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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY  COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Oscar Castillo
Patricia Ochoa
Jose Soria

Differential
Evolution Algorithm
with Type-2 Fuzzy
Logic for Dynamic
Parameter Adaptation
with Application
to Intelligent Control
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology

Computational Intelligence

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence are a series of slim high-quality
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Oscar Castillo Patricia Ochoa Jose Soria
• •

Differential Evolution
Algorithm with Type-2 Fuzzy
Logic for Dynamic Parameter
Adaptation with Application
to Intelligent Control

123
Oscar Castillo Patricia Ochoa
Division of Graduate Studies Division of Graduate Studies
Tijuana Institute of Technology Tijuana Institute of Technology
Tijuana, Mexico Tijuana, Mexico

Jose Soria
Division of Graduate Studies
Tijuana Institute of Technology
Tijuana, Mexico

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISSN 2625-3704 ISSN 2625-3712 (electronic)
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence
ISBN 978-3-030-62132-2 ISBN 978-3-030-62133-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62133-9
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
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Preface

This book was mainly based on the combining fuzzy logic and the differential
evolution algorithm, which are used to obtain better results in controllers of non-
linear plants. In this book, we test the proposed method using five benchmark
control problems. First, the water tank, temperature, mobile robot, and inverted
pendulum controllers are presented. For these four controllers, experimentation is
carried out using a type-1 fuzzy system and an interval type-2 fuzzy system. The
last controller is the DC motor, and in this case, the experiment was performed with
type-1, interval type-2, and generalized type-2 fuzzy systems. When we use the
fuzzy system combined with the algorithm, we can note that the results obtained in
each of the used controllers are better, and as the uncertainty increases, the results
are even better. For this reason, we consider that the proposed method using fuzzy
systems, fuzzy controllers, and differential evolution algorithm improves the
behavior of the complex control problems.
This book is intended to be a reference for scientists and engineers interested in
applying fuzzy logic techniques for solving problems in intelligent control. This
book can also be used as a reference for graduate courses like the following: soft
computing, swarm intelligence, bio-inspired algorithms, intelligent control, fuzzy
control, and similar ones. We consider that this book can also be used to get novel
ideas for new lines of research, or to continue the lines of research proposed by the
authors of the book.
In Chap. 1, we begin by offering a brief introduction of the potential use of the
optimization strategies in different real-world applications. The chapter contains
information relevant to the different concepts used in the book as well as important
articles of the researchers working with fuzzy logic, bio-inspired algorithms, or
both, as well as references of the differential evolution algorithm, which have
served us as guide to make this book
We describe in Chap. 2 the basic concepts, notation, and theory of fuzzy logic
and fuzzy controllers. This chapter overviews the background, main definitions, and
basic concepts, useful for the development of this research work.

v
vi Preface

Chapter 3 contains the description of the differential evolution algorithm, the

equations that involve the development of the algorithm, as well as a detailed
explanation of each step of the algorithm.
We present in Chap. 4 the structure of the proposed methodology, the combi-
nation of the differential evolution algorithm and fuzzy logic, and the optimization
of the parameters that are dynamic during the execution of the algorithm is
described.
Chapter 5 presents the different control problems used for experimentation, a
description is made of each control problem, the fuzzy system it contains, and the
rules. In addition, contains the objective function, the mathematical equations of the
used fuzzy systems, the results obtained for each of the controllers, the comparison
of the different variants used, as well as the statistical tests performed for the
comparison of the original algorithm and the different variants using type-1, interval
type-2 fuzzy, and generalized type-2 fuzzy systems.
We describe in Chap. 6 the conclusions of this work, it is explained which were
the controllers that presented greater or lesser difficulty for the proposed method-
ology, conclusions are given based on the tests performed with the original algo-
rithm and the different variants as well as those performed with other
meta-heuristics which also use the same concept of making certain parameters
dynamic using fuzzy logic. Our conclusions are divided into two main areas, the
first corresponding to all the experimentation carried out in four control problems
using a fuzzy system of one input and one output which are type-1 and interval
type-2 fuzzy systems. On the other hand, the experimentation carried out with a
control problem with a fuzzy system of two inputs and two outputs which are
type-1, interval type-2 fuzzy, and generalized type-2 fuzzy systems.
We end this preface of the book by giving thanks to all the people who have help
or encourage us during the writing of this book. First of all, we would like to thank
Dr. Patricia Melin, for always supporting our work and for motivating us to write
our research work. We would also like to thank our colleagues working in soft
computing, which are too many to mention each by their name. Of course, we need
to thank our supporting agencies, CONACYT and TNM, in our country for their
help during this project. We have to thank our institution, Tijuana Institute of
Technology, for always supporting our projects. Finally, we thank our respective
families for their continuous support during the time that we spend in this project.

Tijuana, Mexico Prof. Oscar Castillo

Dr. Patricia Ochoa
Prof. Jose Soria
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Fuzzy Logic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Differential Evolution Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1 Population Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4 Crossover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Proposed Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1 Water Tank Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Temperature Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.3 Mobile Robot Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4 Inverted Pendulum Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.5 Experimentation with Control Problems Using a Fuzzy System
One Input and One Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.6 Statistical Tests with Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.7 D.C. Motor Speed Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

vii
Chapter 1
Introduction

The use of algorithms based on nature has become very common in evolutionary
computation and metaheuristics. In this book we propose to use one of these
algorithms, in particular the Differential Evolution (DE) integrating fuzzy logic to
dynamically adapt some of its parameters during execution.
The main idea of fuzzy set theory was originally proposed by Zadeh in 1965
and was first applied to control theory in 1974 by Mamdani [1–5]. Based on these
works, fuzzy controllers have been successfully applied in numerous applications
[6–9]. In [10], an analytical structure and stability analysis of a fuzzy PID controller
is presented. Recently, the DE algorithm has been applied in different problems like:
[11–19] just to mention some recent works.
Similarly, the use of fuzzy logic for different applications has been increasingly
relevant, and we can find the use of fuzzy logic in areas such as medicine, control,
robotics, artificial intelligence, being the control area our main interest [20–23]. In
our case, we focus for this paper on the combination of fuzzy logic and metaheuristic
algorithms, since it has been demonstrated that both methodologies when combined
improve the performance of the algorithms, but in particular the use of Type-2 fuzzy
system can improve even more the performance, and to mention some related works
of interest [24–34].
The design of fuzzy controllers is an important application area for metaheuristic
algorithms. For this book we use the Differential Evolution algorithm enhanced with
Type-1, Interval Type-2 fuzzy and Generalized Type-2 fuzzy systems for dynamic
parameter adjustment and its application to fuzzy system design for control problems.
A comparison is made among the original algorithm, the proposed algorithm and
finally noise was also added to the control system to test the proposed algorithm.
The nonlinear characteristics of ill-defined and complex modern plants make
classical controllers inadequate for such systems because they require complicated
mathematical models. However, the use of Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic principles have
enabled researchers to understand better and hence control, complex systems that are

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

O. Castillo et al., Differential Evolution Algorithm with Type-2 Fuzzy Logic for Dynamic
Parameter Adaptation with Application to Intelligent Control,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62133-9_1
2 1 Introduction

difficult to model. These newly developed fuzzy logic controllers have given control
systems a certain degree of intelligence and flexibility.

References

1. Mamdani EH (1974) Application of fuzzy algorithms for control of simple dynamic plant. In
Proc Inst Electr Eng 121(12):1585
2. Zadeh LA (1975) The concept of a linguistic variable and its application to approximate
reasoning—I. Inf Sci 8(3):199–249
3. Zadeh L (1978) Fuzzy sets as a basis for a theory of possibility. Fuzzy Sets Syst 1(1):3–28
4. Zadeh LA (1975) The concept of a linguistic variable and its application to approximate
reasoning—II. Inf Sci 8(4):301–357
5. Dubois D, Sandri SA (1997) Editorial. Fuzzy Sets Syst 90(2):109–110
6. Gao Q (2017) Universal fuzzy models and universal fuzzy controllers for stochastic non-affine
nonlinear systems. In: Universal fuzzy controllers for non-affine nonlinear systems. Springer
Singapore, Singapore, pp 45–70
7. Radu-Emil P, Radu-Codrut D, Emil MP (2017) Grey wolf optimizer algorithm-based tuning of
fuzzy control systems with reduced parametric sensitivity. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 64(1):527–
534
8. Van-Binh B, Quy-Cao T, Hai-Le B (2017) Multi-objective optimal design of fuzzy controller
46 for structural vibration control using Hedge-algebras approach. Artif Intell Rev 43:345–379
9. Driankov D, Palm R (2013) Advances in fuzzy control. Physica
10. Mohan BM, Sinha A (2008) Analytical structure and stability analysis of a fuzzy PID controller.
Appl Soft Comput 8(1):749–758
11. Chia-Feng J, Ying-Han C, Yue-Hua J (2015) Wall-following control of a hexapod robot using
a data-driven fuzzy controller learned through differential evolution. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
62(1):611–619
12. Bi Y, Srinivasan D, Lu X, Sun Z, Zeng W (2014) Type-2 fuzzy multi-intersection traffic signal
control with differential evolution optimization. Expert Syst Appl 41(16):7338–7349
13. Sun Z, Wang N, Srinivasan D, Bi Y (2014) Optimal tunning of type-2 fuzzy logic power system
stabilizer based on differential evolution algorithm. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 62:19–28
14. Liu J, Lampinen J (2005) A fuzzy adaptive differential evolution algorithm. Soft Comput
9(6):448–462
15. Tang L, Zhao Y, Liu J (2014) An improved differential evolution algorithm for practical dynamic
scheduling in steelmaking-continuous casting production. IEEE Trans Evol Comput 18(2):209–
225
16. Wang Y, Liu Z-Z, Li J, Li H-X, Wang J (2018) On the selection of solutions for mutation in
differential evolution. Front Comput Sci 12(2):297–315
17. Salehpour M, Jamali A, Bagheri A, Nariman-zadeh N (2017) A new adaptive differential
evolution optimization algorithm based on fuzzy inference system. Eng Sci Technol Int J
20(2):587–597
18. Aalto J, Lampinen J (2014) A mutation and crossover adaptation mechanism for differential
evolution algorithm. In: 2014 IEEE Congress on evolutionary computation (CEC), Beijing,
China, pp 451–458
19. Aalto J, Lampinen J (2013) A mutation adaptation mechanism for Differential Evolution
algorithm. In: 2013 IEEE Congress on evolutionary computation, Cancun, Mexico, pp 55–62
20. Sa-ngiamvibool W (2017) Optimal fuzzy logic proportional integral derivative controller design
by bee algorithm for hydro-thermal system. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 1–1
21. Cuevas E, Luque A, Zaldívar D, Pérez-Cisneros M (2017) Evolutionary calibration of fractional
fuzzy controllers. Appl Intell 47, pp 291–303
References 3

22. Caraveo C, Valdez F, Castillo O (2016) Optimization of fuzzy controller design using a new bee
colony algorithm with fuzzy dynamic parameter adaptation. Appl Soft Comput 43:131–142
23. Noshadi A, Shi J, Lee WS, Shi P, Kalam A (2016) Optimal PID-type fuzzy logic controller for
a multi-input multi-output active magnetic bearing system. Neural Comput Appl 27(7):2031–
2046
24. Martínez-Soto R, Castillo O, Castro JR (2014) Genetic algorithm optimization for type-2 non-
singleton fuzzy logic controllers. In: Recent advances on hybrid approaches for designing
intelligent systems, vol 547. Springer, Germany
25. Melin P, Astudillo L, Castillo O, Valdez F, Garcia M (2013) Optimal design of type-2 and
type-1 fuzzy tracking controllers for autonomous mobile robots under perturbed torques using
a new chemical optimization paradigm. Expert Syst Appl 40(8):3185–3195
26. De la O D, Castillo O, Soria J (2007) Optimization of reactive control for mobile robots
based on the CRA using type-2 fuzzy logic. In: Melin P, Castillo O, Kacprzyk J (eds) Nature-
inspired design of hybrid intelligent systems, vol 667. Springer International Publishing, Cham,
pp. 505–515
27. Olivas F, Valdez F, Melin P, Sombra A, Castillo O (2019) Interval type-2 fuzzy logic for dynamic
parameter adaptation in a modified gravitational search algorithm. Inf Sci 476:159–175
28. Castillo O, Melin P, Valdez F, Soria J, Ontiveros-Robles E, Peraza C, Ochoa P (2019) Shadowed
type-2 fuzzy systems for dynamic parameter adaptation in harmony search and differential
evolution algorithms. Algorithms 12(1):17
29. Ontiveros-Robles E, Melin P, Castillo O (2018) Comparative analysis of noise robustness of
type 2 fuzzy logic controllers. Kybernetika 54(1):175–201
30. Castillo O, Cervantes L, Soria J, Sanchez M, Castro JR (2016) A generalized type-2 fuzzy
granular approach with applications to aerospace. Inf Sci 354:165–177
31. Castillo O, Amador-Angulo L, Castro JR, Garcia-Valdez M (2016) A comparative study of
type-1 fuzzy logic systems, interval type-2 fuzzy logic systems and generalized type-2 fuzzy
logic systems in control problems. Inf Sci 354:257–274
32. Sánchez MA, Castillo O, Castro JR (2015) Information granule formation via the concept
of uncertainty-based information with interval type-2 fuzzy sets representation and Takagi–
Sugeno–Kang consequents optimized with Cuckoo search. Appl Soft Comput 27:602–609
33. Cervantes L, Castillo O (2015) Type-2 fuzzy logic aggregation of multiple fuzzy controllers
for airplane flight control. Information Sci 324:247–256
34. Amador-Angulo L, Castillo O (2015, June) Statistical analysis of type-1 and interval type-2
fuzzy logic in dynamic parameter adaptation of the BCO. In: 2015 conference of the Interna-
tional Fuzzy Systems Association and the European Society for Fuzzy Logic and Technology
(IFSA-EUSFLAT-15). Mendel JM, Liu X (2013 December) Simplified interval type-2 fuzzy
logic systems. IEEE Trans Fuzzy Syst 21(6):1056–1069
Chapter 2
Fuzzy Logic Systems

In this chapter we present some basic concepts about fuzzy systems needed to better
understand the ideas and the concepts of this book.
A fuzzy logic system (FLS) that is defined entirely in terms of Type-1 fuzzy sets is
known as a Type 1 fuzzy logic system (Type-1 FLS) [1], and its elements are defined
in Fig. 2.1.
A Type-2 fuzzy set, Ã, is characterized by Eq. 2.1:
 

A = (x, u), u 
A (x, u)|∀x ∈ X, ∀u ∈ Jx ⊆ [0, 1] (2.1)

where 0 ≤ u  A (x, u) ≤ 1.
In a general way we can say that a type-2 fuzzy set is a generalization of a fuzzy
set that is associated with a secondary source of uncertainty related to the defini-
tion of a set 
A. This additional source of uncertainty is represented as a secondary
membership function. A Type-2 fuzzy system, whose secondary membership func-
tion is an interval, hence the name of Interval Type-2 fuzzy system, is expressed by
two membership functions, where one represents the degree of belonging in X and
the other gives a weighting to each of the Type-1 fuzzy systems. Figure 2.2 shows
the architecture of an Interval Type-2 fuzzy system.
The output processor includes a type-reducer and a defuzzifier; it generates a Type-
1 fuzzy set output (from the type-reducer) or a crisp number (from the defuzzifier).
The main difference between the Type-1 and the Interval Type-2 fuzzy systems is
the footprint of uncertainty (FOU) that defines the uncertainty of  A as the union of
all the primary belongings which is limited by two membership functions: an upper
membership function and lower membership function. In addition, in the Interval
Type-2 fuzzy system there is the defuzzifier block of a Type-1 is replaced by the
processing block output consisting of a type-reducer followed by defuzzifier. It is
important to mention that the inference operation in the Interval Type-2 fuzzy system
is much more complicated than in Type-1 fuzzy system and that a type reducer is
necessary for a Type-2 fuzzy system to convert Type-2 fuzzy sets into Type-1. These

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 5

O. Castillo et al., Differential Evolution Algorithm with Type-2 Fuzzy Logic for Dynamic
Parameter Adaptation with Application to Intelligent Control,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62133-9_2
6 2 Fuzzy Logic Systems

Fig. 2.1 Type-1 fuzzy logic system

Fig. 2.2 Type-2 fuzzy logic system

differences are the ones that make the calculations of an Interval Type-2 fuzzy system
more challenging.
With Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic systems the logic is generally the same as
for Type-1 and the Interval Type-2 fuzzy systems, but their operations are somewhat
different, due to the nature of Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic [1]. There are several
mathematical definitions of a Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic system, and we used
the representation based on [2, 3] to define Generalized Type-2 Fuzzy Sets and are
defined by the following Eq. 2.2:
2 Fuzzy Logic Systems 7

Fig. 2.3 Generalized type-2 membership function

Fig. 2.4 FOU of the generalized type-2 membership function

≈   
A= A (x, u) |∀x ∈ X, ∀u ∈ Jx ⊆ [0, 1]
(x, u), μ (2.2)

where J x ⊆ [0, 1], x is the partition of the primary membership function, and u is the
partition of the secondary membership function. In Fig. 2.3 we can find a represen-
tation of a Generalized Type-2 membership function, and in Fig. 2.4, the footprint
of uncertainty (FOU) is illustrated, which is associated with the third dimension and
allows a better modeling of real world uncertainty. It must be noted that there is a
small difference in notation when compared with Type-1 and Interval Type-2 fuzzy
system, this is, Type-1 and Interval Type-2 fuzzy system use the notation μ(x), but
8 2 Fuzzy Logic Systems

Fig. 2.5 An example of the

associated type-2 fuzzy set
for the alpha-plane

Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic systems uses f x (u), in the vertical axis, and this is due
to the complexity involved in Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic systems in comparison
with the others, as well as how Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic systems has been
described in the literature.
The α-plane for a Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic, in this case A,  is denoted by
Ãα, and it is the union of all primary membership functions of Ã, which secondary
membership degrees are higher or equal to α (0 ≤ α ≤ 1) [4, 5]. The equation of an
alpha plane is represented by Eq. 2.3. In Fig. 2.5 the representation of an alpha plane
is illustrated.
 
α = (x, u), μ A(x, u) ≥ α|∀x ∈ X, ∀u ∈ Jx ⊆ [0, 1]
A (2.3)

References

1. Sánchez MA, Castillo O, Castro JR (2015) Generalized type-2 fuzzy systems for controlling
a mobile robot and a performance comparison with interval type-2 and type-1 fuzzy systems.
Expert Syst Appl 42(14):5904–5914
2. Melin P, González CI, Castro JR, Mendoza O, Castillo O (2014) Edge-detection method for
image processing based on generalized type-2 fuzzy logic. IEEE Trans Fuzzy Syst 22(6):1515–
1525
3. Sanchez MA, Castro JR, Castillo O (2013, April) Formation of general type-2 Gaussian member-
ship functions based on the information granule numerical evidence. In: 2013 IEEE workshop
on hybrid intelligent models and applications (HIMA), pp 1–6. IEEE
4. Castillo O, Atanassov K (2019) Comments on fuzzy sets, interval type-2 fuzzy sets, general
type-2 fuzzy sets and intuitionistic fuzzy sets. I: Recent advances in intuitionistic fuzzy logic
systems, pp 35–43. Springer, Cham
5. Mendel JM, Liu F, Zhai D (2009) Alpha-plane representation for type-2 fuzzy sets: theory and
applications. IEEE Trans Fuzzy Syst 17(5):1189–1207
Chapter 3
Differential Evolution Algorithm

In this chapter, the description of the Differential Evolution algorithm is explained.

Differential Evolution is basically composed of 4 steps [1]: initialization,
mutation, crossing and selection.
This is a non-deterministic technique based on the evolution of a vector popula-
tion (individuals) of real values representing the solutions in the search space. The
generation of new individuals is carried out by the differential crossover and mutation
operators. The operation of the algorithm is explained in more detail below.

3.1 Population Structure

The Differential Evolution algorithm maintains a pair of vector populations, both of

which contain Np D-dimensional vectors of real-valued parameters [2], the current
population, symbolized Px , is composed of the vector x i,g in Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2.
 
Px,g = x i,g , i =
 0, 1, . . . , N p − 1, g = 0, 1, . . . , gmax , (3.1)
x i,g = x j,i,g , j = 0, 1, . . . , D − 1
 
Pv,g = vi,g , i = 0, 1, . . . , N p − 1, g = 0, 1, . . . , gmax , (3.2)
vi,g = v j,i,g , j = 0, 1, . . . , D − 1

Each vector in the current population is recombined with a mutant vector to

produce a trial population, Pu , the NP, Eq. 3.3 represents the mutant vector ui,g :
 
Pu,g = ui,g , i =
 0, 1, . . . , N p − 1, g = 0, 1, . . . , gmax , (3.3)
ui,g = u j,i,g , j = 0, 1, . . . , D − 1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 9

O. Castillo et al., Differential Evolution Algorithm with Type-2 Fuzzy Logic for Dynamic
Parameter Adaptation with Application to Intelligent Control,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62133-9_3
10 3 Differential Evolution Algorithm

3.2 Initialization

Before initializing the population in Eq. 3.4, the upper and lower limits for each
parameter must be specified. These 2D values can be collected by two initialized
vectors, D-dimensional, b L y bU , for which the subscripts L and U indicate the
lower and upper limits respectively. Once the initialization limits have been specified
a number generator randomly assigns each parameter in every vector a value within
the set range. For example, the initial value (g = 0) of the j-th vector parameter is
ith:
 
x j,i,0 = rand j (0, 1) · b j,U − b j,L + b j,L (3.4)

3.3 Mutation

In particular, the differential mutation uses a random sample Eq. 3.5 showing how
to combine three different vectors chosen randomly to create a mutant vector.
 
vi,g = x r0 ,g + F · x r1 ,g − x r2 ,g (3.5)

The scale factor, F ∈ (0,1) is a positive real number that controls the rate at which
the population evolves. While there is no upper limit on F, the values are rarely
greater than 1.0.

3.4 Crossover

To complement the differential mutation search strategy, DE also uses uniform

crossover. This is sometimes known as discrete recombination (dual). In particular,
DE crosses each vector with a mutant vector expressed in Eq. 3.6:
  
v j,i,g i f rand j (0, 1) ≤ C R or j = jrand
ui,g = u j,i,g (3.6)
x j,i,g otherwise
3.5 Selection 11

3.5 Selection

If the test vector, ui,g has a value of the objective function equal to or less than, its
target vector, Xi, g , it replaces the target vector in the next generation; otherwise, the
target retains its place in population for at least another generation, represented in
the Eq. 3.7.
    
ui,g i f f ui,g ≤ f x i,g
x i,g+1 = (3.7)
x i,g other wise

The process of mutation, recombination and selection are repeated until the
optimum is found, or a terminating pre criteria specified is satisfied. DE is a simple,
but powerful search engine that simulates natural evolution, combined with a mech-
anism to generate multiple search directions based on the distribution of solutions
in the current population. Each vector i in the population at generation G, xi ∈ G,
called at this moment of reproduction as the target vector will be able to generate
one offspring, called trial vector (u i , G). This trial vector is generated as follows:
First of all, a search direction is defined by calculating the difference between a pair
of vectors r1 and r2 , called “differential vectors”, both of them chosen at random
from the population. This difference vector is also scaled by using a user defined
parameter called “F ≥ 0”. This scaled difference vector is then added to a third
vector r3 , called “base vector”. As a result, a new vector is obtained, known as
the mutation vector. After that, this mutation vector is recombined with the target
vector (also called parent vector) by using discrete recombination (usually binomial
crossover) controlled by a crossover parameter 0 ≤ CR ≤ 1 whose value determines
how similar the trial vector will be with respect to the target vector. There are several
DE variants. However, the most known and used is DE/rand/1/bin, where the base
vector is chosen at random, there is only a pair of differential vectors and a binomial
crossover is used.
Figure 3.1 corresponds to the pseudocode of the original Differential Evolution
algorithm, which summarizes more clearly the equations mentioned above.
In summary, we can say that the differential Evolution algorithm involves defining
a population of NP vectors, these vectors are initialized, the lower and upper limits
have to be previously defined depending on the problem, 3 individuals are selected,
mutation and a crossover operations are applied, If the value resulting is better than
the one chosen for replacement, then it replaces it. Otherwise, the main individual is
retained.
12 3 Differential Evolution Algorithm

Fig. 3.1 Pseudocode of the differential evolution algorithm

References

1. Price K, Storn RM, Lampinen JA (2006) Differential evolution: a practical approach to global
optimization. Springer Science & Business Media
2. Salehpour M, Jamali A, Bagheri A, Nariman-Zadeh N (2017) A new adaptive differential
evolution optimization algorithm based on fuzzy inference system. Eng Sci Technol Int J
20(2):587–597
Chapter 4
Proposed Method

This chapter explains in a general way how the Differential Evolution algorithm
combined with fuzzy logic is used, just as the structure shown of the proposed
methodology.
For the experiments we use the proposed method, which we call DE+FS (Fuzzy
Differential Evolution), which has dynamic adjustment of the parameters as main
difference with respect to the original algorithm, which is recommended to be used
in a range of [0, 1]. The proposed method makes the F (mutation) and CR (crossover)
parameters to be moved dynamically during the execution of the algorithm within
the range [0, 1]. We have previous works where we used our proposed DE+T1FS
method for Benchmark problems and we obtained good results [1–4].
For this work we use our DE+FS method to change the parameter values of the
membership functions for benchmark controller problems. A comparison is made
where we dynamically move the F (mutation) or CR (crossover) parameters, with
Type-1 fuzzy logic, Interval Type-2 fuzzy system or Generalized Type-2 fuzzy logic
system, which is in charge of dynamically moving the F or CR parameters.
Figure 4.1 represents the general proposed methodology where the F and CR
parameters represent mutation and crossover respectively, with the help of each of
the different fuzzy systems they are dynamically changing during the execution of
the algorithm. It is important to mention that for the experimentation, each one of
the proposed fuzzy system was worked separately.
Equation 4.1 represents the current generations and is defined by the number of
generation elapsed and maximum number of generations is defined by the number
of generations established for DE to find the best solution, the outputs are F or CR
parameters, are calculated in Eqs. 4.2 and 4.3:

Curr ent Generation

Generations = (4.1)
Maximun o f generations

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 13

O. Castillo et al., Differential Evolution Algorithm with Type-2 Fuzzy Logic for Dynamic
Parameter Adaptation with Application to Intelligent Control,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62133-9_4
14 4 Proposed Method

Fig. 4.1 Original algorithm with a fuzzy system

r F F
i=1 µi (F1i )
F=  rF (4.2)
i=1 µi
F

rC R C R
µ (C R1i )
C R = i=1
rCiR C R (4.3)
i=1 µi

where mutation is F; r F is the number of rules of the fuzzy system corresponding

to F; F1i , is the output result for rule i corresponding to F; µiF , is the membership
function of rule i corresponding to F, and crossover is CR; rC R , is the number of
rules of the fuzzy system corresponding to CR; C R1i , is the output result for rule i
corresponding to CR; µiF , is the membership function of rule i corresponding to CR.
Figure 4.2 represents the pseudocode in which the fuzzy system is used to
dynamically adapt F or CR parameters.
4 Proposed Method 15

Fig. 4.2 Pseudocode for the fuzzy differential evolution

References

1. Ochoa P, Castillo O, Soria J (2016, October) Type-2 fuzzy logic dynamic parameter adaptation
in a new fuzzy differential evolution method. In: 2016 annual conference of the North American
Fuzzy Information Processing Society (NAFIPS), pp 1–6. IEEE
2. Ochoa P, Castillo O, Soria J (2016, September) Fuzzy differential evolution method with dynamic
parameter adaptation using type-2 fuzzy logic. In: 2016 IEEE 8th international conference on
intelligent systems (IS), pp 113–118. IEEE
3. Ochoa P, Castillo O, Soria J (2017) Differential evolution using fuzzy logic and a comparative
study with other metaheuristics. In: Melin P, Castillo O, Kacprzyk J (eds) Nature-inspired design
of hybrid intelligent systems, vol 667. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 257–268
4. Castillo O, Ochoa P, Soria J (2016) Differential evolution with fuzzy logic for dynamic adaptation
of parameters in mathematical function optimization. In: Angelov P, Sotirov S (eds) Imprecision
and uncertainty in information representation and processing, vol 332. Springer International
Publishing, Cham, pp 361–374
Chapter 5
Case Studies

This chapter proposes the use of the Differential Evolution algorithm with fuzzy logic
for parameter adaptation in the optimal design of fuzzy controllers for non-linear
plants. The Differential Evolution algorithm is enhanced using Type-1 and Interval
Type-2 fuzzy systems for achieving dynamic adaptation of the mutation parameter. In
this chapter four control optimization problems in which the Differential Evolution
algorithm optimizes the membership functions of the fuzzy controllers are presented.
First, the experiments were performed with the original algorithm, second the experi-
ments were performed with the Fuzzy Differential Evolution (in this case the mutation
parameter is dynamic) and the last experiments were performed applying noise to
the control plant by using Fuzzy Differential Evolution were performed. The char-
acteristics of each of the control problems to be used for experimentation are listed
below.

5.1 Water Tank Controller

The first case study is of the water tank controller, whose main objective is controlling
the water level in a tank, and Fig. 5.1 graphically represents the way in which the
valve operates and hence the filling process in the tank [1, 2].
The mathematical model of the water tank controller is presented in the Eq. 5.1:

d dH √
V ol = A = bV − a H (5.1)
dt dt
where:
Vol Volume of water in the tank
A Cross-sectional area
b Constant related to the flow rate into tank.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 17

O. Castillo et al., Differential Evolution Algorithm with Type-2 Fuzzy Logic for Dynamic
Parameter Adaptation with Application to Intelligent Control,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Intelligence,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62133-9_5
18 5 Case studies

Fig. 5.1 Graphical illustration of the water tank controller

a Constant related to the flow rate out of the tank.

H Height of water H as a function of time
Where Vol is the volume of water in the tank, A is the cross-sectional area of the
tank, b is a constant related to the flow rate into the tank, and a is a constant related
to the flow rate out of the tank. The equation describes the height of water H as a
function of time, due to the difference between flow rates into and out of the tank.
Figure 5.2 illustrates the structure of the fuzzy system for this control problem,
the way in which the membership functions are granulated, the type of functions and
how many membership functions correspond to each input and output. The 5 fuzzy
rules of the controller are presented in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.2 Fuzzy control system for the water tank

5.1 Water Tank Controller 19

Fig. 5.3 Rules of the water tank controller

The fuzzy system designed for the water tank controller is built based on the actual
filling behavior of a water tank, and the set of rules are made in terms of the theory
of how this process is performed.

5.2 Temperature Controller

The second case study is a temperature controller, whose main objective is to control
the temperature in the water flow. Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show the fuzzy system for
the temperature controller, the system contains two inputs and two outputs, is of
Mamdani type and the rules are presented in Fig. 5.6 [3].

Fig. 5.4 Graphical illustration of the temperature controller

20 5 Case studies

Fig. 5.5 Fuzzy system for the temperature controller

Fig. 5.6 Fuzzy rules of the temperature controller

The fuzzy system of this controller contains two inputs, the first one is called
Temperature and is composed of three membership functions, which are called cold,
good and hot, the two membership functions are trapezoidal and the central one is
triangular. The second input is called Flow and is composed of three membership
functions which are called soft is of trapezoidal type, good is of triangular type and
hard trapezoidal type.
The combination of rules shown in Fig. 5.6 simulates the speed of the water flow
at the desired temperature.
5.3 Mobile Robot Controller 21

5.3 Mobile Robot Controller

The third control problem is the case of a mobile robot, in this case the plant is of
a unicycle mobile robot [4], consisting of two driving wheels located on the same
axis and a front free wheel, and Fig. 5.7 shows a graphical description of the robot
model.
The robot body is symmetrical around the perpendicular axis and the center of
mass is at the geometric center of the body. It has two driving wheels that are fixed
to the axis that passes through the center of mass “C” represented by {C, Xm, Ym},
and one passive wheel that prevents the robot from tipping over as it moves on a
plane.
The mathematical model of the robot is given by the following Eq. 5.2:

M(q)v̇ + C(q, q̇)v + Dv = τ + P(t) (5.2)

where,
q = (x, y, θ)T is the vector of the configuration coordinates.
v = (v, T
 w)  is the vector of velocities.
τ = τ1, τ2 is the vector of torques applied to the wheels of the robot where τ1
and τ2 denote the torques of the right and left wheel, respectively.
P ∈ R 2 is the uniformly bounded disturbance vector.
M(q) ∈ R 2X 2 is the positive-definite inertia matrix.
C(q, q̇)ϑ is the vector of centripetal and Coriolis forces.
D ∈ R 2X 2 is a diagonal positive-definite damping matrix.
The kinematic system is represented by Eq. 5.3:

Fig. 5.7 Mobile robot model

22 5 Case studies
⎡ ⎤
cos θ 0 
v
q̇ = ⎣ θ 0 ⎦ (5.3)
sin w
01

where,
(x, y) is the position in the X − Y (world) reference frame
θ is the angle between the heading direction and the x-axis
v and w are the linear and angular velocities, respectively.
Equation 5.4 represents the non-holonomic constraint, which this system has,
which corresponds to a non-slip wheel condition preventing the robot from moving
sideways.

ẏ cos θ − ẋ sin θ = 0 (5.4)

Figure 5.8 illustrates the fuzzy system for the robot controller, and this controller
is composed of two inputs and two outputs. The first input is ev (error in the linear
velocity), and the second is ew (error in the angular velocity), which have three
membership functions with linguistic values of N, Z and P. The first output is t1
(torque 1) and the second output is t2 (torque 2) with three membership functions
with the same linguistic values, is of Mamdani type and Fig. 5.9 shows the fuzzy
rules.
The system fails to meet Brockett’s necessary condition for feedback stabilization,
which implies that no continuous static state-feedback controller exists that can
stabilize the closed-loop system around the equilibrium point.

Fig. 5.8 Fuzzy system for the robot controller

5.4 Inverted Pendulum Control 23

Fig. 5.9 Rules of the robot controller

5.4 Inverted Pendulum Control

This control problem, unlike the aforementioned ones, it is of the Takagi-Sugeno

type, which makes the level of complexity increase. In addition complexity is also
originating from the nonlinear nature of the problem. The objective of this problem
is to keep the pendulum in balance without falling off the car. This plant consists of
a straight-line rail, a cart, a pendulum, and a driving unit. The cart can move left or
right on the rail freely. The pendulum is hinged on the center of the top surface of
the cart and can rotate around the pivot in the same vertical plane with the rail. Given
that no friction exists in the system, Eqs. 5.5 and 5.6 represents the mathematical
model of the inverted pendulum [5].
   
∝= m c + m p g sin θ − F + m p l p ω2 sin θ cos θ 4/3 m c + m p − m p (cos θ )2 l p ,
(5.5)

a = 4/3 F + m p l p ω2 sin θ
 
− m p g sin θ cos θ 4/3 m c + m p − m p (cos θ )2 (5.6)

The parameters mc and mp are, respectively, the mass of the cart and the mass
of the pendulum in the unit [kg], and g = 9.8 m/s2 is the gravity acceleration. The
parameter lp is the length from the center of the pendulum to the pivot in the unit [m]
and equals to the half-length of the pendulum. The variable F represents the driving
force in the unit [N] applied horizontally to the cart. The variables θ, ω, α represent,
respectively, the angle of the pendulum from upright position, its angular velocity,
its angular acceleration, and the clockwise direction is positive, respectively. The
variables x, v, a denote the position of the cart from the rail origin, its velocity, its
acceleration, and right direction is positive.
Figure 5.10 shows the main idea of the inverted pendulum controller.
The fuzzy system structure of the controller is shown in Fig. 5.11, which contains
4 inputs which are Pendulum angle, Angular velocity, Cart position and Cart velocity,
all membership functions are Gaussian type, and one output that contains 16 linear
functions.
The rule set for this controller is shown in Fig. 5.12, which simulates the vehicle’s
behavior on the cart to maintain balance.
The combination of the rules of Fig. 5.12 is given by the following meanings:
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