Functions of Data-link Layer

• Framing
Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them
into Frames.Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At
receiver’ end, data link layer picks up signals from hardware and
assembles them into frames.

• Addressing
Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism.
Hardware address is assumed to be unique on the link. It is encoded into
hardware at the time of manufacturing.

• Synchronization
When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be
synchronized in order to transfer to take place.

• ErrorControl
Sometimes signals may have encountered problem in transition and the
bits are flipped.These errors are detected and attempted to recover actual
data bits. It also provides error reporting mechanism to the sender.

• FlowControl
Stations on same link may have different speed or capacity. Data-link
layer ensures flow control that enables both machines to exchange data
on same speed.

• Multi-Access
When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high
probability of collision. Data-link layer provides mechanism such as
CSMA/CD to equip capability of accessing a shared media among
multiple Systems.
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) is a data link layer protocol that
transfers data over a communications channel
HDLC (High-level Data Link Control) is a collection of data link layer
communication protocols used to transmit data between network nodes
The Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) is a link layer protocol used to establish
a direct connection between two nodes over serial ports or modems
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that allows data to be
transmitted between two directly connected computers
The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is a data link layer protocol that establishes,
configures, and tests data link connections in computer networks. It is a key part
of the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Link Access Procedure (LAP) protocols are data link layer protocols for framing
and transmitting data across point-to-point links. LAP was originally derived
from HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
NAP (Network Access Point) is one or more locations with a high level of
connectivity and several options to access the main carriers and content
Error Detection in Computer Networks

Error is a condition when the receiver’s information does not match the
sender’s information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that
can introduce errors in the binary bits traveling from sender to receiver. That
means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.
Data (Implemented either at the Data link layer or Transport Layer of the OSI
Model) may get scrambled by noise or get corrupted whenever a message is
transmitted. To prevent such errors, error-detection codes are added as extra data
to digital messages. This helps in detecting any errors that may have occurred
during message transmission.
Types of Errors

Single-Bit Error

A single-bit error refers to a type of data transmission error that occurs when one
bit (i.e., a single binary digit) of a transmitted data unit is altered during
transmission, resulting in an incorrect or corrupted data unit.

Single-Bit Error

Multiple-Bit Error

A multiple-bit error is an error type that arises when more than one bit in a data
transmission is affected. Although multiple-bit errors are relatively rare when
compared to single-bit errors, they can still occur, particularly in high-noise or
high-interference digital environments.
Multiple-Bit Error

Burst Error

When several consecutive bits are flipped mistakenly in digital transmission, it

creates a burst error. This error causes a sequence of consecutive incorrect
values.

Burst Error

To detect errors, a common technique is to introduce redundancy bits that

provide additional information. Various techniques for error detection include::
1. Simple Parity Check
2. Two-dimensional Parity Check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Error Detection Methods

Simple Parity Check

Simple-bit parity is a simple error detection method that involves adding
an extra bit to a data transmission. It works as:
• 1 is added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s, and •
0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s
This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called even
parity checking.

Disadvantages
• Single Parity check is not able to detect even no. of bit error. • For example,
the Data to be transmitted is 101010. Codeword transmitted to the receiver is
1010101 (we have used even parity). Let’s assume that during transmission, two
of the bits of code word flipped to 1111101.
On receiving the code word, the receiver finds the no. of ones to be even and
hence no error, which is a wrong assumption.

Two-dimensional Parity Check

Two-dimensional Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is
equivalent to a simple parity check bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for
all columns, then both are sent along with the data. At the receiving end, these
are compared with the parity bits calculated on the received data.
Checksum
Checksum error detection is a method used to identify errors in transmitted data.
The process involves dividing the data into equally sized segments and using a
1’s complement to calculate the sum of these segments. The calculated sum is
then sent along with the data to the receiver. At the receiver’s end, the same
process is repeated and if all zeroes are obtained in the sum, it means that the
data is correct.
Checksum – Operation at Sender’s Side
• Firstly, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
• On the sender’s end, the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic
to get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum. • The checksum
segment is sent along with the data segments. Checksum – Operation at
Receiver’s Side
• At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
• If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.
Disadvantages
• If one or more bits of a segment are damaged and the corresponding bit or bits
of opposite value in a second segment are also damaged.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

• Unlike the checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on

binary division.
• In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes
exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
• At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at
this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is
therefore accepted.
• A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and
therefore must be rejected.
Advantages:
Increased Data Reliability: Error detection ensures that the data transmitted
over the network is reliable, accurate, and free from errors. This ensures that the
recipient receives the same data that was transmitted by the sender. Improved
Network Performance: Error detection mechanisms can help to identify and
isolate network issues that are causing errors. This can help to improve the
overall performance of the network and reduce downtime. Enhanced Data
Security: Error detection can also help to ensure that the data transmitted over
the network is secure and has not been tampered with.

Disadvantages:
Overhead: Error detection requires additional resources and processing power,
which can lead to increased overhead on the network. This can result in slower
network performance and increased latency.
False Positives: Error detection mechanisms can sometimes generate false
positives, which can result in unnecessary retransmission of data. This can
further increase the overhead on the network.
Limited Error Correction: Error detection can only identify errors but cannot
correct them. This means that the recipient must rely on the sender to retransmit
the data, which can lead to further delays and increased network overhead.