CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The importance of energy to a nation’s development cannot be overemphasized. This is

because energy is the cornerstone of economic and social development (Oyedepo et. al.,

2019). Energy is a basic need for daily existence. It applications include warming the body,

local industrial and food operations, cooking, and complex industrial and commercial uses.

Sources of energy, including wind power, solar power and bioenergy, could be a better option

for replacing non-renewable energy sources (Azarpour et. al., 2013).

Biomass-to-energy is a promising alternative energy technology in light of the world's fast

increasing energy needs due to the world's exploding population as well as rapid

industrialization and urbanization (Azarpour et. al., 2013). In the context of energy

production, biomass are materials from recently living but now dead organisms that are used

to produce bioenergy. Examples include wood and its byproducts, energy crops, agricultural

wastes (such as straw), and domestic and industrial organic waste. Currently, the largest

biomass energy source is wood and wood waste. Wood can be turned into pellet fuel or other

fuels, or it can be used directly as fuel.

Unfortunately, because there are other uses of wood viz; construction, wood veneer,

plywood, and particle board, the use of wood is competitive. Here is where other biomass

residues such as; stalks, straws, leaves, roots, husks, peels, nut or seed shells, household

wastes, and animal husbandry wastes, come into play, acting as an alternative to wood as

fuel. (Oladeji, et. al., 2009).

Globally, 140 billion metric tons of biomass is generated every year from agriculture

(Jekayinfa and Scholz, 2009). This volume of biomass can be converted to an enormous

amount of energy and raw materials equivalent to approximately 50 billion tons of oil.

Agricultural biomass waste, if converted to energy can substantially displace fossil fuel,

reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and provide renewable energy to some people in

developing countries, which still lack access to electricity (Oyedepo et. al., 2019).

Widely available, renewable, and virtually free, waste biomass is an important resource.

Although, there is an emerging trend in the utilization of biomass energy conversion

technologies, but biomass is still largely under-utilized and left to rot or openly burnt in the

fields, especially in developing countries (Sokan-Adeaga, and Ana, 2015).

As commonly practiced, direct combustion of agricultural residue results in air pollution,

thereby posing health risk to both human and ecology (Kumar et. al, 2015). One of the

principal sources of energy is fossil fuels and according to Abas (2015), 86 % of all the

energy consumed all over the world come from fossil fuels. Although, the use of fossil fuels

is very convenient, there are a lot of problems associated with their utilization. One of such

problems is environmental degradation as a result of greenhouse gases emissions.

There are many conversion routes through which these residues can be converted into

biomass energy, one of such promising technologies is that of the briquetting process.

Briquettes are a biofuel substitute to coal and charcoal. Briquetting of biomass process simply

means compressing the material to increase its density and to enhance its handling

characteristics and fuel characteristics (Kantimaleka, 2009). Briquettes are mostly used in the

developing world, where cooking fuels are not as easily available. There has been a move to

use briquettes in the developed world, where they are used to heat industrial boilers in order

to produce electricity from steam.

Generally, briquetting process has focused more on the production of smokeless solid fuels

from coal and agricultural residues. However, briquetting of organic materials (agricultural

residues) requires significantly higher pressure as additional force is needed to overcome the

natural springiness of these materials.

Therefore, this study finds it worthwhile to leverage on the likely potential of these

agricultural residues for sustainable briquette production. Hence, the need to look into the use

of biomass from agricultural residues such as cassava and potato peels for production and

characterization of briquettes in order to have understanding of the quality of burning

efficiency of briquette produced.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Wood can be used for many different things in building, furniture making, and crafting

depending on its qualities and applications. Due to its durability and adaptability, it is the

most frequently used material in terms of environmental impact for a variety of projects. In

spite of this, record has it that one mature tree supplies enough oxygen gas for ten (10) people

but twelve (12) trees are being consumed per person per year in the United Kingdom, (FAO,

2019) and so the need to ponder carefully about the environmental impact of using large

quantities of wood. Nigeria as a country is by far experiencing a catastrophic deforestation

due to the country's rapidly growing population, coupled with the increasing demand for

timber, fuelwood, and agricultural land which has contributed to climate change, soil erosion,

floods and situation among others (Ahmed, and Aliyu, 2019).

Furthermore, there is a lot of depositing and littering around agricultural residues, which are

left to rot and cause environmental pollution. Hence, there is a need to look into utilizing

these biomaterials to serve as alternative sources of energy. This will not only help reduce

pollution but also contribute to sustainable energy production.

Currently, Nigerian markets lack affordable biomass energy options, due to low efficiency

end-use devices for firewood and charcoal and this could accelerate environmental

degradation (Giwa et. al., 2017).

1.3 GENERAL OBJECTIVES

The general objective of the study is to examine the burning efficiency of briquette produced

from cassava and potato peels of different combination ratios using starch as binder. This will

be achieved through the following specific objectives.

1.3.1 Specific objectives of the study are to:

(i) Analyze the physico-mechanical properties of the different briquettes produced

(ii) Investigate the combustion characteristics (such as ash content, volatile matter,

heating value, burnout time and fixed carbon) of the briquettes produced

(iii) Determine the elemental constituents of the briquettes produced

(iv) Evaluate the effect of binder on the briquettes produced through durability test

1.4 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY

The use of energy remains vital for the existence of human life. Biomass briquetting from the

use of agricultural residues is viewed as an available alternative source of clean, smokeless

fuel and recommendable for all. Unlike firewood, people go extra miles to cut down trees for

firewood which is not advisable because it contributes to the issue of climate change and

other environmental benefits. The smoke produced by wood fires in an indoor cooking

environment can lead to multiple respiratory illnesses (Kammen, 2009); but the use of

densified bio-materials produces smokeless and clean source of fuel.

The use of agricultural residues such as cassava and potato peels for production of briquettes

can be a means of having a cleaner environment from land and air pollution. Biomass
briquetting is viewed as an advanced fuel because of its clean-burning nature and the fact that

it can be stored for long periods of time without degradation.

The wealth of individual entrepreneurs can be boosted by converting something that was

previously underutilized into a means of generating income through the creation of a micro-

enterprise focused on producing energy from agricultural residues (Ouédraogo, 2009). This

not only benefits the entrepreneurs involved but also contributes to the overall economic

growth and sustainability of the country through job creation and a more diverse economy.

Additionally, combining agricultural residue (cassava and potato peels) and energy

production while preserving the environment, would minimize environmental degradation,

improve human health, and prevent deforestation in Nigeria, ultimately reducing climate

change and wood fuel usage, the environment can also benefit from reduced waste and lower

carbon emissions. This sustainable approach to entrepreneurship can lead to long-term

economic and environmental benefits for the country. (Shiv Prasad et. al., 2020)

Based on past findings, briquettes made from agricultural residues are viewed as alternatives

that can replace fuelwood and charcoal (Ferronato et. al., 2022). In order to validate this and

mitigate effects of deforestation and the direct use of uncontrolled burning of fuelwood,

causing indoor air pollution; there is need to determine diverse set of physico-mechanical

characteristics in order to ensure a quality product. Also, the limited knowledge and

understanding of the burning efficiency of agricultural residues (cassava and potato peel) for

briquette production must be addressed to leverage the potential of these residues for

sustainable briquette production.

1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY

The study aimed at evaluating the burning efficiency of briquettes made from cassava and

potato peels at three different ratios with two levels of starch as binder. Produced briquettes

were analyzed for their physical, mechanical, elemental, combustion and durability test

properties. The study also explored the impact of varying starch binder ratios on the

briquettes' physical properties and burning efficiency.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BIOMASS RESOURCES

Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass contains

stored chemical energy from the sun that is produced by plants through photosynthesis.

Biomass can be burned directly for heat or converted to liquid and gaseous fuels through

various processes (US. EIA, 2023). Biomass resources means any organic matter that is

available on a renewable or recurring basis, including agricultural crops and trees; wood and

wood residues; plants, aquatic plants, and plant oils; grasses; animal fats and animal by-

products; animal manure; residue materials; and waste products

(https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/biomass-resources).

A viable substitute for fossil fuels could be biomass, a naturally occurring non-fossil organic

substance having intrinsic chemical energy and the ability to offset emissions from fossil

fuels (Antar et. al, 2021). Wood, agricultural residues, sawdust, straw, manure, paper waste,

household wastes, and wastewater are only a few of the diverse components that make up

biomass resources from forestry, agriculture, and urban waste (Millati et. al.

, 2019). When utilized as a substitute energy source, biomass crop leftovers have a heating

Gupta and Gaur, 2019). Bio-based products emit less greenhouse gases

(GHGs) than fossil carbon commodities; nonetheless, the emissions differ depending on

feedstock type, production technology, and logistics. Due to the perceived urgent need for

sustainable energy self-sufficiency in 1970, biomass's contribution as a source of renewable

energy supply attracted significant attention worldwide (Antar et. al., 2021; Mittlefehldt,

2016). A fresh interest in biomass energy emerged in the mid-1990s as a means of adapting

to the effects of global warming and climate change (Mohanty, 2012). Biomass is being

explored as a sustainable energy source in this millennium for three main reasons:

minimizing fossil fuel overexploitation, reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat

climate change, and reducing energy import reliance by producing sustainable renewable

energy (Demirbas et. al., 2009).

Plant-derived bioenergy and related high-value products in global markets will need to

significantly increase over the next few decades due to the growing human population,

increased reliance on animal products, and the resulting elevated energy demand (Gust et. al.,

2012; Ruzzi et. al., 2015). This will lower the energy demand for fossil fuels and the

corresponding greenhouse gas emissions. The green revolution of the 1960s made a

significant contribution to increasing plant production; more recently, advancements in

biotechnology have, and will continue to help plants produce both more and better biomass

(Gust et. al., 2012; Armada et. al., 2014), due to improved plant efficiency to capture light

and convert it to biomass (carbon assimilation) with less fertilizer and water inputs (Gielen

et. al., 2019; Zhang et. al., 2010). As a result, it is critical to research more unique and lesser-

known mechanisms for progress in this field (Shrestha et. al., 2019). These investigations and

resulting understandings will assist governments and producers in developing regulatory

networks that will maximize the benefits of biomass production using a variety of plant

species.

2.1.1 BIOMASS UTILIZATION

The world's energy markets rely significantly on coal, oil, and natural gas, also known as

fossil fuels. Byproducts of fossil fuel combustion include a variety of harmful air pollutants
and CO2, constituting a serious threat to human health and well-being while also significantly

contributing to global warming and environmental destruction. Coal mining began in the 18th

century, and coal became the primary fuel for the industrial revolution; earlier, humans

satisfied their energy needs primarily through wood and other biomass sources. This move to

fossil fuels has had far-reaching environmental repercussions, resulting in increasing air

pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, which are now accelerating climate change. This is

why shifting to renewable energy sources is necessary for mitigating the impacts of climate

change and preserving the health of our planet for future generations (Owusu and Asumadu-

Sarkodie, 2016).

Biomass utilization is one alternative to fossil fuels that can help reduce greenhouse gas

emissions and promote sustainable energy production. By utilizing organic materials such as

wood, agricultural residues, and waste to generate power, biomass can provide a renewable

and carbon-neutral source of energy. Additionally, investing in biomass utilization can also

create new economic opportunities and support local communities in transitioning to a

cleaner energy future.

2.2 HISTORY OF BRIQUETTES

Ellsworth B.A. Zwoyer received the first patent for briquettes in 1897. Ford's brother-in-law,

E.G. Kingsford, assisted in arranging the site of the company's first factory, which was

subsequently renamed in his honor. The company was formerly known as Ford Charcoal.

Since Ford began producing charcoal briquettes in large quantities, charcoal grilling has

grown in popularity. (Aderogba and Adeniyi, 2019)

Since the latter half of the 1800s, briquetting has been a common method for compacting

loose flammable material for fuel production. An early example of a machine used in modern

times was created in 1865 to turn peat into fuel briquettes. Since then, peat, brown coal, and
coal fines have all been utilized to make briquettes. The most popular method for making

briquettes is to use a roller press with a binder and moderate pressure (Bembenek et. al.,

2020).

The cell walls of organic materials must be broken down at greater pressures due to their

inherent springiness, which can be accomplished by applying heat and pressure. This is why

it costs more to briquette organic resources than inorganic fuels. Throughout World War I

and the 1930s Great Depression, biological briquetting was extensively utilized (Miah, 2017).

Based on German innovations, the Swiss developed the mechanical piston briquetting

machine of today. Due to fuel shortages during World War II, sawdust and other waste

materials were widely briquetted. Cheap hydrocarbon fuels largely drove briquettes out of the

market after the war (Mwampamba et. al., 2013).

During the 1970s and early 1980s, when energy prices were high, the usage of organic fuel

briquettes was revived, particularly in Scandinavia, the USA, and Canada. Sawdust-based

"Ogalite" fuel briquettes were first launched in Japan and have since expanded to Taiwan and

other nations, including Thailand. Asian manufacturers have widely adopted screw presses,

which are nearly exclusively used in Japanese and Taiwanese briquetting (Miah, 2017).

As energy demands rise, more individuals are interested in the biomass briquette industry, as

organic briquettes are sustainable, eco-friendly energy sources, especially in agricultural

areas. Investing in organic briquettes can generate revenue from agroforestry waste while

also producing green energy to help the environment. (ABC Machinery, 2012)

2.2.1 BRIQUETTES AND BRIQUETTE TECHNOLOGY

Solid biofuel in the form of briquettes is produced from biomass resources, such as

agricultural leftovers, and can be burned to provide energy. Depending on the raw materials,

mold, and technology used during production, they have varying characteristics and
dimensions (Oladeji J. et. al., 2015; Asamoah et. al., 2018). According to Kristoferson et. al.,

(1986), they are usually cylindrical in shape, with diameters between 25 and 100 mm and

lengths between 10 and 400 mm. In addition to their various sizes, briquettes can also be

found in square, rectangle, and polygon shapes. Resource waste and the use of fossil fuels can

be decreased by using agricultural residues to make briquettes (Wang Z et. al., 2017).

The shortage of fuel wood in developing countries is exacerbated by overexploitation of

wood, leading to deforestation, desertification, and erosion. This has resulted in over 75% of

the total forest cover being depleted in many sub-Saharan countries, causing environmental

crises. The increase in tree felling for furniture making, charcoal production, and firewood

has also disturbed the forest ecosystem, causing high deforestation rates. Inefficient wood

conversion and low biomass recovery in the Nigerian forest industry have resulted in sawdust

hills around sawmills, which are a visual blight and breeding ground for decaying organisms.

However, these hills can be compacted into briquettes for fuel energy supply ( Wilaipon,

2007). Briquetting technology, utilizing underutilized agricultural residues and sawdust, can

potentially reduce forest degradation and deforestation by creating briquettes made from

these residues (Ogunsanwo, 2001).

Briquette production relieves strain on the forest reserve by aiding in the solution of the

residue disposal and deforestation problems (Bhattacharya et. al., 2002). Briquettes are

superior to traditional fuel wood because of their greater heat content, simplicity of usage,

cleanliness, and small size (Dinesha et. al., 2018).

The process of densifying or compaction of residues into a product with a higher density than

the raw materials is known as briquetting technology, and the result is briquettes (Kaur et.

al., 2017). The process, which essentially entails drying, grinding, sieving, compacting, and

cooling processes, transforms low bulk density biomass into high density and energy-

concentrated fuel (Surendra et. al., 2011; Mwampamba et. al., 2013). (Tripathi et. al., 1998).
There are several kinds of briquetting machines that are used to densify agricultural leftovers.

These consist of the screw press extruder, the roller press, and the hydraulic or mechanical

piston press (Oladeji, 2015; Kaur et. al., 2017; Chen et. al., 2009). Depending on whether the

technology is for low compaction pressure or high compaction pressure, these machines can

either be operated manually or with a lot of energy. There is also another kind of briquetting

machine: the manual press. One such example is the WU-presser, which is available in both

metal and wood construction. The kind of briquette machine to be utilized and the kind of

fuel briquette that is produced depend on the raw material that is readily available locally

(Tripathi et. al., 1998; Rouset et. al., 2011). It is possible to create briquettes with or without

a binder. (Pallavi et. al., 2013) state that depending on the material, the pressure, and the rate

of compaction, binders like starch or clay soil may be needed throughout the briquette-

making process. Due to technical difficulties and a lack of understanding about how to

modify the technique for local conditions, briquetting technology has not yet gained traction

in many developing nations, including Nigeria (Grover et. al., 1996). But there have been a

few prior attempts to create the equipment needed to make the briquettes (Olorunnisola A.,

2007; Obi et. al., 2013; Ajieh et. al., 2016; Dairo et. al., 2018).

2.2.1.1 OVERVIEW OF BIO-BRIQUETTES FROM AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES

The residue of the agricultural industry account for a major share of global agricultural

productivity. Although the agriculture sector generates substantially less trash than other

businesses, its long-term contamination potential is large (FAO & OECD, 2019).

Furthermore, agricultural residue is defined as undesirable residue generated as a byproduct

of agricultural activities, and transforming these residues into briquettes is an excellent

opportunity to propose another green alternative.

Bio-briquetting is the process of increasing the density of biomass by compacting the original

free particles using mechanical force. Bio-briquetting has several advantages, including

creating a bond within the particles to form a solid fuel, lowering the moisture content of the

biomass, increasing the net caloric value per unit volume due to the removal of volatile

matter, producing uniform size and quality fuel, making transportation and storage easier, and

assisting with residue disposal (Kaur et. al., 2017; Gurdil & Demirel, 2018). Bio-briquettes

are renewable, limitless in resources, clean, cost-effective, and carbon-neutral energy since

the plant absorbs the carbon dioxide (CO2) generated during combustion (Shuma & Madyira,

2017; Handra et. al., 2018; Kpalo et. al., 2020). Bio-briquettes are employed in both urban

and rural settings for home (cooking, grilling) and industrial reasons (Maninder et. al., 2012).

Furthermore, bio-briquettes made from agricultural residue are renewable, environmentally

benign, healthy, and do not rely on fossil fuels. Charring feedstock before pelletization into

briquettes can increase calorific value while reducing combustion emissions (Obeng et. al.,

2020). As a result, briquettes must be produced at a cheap cost and in plenty in order to

improve their potential for replacing firewood, charcoal, and fossil fuels as domestic cooking

and heating fuels.

Agricultural residues studied for characterization, evaluation and production of bio-briquette

are not limited to sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane leaves (Saputro et. al., 2020); rice husk &

coffee husk (Lubwama & Yiga, 2018), durian peel and bagasse (Haryati et. al., 2018); rice

husk and bran (Yank et. al., 2016); nutmeg seed shells (Idris et. al., 2018); bamboo fiber and

sugarcane skin (Brunerová et. al., 2018); palm oil empty fruit bunches (EFB) (Maitah et. al.,

2016); cotton stalk (Wu et. al., 2018), blend of areca nut husk, simarouba seed shell

(Ujjinappa & Sreepathi, 2018), tropical fruit residues - durian fruit, coconut fruit, coffee fruit,

cacao fruit, banana fruit and rambutan fruit (Brunerová et. al., 2017); rice husk (Suryaningsih

et. al., 2018); corn cob and rice husk (Nurhayati et. al., 2016) ;cornstalk (Wang et. al., 2017);
durian peel with biomass coconut and palm shell (Sari et. al., 2018); durian shell (Irhamni et.

al., 2019); banana leaves (Maia et. al., 2014), cotton dust (Suvunnapob et. al., 2015); cashew

nut residue (Ifa et. al., 2019).

While some briquette production processes only employ one type of bio mass, others

combine two or more biomasses to capitalize on each one's unique properties, resulting in

briquettes with improved combustibility, improved physical and chemical properties, and

increased durability (Okot, 2019).

Other biomass resources, such as forest residues, are also used in the manufacturing of bio-

briquetting in addition to agricultural residues. In the study by Fadele et. al., (2021), for

example, it was demonstrated that jatropha seed shells (JSSs) and Eucalyptus camaldulensis

wood shavings (EcWSs), forest undesirable residue, with Acacia senegal as a binder material,

have the potential to be used for the production of bio briquettes. In the study by Brožek et.

al., (2012), wood residues, such as wood dust, sawdust, shavings, chips, and bark, a fine-

grained loose residue arising from logging and the treatment of wood and wood semi-

products, are being evaluated for briquetting. According to the study, in order to briquette

these residues, more pressure is needed. This can be achieved by either extending or

decreasing the pressure chamber's diameter.

According to Setiawan et. al., 2023’s research, the study aimed to evaluate the performance

of bio-briquettes made from Napier grass and banana pseudostem for domestic applications.

The researchers evaluated the physical properties and burning efficiency of the briquettes

compared to traditional charcoal. The results showed that the bio-briquettes burned cleaner

and longer than charcoal, making them a viable alternative fuel source.

Similarly, Trixia et. al., 2019 made a research that aimed to optimize biomass briquettes for

household use by examining the impact of additives on their properties. The researchers
tested density, durability, and burning rate to find the optimal combination for household use.

The study identified a specific binder that produced strong, long-burning briquettes with

minimal ash production, making them suitable for domestic cooking.

In Bartczak et. al., 2022’s project on the use of coffee grounds and sawdust as a sustainable

fuel source. The study analyzed the physical properties and burning efficiency of briquettes,

demonstrating their feasibility and potential to produce briquettes with better burning

characteristics and potentially lower emissions compared to traditional fuels.

2.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIQUETTES

Briquettes can be classified according to their mechanical, thermal, and physical properties

based on the data that were measured. (Table 1). These features serve as an illustration of

how the briquettes can be handled, transported, stored, and burned. Briquettes that are

produced are characterized by these factors, which in turn determines their quality. Briquette

quality determines how well the densification process worked and affects how well the

briquettes withstand specific impacts. For end-user applications, the quality features of the

densified biomass are crucial (Tumuluru et. al., 2010). However, the types of feedstock

materials and briquetting machine used to create them mostly determine these properties

(Stolarski et. al., 2013). A good briquette should have characteristics such as low moisture

content, strong crushing strength, high density, moderate flame propagation, and high

calorific value (Arewa et. al.,., 2016).

Table 1: Characteristics of briquettes produced from some agricultural residues

Characteristic Parameters Values in literature Source

s
Density 0.24-0.37g/cm3 Kpalo et. al., 2019
Physical Moisture content 5.55-12.33% Kpalo et. al., 2019
Water resistance 87.60-92.00% Kpalo et. al., 2020
Mechanical Shatter index 98.28-99.08% Kpalo et. al., 2020
Comprehensive strength 18.47-21.75 Mpa Kpalo et. al., 2020
 Durability 96% Tumuluru, 2018
Calorific Value 16.54-16.91 MJ/kg Kpalo et. al., 2020
Proximate composition 68.20%, 16.10% and Efomah and Gbabo,
(Volatile matter, Ash content 15.70% respectively 2015
and Fixed carbon)
Thermal
Ultimate compostion 45.20%, 5.80%, Efomah and Gbabo,
(Carbon, Hydrogen, 1.02%, 47.60% and 2015
Nitrogen, Oxygen, and 0.21% respectively
Sulphur)
Source: Mwampamba et. al., 2013

2.2.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF BIO-BRIQUETTE

In terms of heat produced per unit mass, moisture content, and storage capacity, biomass

briquettes are superior to alternative cooking fuels like wood and have no net carbon.

Densified biomass has 20% better combustion characteristics than coal, emitting just 1/9 of

greenhouse gasses, 1/5 of nitrogen oxides (NOx), and 1/10 of sulfur dioxide (SO2), according

to Kpalo et. al., (2020). According to Tiwari et. al., (2011), briquetting biomass material

increases its net calorific value per unit volume, lowers transportation costs, increases bulk

density, and enhances handling properties. Additionally, Solano et. al., (2016) noted that bio-

briquettes benefit farmers in social and economic ways as well, helping to strengthen local

and regional enterprises, increase employment opportunities in rural areas, reduce reliance on

imported energy, and more. The features of the three main fuel types—briquette, coal, and

firewood—are compared in Table 2.

Table 2. Characteristics of different biomass fuels.

Fuel Type Caloric Value Ash Content Other Factors

(MJ/kg)

Briquette 17.58- 20-10 0.5 -8 No sulphur and Smoke

Coal 15.07 - 18.84 30-50 Aromatic contents and Smoke

Fire Wood 9.21 - 12.98 20-25 High Smoke

Source: Sunday and Mohamad, 2020

2.2.3 UTILIZATION OF BRIQUETTES

Briquettes can be used for a variety of purposes, from large-scale industrial power plants to

cook burners in homes. Any biomass-based energy conversion device, including industrial

boilers, gasifiers, home boilers, and stoves, can readily incorporate them (Table 3). Because

modern home fuels like gas, kerosene, and fuelwood are becoming more expensive and

scarce, briquettes are an excellent substitute.

Table 3: Potential uses of briquettes

Source: (Maitah et. al., 2016)

2.3 ADVANTAGES OF BRIQUETTE PRODUCTION

The manufacturing of briquettes will:

● Offer a cheaper fuel source for home use that is within the means of all Nigerians.

● Provide a good way to turn low-grade coal, waste agricultural residue, and coal fines

into a useful material with a high economic value.

 ● Help save some natural resources since it's a decent replacement for fire wood. As a

result, it will assist in lowering the amount of firewood, oil, and gas needed in the

generation of energy for homes and power plants.

● Contribute to the growth of the coal market. Coal is used to make coal briquettes and

bio-coal. In turn, this will encourage coal mining, which has been quiet for a while.

● Provide jobs for people since labor is required to run the briquette machine, obtain

raw materials (such as coal and agricultural residue), market the briquettes that are

made, and other tasks (Bhattacharya, 1985).

2.4 CASSAVA PEELS

The majority of post-harvest losses in the processing of cassava root arise from the peeling

process, which is a significant aspect of the roots processing. When peeled mechanically,

cassava peel makes up 5–15% of the root (Aro et. al., 2010), while when peeled by hand, it

makes up 20–35% of the tuber's weight (Olanbiwoninu and Odunfa, 2012). The solid fibrous

dry waste is a good source of bioethanol because it contains 56–60% starch, 15–18%

hemicellulose, 2–3% lignin, 1.5–2% protein, 2% pentosan, and 0.4–5% reducing sugar

(Pitcha, Pramoch, and Sumeath, 2012).

The economic potential of cassava peels, the need to enhance the cassava value chain, and the

livelihoods of households—which are further emphasized by post-harvest losses—make their

utilization imperative.

2.4.1 BENEFITS OF CASSAVA PEEL

1. As Animal Feed: Cassava peels have the advantage of providing cattle with extra food as a

substitute for field grass. Because cassava skin has the potential to contain cyanide acid, it is

used as an alternate source of feed. The amount of cyanide that is present in cassava skin
varies based on the kind of cassava plant, but it ranges from 150 to 360 mg HCN per kg of

fresh weight overall. On the other hand, sheep and cattle can withstand cyanide acid at 2.5–

4.5 parts per kilogram of live weight. It was also noted in another study that cyanide acid

consumption below 30 parts per million is safe in terms of harmful consequences.

Cassava skin contains a high concentration of cyanide acid, which when eaten by livestock

may cause poisoning. Nonetheless, it is thought that the high carbohydrate content of this

cassava peel can help fatten livestock.

2. As Organic Fertilizer: Cassava skin can be composted or utilized as organic fertilizer rather

than being left to decompose. Apart from its advantageous effects on soil fertility, compost

made from cassava leaves can also be utilized as a plant-growing nutrient and as a natural

pesticide.

The necessary plant content is present in the compost made from cassava leaves, including C

(59,31%), H (9,78%), O (28,74%), N (2,06%), S (0,11%), and H2O (11.4%).

3. Bio Energy: One source of bioethanol obtained from fibrous material that can be utilized as

a fuel alternative for fuels like gasoline and diesel is cassava peels. Through the use of acidic

and enzymatic hydrolysis, this bioethanol-making technique contributes to government

initiatives aimed at providing sustainable non-fuel oil as an alternative to gasoline and diesel.

To create high-quality, environmentally acceptable bioethanol, additional research is

necessary into the process of producing it through acid and enzymatic hydrolysis.

4. Lowers Heavy Metal Hazardous Content: Cassava husk is also a material that can lower

heavy and hazardous metals like cadmium (Cd (II)), lead (Pb (II)), and copper (Cu (II)).

Because of the potential for toxicity and injury even at tiny quantities, the metals are referred

to as heavy and dangerous. It has been shown that breathing, eating, and drinking can all

transfer these harmful heavy metals into the body.

5. To Make Paving Blocks: Despite being frequently written off as unimportant, cassava peel

may be used to make paving blocks. A clever solution to the issue of cassava skin waste and

a substitute given the rising need for building materials is to turn cassava peel into paving

blocks.

6. Water filter: According to studies conducted by Semarang Semesta Bilingual Boarding

High School students, the color and odor of murky water can be removed by the activated

carbon content of cassava skin and its numerous, wide pores. The skin of cassava may absorb

up to 99.98% of the copper valley content thanks to activated carbon.

Activated carbon often takes the form of porous crystals and powders. These pores, however,

are used to remove odors from water, remove cloudiness from the water, and absorb magnetic

materials.

7. Food items: Benefits of cassava peels: they can be used to make food with a high market

value since they include nutrients that are good for the body. Skins from cassava are typically

used to make chips. However, the natives of West Java make inventive cassava treats like

beef jerky cassava. Cassava peel is safe for human eating due to its high carbohydrate

content. (Source: drhealthbenefit.com | accessed on 6th March, 2024)

2.5 POTATO PEEL

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the main crops produced globally. The Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO) said that in 2016, more over 300 million tons of potatoes

were produced annually. As a byproduct of the food processing industry, potato peels have

the potential to be a very valuable, cheap, and affordable starting material for value addition,
product extraction, and the production of economically significant substances such as dietary

fiber, biopolymers, natural antioxidants, and natural food additives.

About 40–50% of diet fiber is found in potato peels, which are also rich in phenolic

compounds and a fair supply of vitamins B6, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, and folic acid. On a

dry basis, potato peels also contain 25% starch, 30% non-starch polysaccharide, 18% protein,

20% acid-soluble and acid-insoluble lignin, 1% fat, and 6% ash. Triglycerides, alcohols,

sterol esters, and long-chain fatty acids are all found in the lipid fraction. Despite the fact that

potato peels are nutritious, some people have disposed of and deposited these biomaterials in

ways that pollute the environment due to a lack of information about their uses. However,

past researches had it that potato peels are beneficial in the following areas:

● Protects against cancer

● Boosts immunity

● Lowers blood cholesterol

● Lowers risk of heart disease

● Maintains blood sugar levels

● Good for skin burns

● Lightens dark spots

2.6 BINDER ADDITION

Binding is the process of combining the biomass material with a designated binder to create a

uniform briquetting formation that will facilitate storage and transportation (Zhang et. al.,

2018); reduce mold wear during compaction; enhance briquette cohesion and mechanical

strength; and promote agglomeration when cohesive forces between the particles are weak

(Okot, 2019). The qualities of the biomass used also determine how the binder affects the

briquette's quality.
Three types of binders are utilized in briquetting, according to Zhang et. al., (2018): organic,

inorganic, and composite/compound binders. Because it breaks down more easily at high

temperatures, organic binder (such as biomass binder, tar pitch binder, polymer binder, starch

binder, etc.) exhibits good bonding performance, high crush strength, and drop strength but

lacks mechanical strength and thermal stability; starch binder is frequently used because it

only requires 4–8% of the binder to produce briquettes, but it is rarely used in industrial

processes due to its high cost, poor waterproofing, and low coking property; Although

inorganic binders are abundant, inexpensive, thermostable, and hydrophilic, they produce

high concentrations of ash. In contrast, composite binders are made up of two or more

binders, with the distinct compositions of each binder type combined to enhance the bio-

briquette's quality and performance. According to Kaliyan and Morey (2009), a binder, also

known as an additive, can be either a liquid or a solid that creates a matrix, bridge, film, or

strong interparticle interaction by a chemical reaction.

The physicochemical properties of bio-briquettes are influenced by the types and ratios of

binder used (Okot, 2019); the physical properties of bio-briquettes, such as moisture content,

compressive strength, compression ratio, and bulk density (Wakchaure & Mani, 2009);

density, caloric values, ignition, and burning time (Chirchir et. al., 2013). Strong bonds, zero

pollution, no impact on the coal's heat release or combustibility, no interference with the

coal's use, environmental acceptability, and economic availability are the necessary

characteristics of binders for briquetting (Zhang et. al., 2018).

The possibility of various binding techniques to improve the quality of bio-briquettes made

from agricultural waste was investigated by a number of researchers. Chichir et. al., (2013),

for instance, looked into how different types of binders, like molasses, cow dung, and clay

binders, affected the caliber of briquettes that were made. The findings demonstrated that

while molasses-blended briquettes had excellent caloric values, increasing the amount of any
form of binder also enhanced density, ignition time, and burning time. According to

Lubwama et. al., (2020), when agricultural briquettes are produced from rice husks, coffee

husks, sugar cane bagasse, and ground nutshell, the physical properties like moisture content,

volatile matter, and fixed carbon are positively impacted by the combination of carbonization

and the presence of binders. Furthermore, Lubwama and Yiga (2018) have noted that

briquettes with cassava starch binder show higher drop strengths (over 95%) compared to

clay binder. Wakchauri and Mani (2009) found that briquettes made from mustard stalk

blended with press mud at a concentration of 20% and die pressure of 123.42 MPa produce

better physical properties (75.35 compressive strength, 8.5 compression ratio, and 1,204 bulk

density) than briquettes made with molasses and distillers dry grain binders.

Conversely, certain briquetting techniques employ a binderless approach, meaning that no

binder is added. For example, because bagasse naturally contains lignin, Saputro et. al.,

(2020) investigated the manufacture of bio-briquettes from sugarcane bagasse and leaves

without the use of additives. Plants that are lignocellulosic naturally contain lignin, which

functions as a glue to join cellulose fibers (Oladeji, 2015).