Signals and Systems

Chapter 1
Signals and Systems
 Introduction: Signals & Systems Concepts

Keywords: Systems, signals, mathematical models.

Continuous-time and discrete-time signals and systems.
Energy and power signals. Linear systems.

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 What is a Signal?

• A signal is a pattern of variation of some form

• Signals are variables that carry information

Examples of signal include:

Electrical signals
– Voltages and currents in a circuit
Acoustic signals
– Acoustic pressure (sound) over time
Mechanical signals
– Velocity of a car over time
Video signals
– Intensity level of a pixel (camera, video) over time
How is a Signal Represented?

Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of

one or more independent variables.
For instance a black & white video signal intensity is
dependent on x, y coordinates and time t f(x,y,t)
On this course, we shall be exclusively concerned with
signals that
f(t)
are a function of a single variable: time

t
Example: Signals in an Electrical Circuit

R
vs (t ) − vc (t )
i (t ) =
R
dv (t )
+ i i (t ) = C c
vs C vc dt
-
dvc (t ) 1 1
+ vc (t ) = vs (t )
dt RC RC

The signals vc and vs are patterns of variation over time

Step (signal) vs at t=1

RC = 1
vs, vc

First order (exponential) response

for vc

t
Note, we could also have considered the voltage across the resistor or
the current as signals
 Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
• Most signals in the real world are continuous
time, as the scale is infinitesimally fine. x(t)
• Eg voltage, velocity,
• Denote by x(t), where the time interval may
be bounded (finite) or infinite t
Discrete-Time Signals
• Some real world and many digital signals
are discrete time, as they are sampled
x[n]
• E.g. pixels, daily stock price (anything that a
digital computer processes)
• Denote by x[n], where n is an integer value
that varies discretely n
Sampled continuous signal x[n] =x(nk)
– k is sample time
 Signal Properties

• On this course, we shall be particularly interested in signals with certain

properties:
• Periodic signals: a signal is periodic if it repeats itself after a fixed period T,
i.e. x(t) = x(t+T) for all t. A sin(t) signal is periodic.
• Even and odd signals: a signal is even if x(-t) = x(t) (i.e. it can be reflected
in the axis at zero). A signal is odd if x(-t) = -x(t). Examples are cos(t) and
sin(t) signals, respectively.
• Exponential and sinusoidal signals: a signal is (real) exponential if it can
be represented as x(t) = Ceat. A signal is (complex) exponential if it can be
represented in the same form but C and a are complex numbers.
• Step and pulse signals: A pulse signal is one which is nearly completely
zero, apart from a short spike, d(t). A step signal is zero up to a certain time,
and then a constant value after that time, u(t).

• These properties define a large class of tractable, useful signals and will be
further considered in the coming lectures
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“Electrical” Signal Energy & Power

It is often useful to characterise signals by measures

such as energy and power
For example, the instantaneous power of a resistor is:
1 2
p(t ) = v(t )i(t ) = v (t )
R
and the total energy expanded over the interval [t1, t2] is:
t2 t2 1 2
t1
p(t )dt = 
t1 R
v (t )dt
and the average energy is:
1 t2 1 t2 1 2

t 2 − t1 1
t
p(t )dt = 
t 2 − t1 1 R
t
v (t )dt

How are these concepts defined for any continuous or

discrete time signal?
Generic Signal Energy and Power

Total energy of a continuous signal x(t) over [t1, t2] is:

t2
E =  x(t ) dt
2
t1

where |.| denote the magnitude of the (complex) number.

Similarly for a discrete time signal x[n] over [n1, n2]:

E = n = n x[n]
n2 2

By dividing the quantities by (t2-t1) and (n2-n1+1),

respectively, gives the average power, P

Note that these are similar to the electrical analogies

(voltage), but they are different, both value and dimension.
Energy and Power over Infinite Time
For many signals, we’re interested in examining the power and energy
over an infinite time interval (-∞, ∞). These quantities are therefore defined
by: T 
E = lim T →  x(t ) dt =  x(t ) dt
2 2
−T −

E = lim N → n = − N x[n] = n =− x[n]

N 2  2

If the sums or integrals do not converge, the energy of such a signal is

infinite
1 T 1
 
N
P = lim T →
2
P = lim N →
2
x(t ) dt x[n]
2T −T 2N +1 n=− N

Two important (sub)classes of signals

1. Finite total energy (and therefore zero average power)
2. Finite average power (and therefore infinite total energy)
Signal analysis over infinite time, all depends on the “tails” (limiting
behaviour)
 Time Shift Signal Transformations

A central concept in signal analysis is

the transformation of one signal into
another signal. Of particular interest are
simple transformations that involve a
transformation of the time axis only.

A linear time shift signal transformation

is given by:
y (t ) = x( at + b)
where b represents a signal offset from
0, and the a parameter represents a
signal compression if |a|>1, stretching if
0<|a|<1 and a reflection if a<0.
x(2t)
Cf. Basic Operations on Signals
(Sec. 2.1.1)
◼ x(t) : A signal
◼ Time shifting or delaying
◼ y(t) : Time shifted version of x(t) : y (t ) = x (t −t 0 ) , t0 : Time shift
 When t0 > 0, x(t) is shifted to the right : time delay
 When t0 < 0, x(t) is shifted to the left : time advance

◼ Time reversal, or flipping

◼ y(t) : Signal by replacing time t by –t :
y (t ) = x(−t )
 Reflected version of x(t) about t = 0

12
Basic Operations on Signals
◼ Time scaling
◼ Expands (stretches) or contracts (compresses) a signal along the time axis
◼ y(t) : Signal by scaling the independent variable, time t, by a factor b
y (t ) = x(bt )
 If b>1, the signal y(t) is a compressed version of x(t)
 If 0<b<1, the signal y(t) is an expanded version of x(t)

◼ Combination of these operation

◼ x(-2t) = Combination of flipping the signal then contracting it by a factor of 2
◼ x(2t-3) : x[2(t-1.5)] = Contract the signal by a factor of 2 and then shifting it
to the right by 1.5

13
Basic Operations on Signals
◼ Time scaling
◼ Expands (stretches) or contracts (compresses) a signal along the time axis
◼ y(t) : Signal by scaling the independent variable, time t, by a factor b
y (t ) = x(bt )
 If b>1, the signal y(t) is a compressed version of x(t)
 If 0<b<1, the signal y(t) is an expanded version of x(t)

◼ Combination of these operation

◼ x(-2t) = Combination of flipping the signal then contracting it by a factor of 2
◼ x(2t-3) : x[2(t-1.5)] = Contract the signal by a factor of 2 and then shifting it
to the right by 1.5

14
x(2t-4)=x[2(t-2)]
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡)

2 4 𝑡

𝑥(𝑡 − 2) : 𝑡 → 𝑡 − 2 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
𝑥(𝑡 − 2)

2 4 6 𝑡
𝑥(2(𝑡 − 2)) : 𝑡 → 2𝑡? ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡 − 2)
𝑥(2𝑡 − 2)

1 3 𝑡 15
 x(2t-4)=x[2(t-2)]
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡)

2 4 𝑡

𝑥(2𝑡) : 𝑡 → 2𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡)
𝑥(2𝑡)

1 2 𝑡
𝑥(2(𝑡 − 2)) : 𝑡 → 𝑡 − 2 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(2(𝑡 − 2))
𝑥(2(𝑡 − 2))

2 3 4 𝑡 16
 x(2t-4)=x[2(t-2)]
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡)

2 4 𝑡

𝑥(𝑡 − 4) : 𝑡 → 𝑡 − 4 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 4)
𝑥(2𝑡)

4 6 8 𝑡

𝑥(2𝑡 − 4) : 𝑡 → 2𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡 − 4))

𝑥(2𝑡 − 4)

2 3 4 𝑡 17
Periodic Signals

An important class of signals is the class of periodic

signals. A periodic signal is a continuous time signal x(t),
that has the property
2p
x(t ) = x(t + T )
where T>0, for all t.

Examples:
cos(t+2p) = cos(t)
sin(t+2p) = sin(t)
Are both periodic with period 2p
Odd and Even Signals
An even signal is identical to its time reversed signal, i.e. it
can be reflected in the origin and is equal to the original:
x(−t ) = x(t )
Examples: x(t) = cos(t), x(t) = c

An odd signal is identical to its negated, time reversed

signal, i.e. it is equal to the negative reflected signal
x(−t ) = − x(t )
Examples: x(t) = sin(t), x(t) = t

This is important because any signal can be expressed as

the sum of an odd signal and an even signal.
Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals

Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-world

signals and also from a basis (a building block) for other signals.
A generic complex exponential signal is of the form:
x(t ) = Ce at

where C and a are, in general, complex numbers. Lets investigate

some special cases of this signal
Real exponential signals
Exponential growth Exponential decay
a0 a0
C 0 C 0
Periodic Complex Exponential & Sinusoidal
Signals
Consider when a is purely imaginary:
x(t ) = Ce jw0t cos(1)
By Euler’s relationship, this can be expressed as:
e jw0t = cos w0t + j sin w0t
This is a periodic signals because:
e jw0 (t +T ) = cos w0 (t + T ) + j sin w0 (t + T )
= cos w0t + j sin w0t = e jw0t
where T=2p /w0
T0 = 2p /w0= p
A closely related signal is the sinusoidal signal:
x(t ) = cos(w0t +  )
T0 is the fundamental
w0 = 2pf 0 time period
w0 is the fundamental
( )
We can always use:
A cos(w0t +  ) = A e j (w0t + ) frequency
A sin (w t +  ) = A(e
0
j (w0t + )
)
Exponential & Sinusoidal Signal Properties

Periodic signals, in particular complex periodic and sinusoidal signals, have

infinite total energy but finite average power.
Consider energy over one period:
T0
jw 0 t 2
E period =  e dt
0
T0
=  1dt = T0
0

Therefore: E = 

1
Average power: Pperiod = E period = 1
T0

Useful to consider harmonic signals

Terminology is consistent with its use in music, where each frequency is an
integer multiple of a fundamental frequency
General Complex Exponential Signals

So far, considered the real and periodic complex exponential

Now consider when C can be complex. Let us express C is polar form and
a in rectangular form: jj
C= Ce a = r + jw0
jj (r+ jw0 )t j(w0t+j )
So Ce = C e e
at
=Ce e
rt

Using Euler’s relation

Ceat = C e jj e(r+ jw0 )t = C ert cos(w0t + j )+ j C ert sin(w0t + j )
These are damped sinusoids
 Discrete Unit Impulse and Step Signals

The discrete unit impulse signal is defined:

0 n  0
x[n] = d [n] = 
1 n = 0
Useful as a basis for analyzing other signals

The discrete unit step signal is defined:

0 n  0
x[n] = u[n] = 
1 n  0

Note that the unit impulse is the first difference (derivative) of the
step signal d [n] = u[n] − u[n − 1]
Similarly, the unit step is the running sum (integral) of the unit
impulse.
 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals

The continuous unit impulse signal is

defined:
0 t  0
x(t ) = d (t ) = 
 t = 0

Note that it is discontinuous at t=0

The arrow is used to denote area, rather than
actual value

The continuous unit step signal is defined:

ò
t
x(t) = u(t) =
-¥
d (t )dt
0 t  0
x(t ) = u (t ) = 
1 t  0
What is a System?

• Systems process input signals to produce output

signals

Examples:
– A circuit involving a capacitor can be viewed as a system that
transforms the source voltage (signal) to the voltage (signal)
across the capacitor
– A CD player takes the signal on the CD and transforms it into
a signal sent to the loud speaker
– A communication system is generally composed of three
sub-systems, the transmitter, the channel and the receiver.
The channel typically attenuates and adds noise to the
transmitted signal which must be processed by the receiver
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How is a System Represented?

• A system takes a signal as an input and transforms

it into another signal

Input signal Output signal

System
x(t) y(t)

• In a very broad sense, a system can be

represented as the ratio of the output signal over
the input signal
• That way, when we “multiply” the system by the input
signal, we get the output signal
• This concept will be firmed up in the coming weeks
Continuous & Discrete-Time Mathematical
Models of Systems

Continuous-Time dvc (t ) 1 1
Systems + vc (t ) = vs (t )
dt RC RC
Most continuous time systems dv(t )
represent how continuous m + v(t ) = f (t )
signals are transformed via dt
differential equations. First order differential equations

E.g. circuit, car velocity

y[n] = 1.01 y[n − 1] + x[n]
Discrete-Time Systems m 
v[n] − v[n − 1] = f [ n]
Most discrete time systems m +  m + 
represent how discrete signals
are transformed via difference dv(n) v(n) − v((n − 1))
=
equations dt 
E.g. bank account, discrete car First order difference equations
velocity system
 Properties of a System

On this course, we shall be particularly interested in signals

with certain properties:
• Causal: a system is causal if the output at a time, only
depends on input values up to that time.
• Linear: a system is linear if the output of the scaled sum of
two input signals is the equivalent scaled sum of outputs
• Time-invariance: a system is time invariant if the system’s
output is the same, given the same input signal, regardless
of time.

These properties define a large class of tractable, useful

systems and will be further considered in the coming
lectures
29/20
 Linear Systems

A system takes a signal as an input and transforms it into

another signal
Linear systems play a crucial role in most areas of science
– Closed form solutions often exist
– Theoretical analysis is considerably simplified
– Non-linear systems can often be regarded as linear, for small
perturbations, so-called linearization
For the remainder of the lecture/course we’re primarily going to
be considering Linear, Time Invariant systems (LTI) and
consider their properties
continuous y(t)
x(t)
time (CT)

discrete y[n]
x[n]
time (DT)
Examples of Simple Systems

To get some idea of typical systems (and their properties), consider

the electrical circuit example: dvc (t ) 1 1
+ vc (t ) = vs (t )
dt RC RC
which is a first order, CT differential equation.
Examples of first order, DT difference equations:
y[n] = x[n] + 1.01 y[n − 1]
where y is the monthly bank balance, and x is monthly net deposit
RC k
v[n] − v[n − 1] = f [ n]
RC + k RC + k
which represents a discretised version of the electrical circuit
Example of second order system includes: d 2 y (t ) dy(t )
a 2
+b + cy(t ) = x(t )
dt dt
System described by order and parameters (a, b, c)
 System Linearity

The most important property that a system

possesses is linearity y
It means allows any system response to be
analysed as the sum of simpler responses
(convolution) x
Simplistically, it can be imagined as a line
Specifically, a linear system must satisfy the two properties:
1 Additive: the response to x1(t)+x2(t) is y1(t) + y2(t)
2 Scaling: the response to ax1(t) is ay1(t) where aC
Combined: ax1(t)+bx2(t)  ay1(t) + by2(t)

E.g. Linear y(t) = 3*x(t) why?

Non-linear y(t) = 3*x(t)+2, y(t) = 3*x2(t) why?
(equivalent definition for DT systems)
Bias and Zero Initial Conditions

Intuitively, a system such as: y(t) = 3*x(t)+2

is regarded as being linear. However, it does not satisfy the
scaling condition.

There are several (similar) ways to transform it to an equivalent

linear system
Perturbations around operating value x*, y*
 x (t ) = x(t ) − x* ,  y (t ) = y (t ) − y *
 y (t ) = 3 *  x (t )

Linear System Derivative

y (t ) = 3x(t )

Locally, these ideas can also be used to linearize a non-linear

system in a small range
Linearity and Superposition

Suppose an input signal x[n] is made of a linear sum of other

(basis/simpler) signals xk[n]:
x[n] = k ak xk [n] = a1 x1[n] + a2 x2 [n] + a3 x3[n] + 
then the (linear) system response is:
y[n] = k ak yk [n] = a1 y1[n] + a2 y2 [n] + a3 y3[n] + 

The basic idea is that if we understand how simple signals get

affected by the system, we can work out how complex signals
are affected, by expanding them as a linear sum
This is known as the superposition property which is true for
linear systems in both CT & DT
Important for understanding convolution
 Definition of Time Invariance
A system is time invariant if its behavior and characteristics are fixed
over time
We would expect to get the same results from an input-output
experiment, if the same input signal was fed in at a different time
E.g. The following CT system is time-invariant y (t ) = sin( x(t ))
because it is invariant to a time shift, i.e. x2(t) = x1(t-t0)
y2 (t ) = sin( x2 (t )) = sin( x1 (t − t0 )) = y1 ( x1 (t − t0 ))

E.g. The following DT system is time-varying y[n] = nx[n]

Because the system parameter that multiplies the input signal is
time varying, this can be verified by substitution
x1[n] = d [n]  y1[n] = 0
x2 [n] = d [n − 1]  y2 [n] = d [n − 1]
 System with and without Memory

A system is said to be memoryless if its output at a given time is

dependent only on the input at that same time (no system
dynamics)
y[n] = (2 x[n] − x 2 [n]) 2
e.g. a resistor is a memoryless CT system where x(t) is current and
y(t) is the voltage
A DT system with memory is an accumulator (integrator)
y[n] = k = − x[k ]
n

and a delay y[n] = x[n − 1]

Roughly speaking, a memory corresponds to a mechanism in the

system that retains information about input values other than the
current time.
y[n] = å x[k] + x[n] = y[n -1]+ x[n]
n-1

k=-¥
System Causality

A system is causal if the output at any time depends on values of

the input at only the present and past times. Referred to as non-
anticipative, as the system output does not anticipate future values
of the input
If two input signals are the same up to some point t0/n0, then the
outputs from a causal system must be the same up to then.
E.g. The accumulator system is causal: y[n] = k =− x[k ]
n

because y[n] only depends on x[n], x[n-1], …

E.g. The averaging/filtering system is non-causal


M
y[n] = 1
2 M +1 k =− M
x[n − k ]
because y[n] depends on x[n+1], x[n+2], …
Most physical systems are causal
 System Stability

Informally, a stable system is one in which small input signals lead to

responses that do not diverge
If an input signal is bounded, then the output signal must also be
bounded, if the system is stable
x : x  U → y  V

To show a system is stable we have to do it for all input signals. To

show instability, we just have to find one counterexample
E.g. Consider the DT system of the bank account
where x[n] = d[n], y[0] = 0

y[n] = x[n-1] + 1.01 y[n-1]

This grows without bound, due to 1.01 multiplier. This system is

unstable.
 Invertible and Inverse Systems

A system is said to be invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct

outputs (similar to matrix invertibility)
If a system is invertible, an inverse system exists which, when
cascaded with the original system, yields an output equal to the
input of the first signal
E.g. the CT system is invertible: y(t) = 2x(t)
because w(t) = 0.5*y(t) recovers the original signal x(t)
E.g. the CT system is not-invertible y(t) = x2(t)
because distinct input signals lead to the same output signal
Widely used as a design principle:
– Encryption, decryption
– System control, where the reference signal is input
 System Structures

Systems are generally composed of components (sub-systems).

We can use our understanding of the components and their
interconnection to understand the operation and behaviour of the
overall system
x y
Series/cascade System 1 System 2

System 1
x y
Parallel +

System 2

x y
Feedback + System 1

System 2
How Are Signal & Systems Related (i)?

• How to design a system to process a signal in particular

ways?

• Design a system to restore or enhance a particular

signal
– Remove high frequency background communication noise
– Enhance noisy images from spacecraft

• Assume a signal is represented as: x(t) = d(t) + n(t)

• Design a system to remove the unknown “noise”
component n(t), so that y(t)  d(t)
x(t) = d(t) + n(t) y(t)  d(t)
System
?
How Are Signal & Systems Related (ii)?

How to design a system to extract specific pieces of

information from signals
– Estimate the heart rate from an electrocardiogram
– Estimate economic indicators (bear, bull) from stock market
values

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = g(d(t))
Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so
that y(t) = d(t)

x(t) = g(d(t)) y(t) = d(t) = g-1(x(t))

System
?
How Are Signal & Systems Related (iii)?

How to design a (dynamic) system to modify or control

the output of another (dynamic) system
– Control an aircraft’s altitude, velocity, heading by adjusting
throttle, rudder, ailerons
– Control the temperature of a building by adjusting the
heating/cooling energy flow.

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = g(d(t))
Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so
that y(t) = d(t)
x(t) y(t) = d(t)
dynamic
system ?
 Summary
• Signals and systems are pervasive in modern engineering
courses:
– Electrical circuits
– Physical models and control systems
– Digital media (music, voice, photos, video)

• In studying the general properties of signals and systems,

you can:
– Design systems to remove noise/enhance measurement from audio
and picture/video data
– Investigate stability of physical structures
– Control the performance mechanical and electrical devices
• This will be the foundation for studying systems and signals
as a generic subject on this course.
 Homework

• Reading Assignment: Chapter 1. This contains most of

the material in the first three lectures, a bit of pre-reading
will be extremely useful!

• Problems: Q1.1, Q1.2, Q1.3, Q1.4, Q1.5, Q1.6, Q1.19,

Q1.27

• In lecture 2, we’ll be looking at signals in more depth and

look at how they can be represented.
Backup Slides
System Properties
(Causality, Linearity, Time-invariance, etc.)

WHY?

• Important practical/physical implications

• They provide us with insight and structure that we

can exploit both to analyze and understand systems
more deeply.
Causality

• A system is causal if the output does not anticipate future

values of the input, i.e., if the output at any time depends
only on values of the input up to that time.

• All real-time physical systems are causal, because time

only moves forward. Effect occurs after cause. (Imagine if
you own a noncausal system whose output depends on
tomorrow’s stock price.)

• Causality does not apply to spatially varying signals. (We

can move both left and right, up and down.)

• Causality does not apply to systems processing recorded

signals, e.g. taped sports games vs. live broadcast.
Causality (Cont.)

Mathematically (in CT):

A system x(t) →y(t) is causal if

when x1(t) →y1(t) x2(t) →y2(t)

and x1(t) = x2(t) for all t ≤ to
Then, y1(t) = y2(t) for all t≤ to
Caual or Noncausal?

• y(t)=x(t-1)
: y(5) depends on x(4) → causal

• y(t)=x(t+1)
: y(5) depends on x(6) → non-causal

• y[n]=x[-n]
: y[5] depends on x[-5] → that’s okay
y[-5] depends on x[5] → non-causal
Time-Invariance (TI)

• Informally, a system is time-invariant (TI) if its

behavior does not depend on what time it is.

• Mathematically (in DT): A system x[n] → y[n] is TI if for

any input x[n] and any time shift n0,
If x[n] →y[n]
then x[n -n0] →y[n -n0]
• Similarly for a CT time-invariant system,
If x(t) →y(t)
then x(t -to) →y(t -to) .
Time-Invariant or Time-Varying?

• y(t)=x(t+1)
→ Time-Invariant (TI)

• y[n]=n/2+x[n-1]
→ Time-Varying (TV)
Example:

Fact: If the input to a TI System is periodic, then the

output is periodic with the same period.

“Proof”: Suppose x(t + T) = x(t)

and x(t) → y(t)
Then by TI
x(t + T) →y(t + T).
↑ ↑
These are the So these must be
same input! the same output,
i.e., y(t) = y(t + T).
Linear & Nonlinear Systems

• Many systems are nonlinear. For example:

many circuit elements (e.g., diodes), dynamics
of aircraft, econometric models,…
• However, in this course we focus exclusively on
linear systems.
• Why?
• Linear models represent accurate representations of
behavior of many systems (e.g., linear resistors,
capacitors, other examples given previously,…)
• Can often linearize models to examine “small signal”
perturbations around “operating points”
• Linear systems are analytically tractable, providing basis
for important tools and considerable insight
Linearity

• A (CT) system is linear if it has the superposition

property:
If x1(t) →y1(t) and x2(t) →y2(t)
then ax1(t) + bx2(t) → ay1(t) + by2(t)

• Examples:
y[n] = x2[n] : Nonlinear, TI, Causal
y(t) = x(2t) : Linear, not TI, Noncausal
Examples of Linear Systems

• y(t)={x(t)}2
→ Non-linear

• y[n]=2*x[n-1]
→ Linear
Linear Time-Invariance (LTI) Systems

• Focus of most of this course

- Practical importance
- The powerful analysis tools associated with LTI
systems

• A basic fact: If we know the response of an LTI

system to some inputs, we actually know the
response to many inputs