploring IoT solutions.
LoRaWAN, an example of an unlicensed-band LPWA technology, is discussed for its applicability in these scenarios. The
following section will cover licensed-band alternatives, such as NB-IoT and other LTE variations, which are standardized by
the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).

Standardization and Alliances

❑ LoRa started as a long-range communication technology (Layer 1) by Cycleo (now Semtech). LoRa Alliance was
formed to create a wider network protocol (LoRaWAN) on top of LoRa. LoRaWAN specifications are open and
widely supported by various chipset vendors. LoRa refers to the physical layer, while LoRaWAN refers to the entire
network architecture and communication protocols.
❑ Overall, the LoRa Alliance owns and manages the roadmap and technical development of the LoRaWAN
architecture and protocol. This alliance also handles the LoRaWAN endpoint certification program and technology
promotion through its certification and marketing committees.
 the LoRaWAN protocol stack, which consists of several layers. Let's
discuss each block in detail:
Applications:
1. This layer represents the various applications that can be built on
top of LoRaWAN. Some common applications include smart city
monitoring, asset tracking, and environmental sensing.

Popular application protocols used with LoRaWAN include:

• CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol): A lightweight
protocol designed for resource-constrained devices.
• MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport): A publish-
subscribe messaging protocol suitable for IoT applications.
Fig. LoRaWAN Layers
• IPv6/6LoWPAN: A version of IPv6 specifically designed for
low-power, wireless networks.
• Raw: A generic data format that allows for custom protocols.
• Others: There may be other application protocols or custom
implementations depending on specific use cases.
 LoRa Alliance: Semtech:
1. This layer represents the LoRa Alliance, a non-profit 1. This layer represents Semtech, the company that
organization that promotes the adoption of developed the LoRa PHY modulation technology.
Semtech provides chipsets and modules that
LoRaWAN. The LoRa Alliance develops and
implement the LoRa PHY.
maintains the LoRaWAN standards and specifications. LoRa PHY Modulation:
LoRaWAN MAC: 1. The LoRa PHY (Physical Layer) modulation layer is
1. The LoRaWAN MAC (Medium Access Control) layer responsible for encoding and decoding the data
is responsible for managing access to the wireless transmitted over the wireless channel. LoRa uses a
channel and ensuring efficient communication proprietary modulation technique that is optimized
between devices. It handles tasks such as: for long-range, low-power communication
1. Channel hopping: Switching between different Key features of LoRa PHY modulation include:
1. Chirp spread spectrum: A modulation technique
frequencies to avoid interference.
that spreads the signal over a wide frequency range
2. Slotted ALOHA: A random access protocol that to improve resistance to interference.
helps to minimize collisions. 2. Adaptive data rate: The ability to adjust the data
3. Data rate adaptation: Adjusting the data rate rate based on signal conditions.
based on signal conditions. 3. Adaptive coding rate: The ability to adjust the error
4. Class A, B, and C: Different operating modes correction coding rate based on signal conditions.
for different types of devices and traffic patterns.
 LoRa Alliance:
1. This layer represents the LoRa Alliance, which defines the regional frequency bands for LoRaWAN
deployments.
2. Common LoRaWAN frequency bands include:
1. 868 MHz: Europe
2. 915 MHz: North America
3. Other regional bands: LoRaWAN is available in various other frequency bands around the world,
depending on local regulations.
 RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)
RFID is an acronym for “radio‐frequency identification”. Data digitally encoded in RFID tags,
which can be read by a reader. Somewhat similar to barcodes. Data read from tags are stored
in a database by the reader. As compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes, RFID tag. Data
can be read outside the line‐of‐sight.

RFID Features

❑ RFID tag consists of an integrated circuit and an antenna.

❑ The tag is covered by a protective material which also acts as a shield against various
environmental effects.
❑ Tags may be passive or active.
❑ Passive RFID tags are the most widely used.
❑ Passive tags have to be powered by a reader inductively before they can transmit
information, whereas active tags have their own power supply.
Working Principle
❑ Derived from Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC) technology.
❑ AIDC performs object identification, object data collection and mapping of the collected
data to computer systems with little or no human intervention.
❑ AIDC uses wired communication.
❑ RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC functions.
❑ The main components of an RFID system include an RFID tag or smart label, an RFID
reader, and an antenna.
Applications
❑ Inventory management
❑ Asset tracking
❑ Personnel tracking
❑ Controlling access to restricted areas
❑ ID badging
❑ Supply chain management
❑ Counterfeit prevention (e.g. in the pharmaceutical industry)
 WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS (WSN)

❑ Consists of a large number of sensor nodes, densely deployed over an area.

❑ Sensor nodes are capable of collaborating with one another and measuring the condition of
their surrounding environments (i.e. Light, temperature, sound, vibration).
❑ The sensed measurements are then transformed into digital signals and processed to reveal
some properties of the phenomena around sensors.
❑ Due to the fact that the sensor nodes in WSNs have short radio transmission range,
intermediate nodes act as relay nodes to transmit data towards the sink node using a
multi‐hop path.
 Location finding
Sensing unit
unit
Transceiver ADC
Processor
Storage
Power

Basic Components of a Sensor Node

Multi-hop Path in WSNs

 Sensor Nodes
❑ Multifunctional: The number of sensor nodes used
depends on the application type.
❑ Short transmission ranges
❑ Battery Powered – Have limited life.

Constraints on Sensor Nodes

❑ Small size, typically less than a cubic cm.

❑ Must consume extremely low power
❑ Operate in an unattended manner in a highly dense area.
❑ Should have low production cost and be dispensable
❑ Be autonomous
❑ Be adaptive to the environment
Single Source Single Object Detection Single Source Multiple Object Detection
Multiple Source Single Object Detection Multiple Source Multiple Object Detection
 Common challenges

Scalability : Providing acceptable levels of service in the presence of large number of nodes.
Typically, throughput decreases at a rate of , N = number of nodes.
Quality of service: Offering guarantees in terms of bandwidth, delay, jitter, packet loss
probability. Limited bandwidth, unpredictable changes in RF channel characteristics.
Energy efficiency :Nodes have limited battery power. Nodes need to cooperate with other
nodes for relaying their information.
Security: Open medium. Nodes prone to malicious attacks, infiltration, eavesdropping,
interference.
Sensor Web
 Cooperation in Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks

❑ Nodes communicate with other nodes with the help of intermediate nodes.
❑ The intermediate nodes act as relays. Wireless nodes are energy-constrained. Nodes may
or may not cooperate.
❑ Two extremities: Total cooperation: if all relay requests are accepted, nodes will quickly
exhaust limited energy. Total non-cooperation: if no relay requests are accepted, the
network throughput will go down rapidly.
❑ Issues: Selfishness, self-interests, etc. Tradeoff: individual node’s lifetime vs. Throughput.
Types of Node Behaviour
❑ Normal nodes work perfectly in ideal environmental conditions.

❑ Failed nodes are simply those unable to perform an operation; this could be because power failure and

environmental events.

❑ Badly failed nodes exhibit features of failed nodes but they can also send false routing messages which are

a threat to the integrity of the network.

❑ Selfish nodes are typified by their unwillingness to cooperate, as the protocol requires whenever there is a

personal cost involved. Packet dropping is the main attack by selfish nodes.

❑ Malicious nodes aim to deliberately disrupt the correct operation of the routing protocol, denying network

service if possible.
 Bluetooth

❑ Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range communications technology.

❑ Intended for replacing cables connecting portable units.
❑ Maintains high levels of security.
❑ Bluetooth technology is based on Ad‐hoc technology also known as Ad‐hoc Piconets.
❑ Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)
band at 2.4 to 2.485 GHZ.
❑ Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and 3Mbps data rate for Version 2.0
combined with Error Data Rate.
 Features
Bluetooth operating range depends on the device:
• Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 meter or 3 feet.
• Class 2 radios are most commonly found in mobile devices have a range of 10 meters or 30 feet.
• Class 1 radios are used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of 100 meters or 300 feet.
 Connection Establishment
Inquiry Inquiry run by one Bluetooth device to try to discover other devices near it.
Paging Process of forming a connection between two Bluetooth devices.
A device either actively participates
Connection
in the network or enters a low‐power sleep mode.
Modes
ACTIVE SNIFF HOLD PARK
Actively transmit Sleeps and only Power‐saving mode Slave will become in
ting or receiving listens for where a device active until the master
data. transmissions at a sleeps for a defined tells it to wake back up
set period and then .
interval . returns back to
active mode .
Protocol Stack
 Service Discovery
L2CAP RFComm Piconets
Protocol (SDP)

• Enables applications to di
• Radio Frequency Com • Bluetooth enabled
scover available services
munications (RFCOM electronic devices connect
• The Logical Link Control an and their features.
M). and communicate wirelessly
d Adaptation Protocol (L2C
• It is a cable through short range
AP) • Addresses the unique cha
replacement protocol networks known as Piconets
• Layered over the Baseband racteristics of the
used for generating a .
Protocol and resides in the data Bluetooth environment such
virtual serial data stream. • Provisions are in place,
link layer. as, dynamic changes in the
which allow for a master
• Used to multiplex multiple quality of services in RF
• RFCOMM provides and a slave
logical connections between proximity of devices in
for binary data transport. to switch their roles.
two devices. motion.
• Provides connection‐oriented • Can function over a
• Supports up to 60 • The simplest configuratio
and connectionless data serv reliable packet transfer
simultaneous connections n is a point to point confi
ices to upper layer protocols protocol.
between two BT devices guration with one master
• Uses a request/response
. and one slave.
model.
 IP as the Network Layer

How data from "things" (IoT devices) is managed by data center servers, either in the cloud
or distributed locations. Dedicated applications run on virtualized or traditional operating
systems, including network edge platforms like fog computing.

These lightweight applications communicate with the servers, emphasizing the need for a
common architectural approach. This architecture should be independent of lower layers
(connectivity) and upper layers (applications). The Internet Protocol (IP) suite, adopted
widely since the 1990s, became central to this architecture, playing a key role in both IT
and OT environments.
 Key Advantages of the IP Suite for IoT:
1. Open and Standards-Based: Ensures interoperability, interchangeability, security, and management, supported by open
standards like those from IETF, which governs network and transport layer protocols.
2. Versatile: IP can accommodate a wide range of access technologies and can evolve alongside physical and data link layers
like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and cellular, making it adaptable over time.
3. Ubiquitous: IP (IPv4/IPv6) is widely supported across all operating systems and IoT application protocols, making it the
most pervasive protocol for IoT solutions across industry verticals.
4. Scalable: IP is proven for massive scalability, as demonstrated by its deployment in millions of private and public
infrastructure nodes, with the capability to handle large numbers of IoT devices.
5. Manageable and Secure: IP networks come with well-understood management and security tools developed over 30 years
of operational experience, offering ease in integration with operational technologies (OT).
6. Stable and Resilient: IP's long-standing use in critical infrastructures (e.g., financial, defense) and its support for voice and
video services showcase its stability and resilience.
7. Consumers' Market Adoption: IP is integral to consumer IoT solutions, enabling connectivity between smart devices
(smartphones, tablets, PCs) and IoT applications via broadband and mobile wireless infrastructure.
8. Innovation Factor: IP has driven significant innovation in various domains (e.g., Web, e-commerce, social media,
mobility, cloud services) and continues to foster innovation in IoT.
 The Need for Optimization

The Internet of Things (IoT) will primarily rely on the Internet Protocol (IP)
suite, but challenges remain. One key issue is integrating non-IP devices and
addressing limitations at both the device and network levels, common in IoT
environments. To manage these restrictions, optimizations are needed across
various layers of the IP stack. Additionally, the transition from IPv4 to IPv6
introduces further complexities in IoT solutions.
 Constrained Nodes

Devices possessing constrained processing capabilities, memory, storage, and power resources relative to
conventional PCs or servers. These nodes frequently have difficulties in network connectivity, including
unreliable pathways and erratic throughput, particularly during alterations in topology.

IoT nodes are classified into three categories:

1.Highly constrained devices: These transmit minimal data infrequently, with limited security and management,
driving the need for gateways and proxies (IP adaptation model).
2.Moderately constrained devices: These have enough resources for a simplified IP or non-IP stack, allowing
either direct communication with application servers (adoption model) or through gateways (adaptation model).
3.Less constrained devices: Similar to PCs in computational resources but limited in network capacity, they
implement a full IP stack but must cope with bandwidth constraints.
 Constrained Networks

❑ In the early days of the Internet, bandwidth was limited by low-speed modems, but even with these
constraints, it was proven that IP could work over low-bandwidth networks.

❑ Today, despite the evolution to high-speed infrastructures, many IoT devices in the "last mile" still rely on
low-bandwidth networks due to technical constraints like low power, limited transmission distance, and
bandwidth regulations.

❑ These constrained networks, operating at a few kbps to a few hundred kbps, often face challenges like high
latency, packet loss, and fluctuating packet delivery rates, especially in wireless and narrowband power-line
communications.

❑ In such networks, overreacting to failures can cause collapse, so it's crucial to minimize control plane traffic
and consider the power consumption of battery-powered nodes to avoid further degradation of network
performance.
 Application Protocols for IoT
(Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) MQTT
MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) is a lightweight messaging protocol widely used in IoT
networks due to its efficiency in low-bandwidth, high-latency, and unreliable network environments.

Figure MQTT Publish/Subscribe Framework

MQTT uses a publish-subscribe (pub/sub) model where devices (clients) publish messages to a broker, which then
distributes them to subscribed clients. This decouples the sender and receiver, improving scalability. The pub/sub model
allows efficient communication between multiple devices, especially in distributed and large-scale IoT deployments.
 Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)

XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol) is a communication protocol based on XML, primarily
designed for instant messaging but increasingly used in IoT due to its flexibility and scalability. It provides a
flexible framework for building real-time communication applications.
 Key Concepts:
How XMPP Works:
1. Jabber ID: This is your unique identifier on the XMPP network. It
1.Client: This is your messaging app typically looks like [email protected].
(like WhatsApp, Telegram, or a 2. Availability: This indicates your availability status (e.g., online, away,
custom-built one). busy).
2.Server: This is a central hub that 3. Roster: This is your list of contacts.
manages connections between 4. Message: This is a text-based communication sent between two users.
clients. 5. MUC (Multi-User Chat): This allows for group chats.
3.XMPP Core: This is the
underlying protocol that defines how
clients and servers communicate.

How Communication Happens:

1.Client A sends a message to the server.
2.The server routes the message to Client B.
3.Client B receives the message.
 Data Distribution Service (DDS)

❑ It is a middleware protocol designed for real-time, scalable, and high-performance data exchange, commonly used in
IoT and distributed systems.

❑ DDS is a publish-subscribe communication protocol that allows different applications (publishers and subscribers) to
exchange data in real time.
Key components in the diagram: How DDS Works

1. Participants: Represented by different 1. Publishers send (or publish) data to a shared data space,
shapes (e.g., squares, circles). without knowing the recipients (subscribers).
2. Topics: Labeled lines connecting 2. Subscribers express interest in certain data topics and
participants. receive updates from publishers automatically when new
3. Data Writers and Readers: Publishers use data becomes available.
Data Writers to send data, while 3. This decouples the sender (publisher) and receiver
subscribers use Data Readers to receive it. (subscriber), allowing them to communicate efficiently
without needing direct connections.
 Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP)

❑ AMQP is an IoT protocol for

business messaging that allows
systems to send messages
between servers.

❑ It supports complex routing,

reliable queuing, and topic-based
publish/subscribe messaging.

❑ AMQP ensures that messages

are delivered once and only
once, providing a high level of
reliability and interoperability.
Working Process:

1.Producer sends a message: The producer sends a message to an exchange in the broker.

2.Exchange routes the message: The exchange routes the message based on a predefined rule to one or more queues.

3.Message stored in the queue: The message is held in the queue until a consumer retrieves it.

4.Consumer receives the message: The consumer processes the message and acknowledges its receipt.
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

It is a lightweight protocol designed specifically for the Internet of Things (IoT). It's optimized for resource-constrained
devices, making it ideal for sensors, actuators, and other IoT devices.
Working Process:
1.Client-Server Model: CoAP follows a simple client-server architecture, where clients (e.g., sensors or smart devices)
send requests to servers (e.g., resource providers).
2.Request and Response: Clients can perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations on resources using simple
HTTP-like methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE).
3.Message Format: CoAP uses a compact binary format for its messages, which is more efficient than text-based protocols
like HTTP, making it suitable for low-bandwidth, high-latency networks.
4.Reliability and Acknowledgments: CoAP includes built-in mechanisms for reliability, such as acknowledgments and
retransmissions for confirmed messages, ensuring that important data is reliably delivered.
5.Observe Option: CoAP allows clients to subscribe to resources and receive updates when the resource changes, enabling
efficient real-time data monitoring.
6.Multicast Support: CoAP can send messages to multiple recipients at once, which is beneficial for applications like
smart lighting or environmental monitoring.