Full Download Challenges to African Entrepreneurship in the 21st Century 1st Edition Darko Opoku PDF DOCX
Full Download Challenges to African Entrepreneurship in the 21st Century 1st Edition Darko Opoku PDF DOCX
Full Download Challenges to African Entrepreneurship in the 21st Century 1st Edition Darko Opoku PDF DOCX
com
https://textbookfull.com/product/challenges-to-african-
entrepreneurship-in-the-21st-century-1st-edition-darko-
opoku/
OR CLICK BUTTON
DOWNLOAD NOW
https://textbookfull.com/product/african-women-early-history-to-
the-21st-century-kathleen-sheldon/
textboxfull.com
https://textbookfull.com/product/african-languages-and-literatures-in-
the-21st-century-esther-mukewa-lisanza/
textboxfull.com
https://textbookfull.com/product/narrating-the-new-african-
diaspora-21st-century-nigerian-literature-in-context-maximilian-
feldner/
textboxfull.com
https://textbookfull.com/product/community-mental-health-challenges-
for-the-21st-century-jessica-rosenberg/
textboxfull.com
New venture creation : entrepreneurship for the 21st
century Tenth Edition. Edition Stephen Spinelli Jr
https://textbookfull.com/product/new-venture-creation-
entrepreneurship-for-the-21st-century-tenth-edition-edition-stephen-
spinelli-jr/
textboxfull.com
https://textbookfull.com/product/marine-fog-challenges-and-
advancements-in-observations-modeling-and-forecasting-1st-edition-
darko-koracin/
textboxfull.com
https://textbookfull.com/product/african-entrepreneurship-leo-paul-
dana/
textboxfull.com
https://textbookfull.com/product/global-turning-points-the-challenges-
for-business-and-society-in-the-21st-century-2nd-edition-mauro-f-
guillen/
textboxfull.com
Challenges to African
Entrepreneurship
in the 21st Century
Editors
Darko Opoku Eve Sandberg
Africana Studies Department Politics Department
Oberlin College Africana Oberlin College
Studies Department Oberlin, Ohio, USA
Oberlin, Ohio, USA
This has been a joint project and thus the editors of the volume are cited in
alphabetical order. The editors thank the anonymous readers secured by the
publisher for their insights and suggestions that improved this manuscript.
The editors thank Sandy Austen, Help Desk Coordinator at the Center
for Information Technology of Oberlin College, for her assistance and
counsel regarding formatting problems that appeared as we grappled with
contributions from various authors. Eve Sandberg is also grateful to the
J.D. Lewis Teaching and Research Portfolio Fund for the financial support
it provided to ready this manuscript.
The editors are most grateful to Molly Johnson whose help in prepar-
ing this manuscript was invaluable in bringing the project to completion.
Molly harmonized all the citations from the contributing authors to meet
formatting specifications, found and chased down missing citations, pro-
vided expert copyediting, and much more. The product is both much
improved as well as complete due to Molly’s work.
Eve Sandberg thanks Sandy Zagarell with whom she has shared her
professional and personal life for more than twenty-five years. Sandy’s
encouragement and support throughout this project are gratefully
received. Eve also thanks Kasha, Nina, and Kingston for contributing to a
loving and caring environment in which to live and work.
Darko Opoku would like to acknowledge the steadfast love, support,
and dedication of his wife, Adwoa Boahemaa, without whom his contribu-
tion might never have seen the light of day. Darko also acknowledges the
support, enthusiasm, and encouragement of his daughter, Bour Opoku,
v
vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
who has been understanding during the many absences in the course of
collecting data and writing. Finally, he would like to thank his mother,
Akosua “Nyamekye” Frimpomaa, for teaching him the invaluable lessons
that continue to guide and inspire him every day.
Contents
vii
viii Contents
Author Index203
Subject Index209
Notes on Contributors
ix
x Notes on Contributors
xiii
CHAPTER 1
Eve Sandberg
E. Sandberg (*)
Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH, USA
was a junior partner in alliance with the military or peasant and laboring
classes, another form of authoritarianism (such as fascism or communism)
would likely replace the monarchical system of authoritarian governance.
Then, during the 1980s and 1990s, those writing in the Lipset and
Moore traditions were countered by others who warned of overemphasiz-
ing the role that capitalists’ economic activities in the economy play in
sustaining democracy. For example, Charles Edward Lindblom warned of
the “privileged position of business” by capitalists in liberal democracies
and the dangers that they posed.9 Lindblom noted the advantages held by
business owners as opposed to ordinary citizens. Two such advantages
illustrated Lindblom’s point. Businesses already had organized their
citizens/employees who were interested in the success of the business and
could function as an interest group. Additionally, businesses generally
possessed greater resources to use to support allies who engaged in political
contestation than did an individual citizen. An individual citizen who
sought to advocate politically or influence policy started from a less privi-
leged position than did a business owner.
David Apter also warned that too many democratic demands (including
those of capitalist business owners) on state leaders of newly industrializ-
ing and democratizing states (most of which lacked adequate resources)
contributed to an overload of expectations. When the state could not fulfil
those expectations, a newly democratic state and its officials would become
illegitimate in the eyes of its citizens. In the short term, the project of
creating democratic processes likely would be undermined.10 Apter also
noted that, beyond the material factors that influenced a state’s legitimacy,
the bounded discourse of development practitioners within the popular
mytho-logics of their time limited officials’ abilities to craft effective devel-
opment policies as they publicly reproduced the constraining mytho-logics
in their own documents and policies. And, with rare exceptions, African
state leaders emphasized a discourse that privileged recalling the fight for
independence over a discourse that offered a clear plan for development or
articulated any role for black African capitalists.
Other analysts of economic development and democratic institutions
argued that capitalist industrialization and Western political institutions
could be attained quickly by newly independent African states, depending
on the choices made by African leaders. During the 1960s when most
African countries secured their independence, modernization theorists
argued that late-industrializing countries needed to shed their traditional
practices and adopt Western institutions, especially capitalist and liberal
democratic institutions, as well as the West’s norms, so that late-industrializing
6 E. SANDBERG
states could quickly move through the steps that had been taken in the
West’s industrialization path.11 In its day, this was considered a politically
progressive intellectual position because modernization theorists argued
that white Westerners had not accomplished anything that other peoples
around the world could not accomplish if they applied the learned practices
of industrialization.12 Modernization theorists had come of age during
World War II, a time when German and other eugenics theorists had argued
for the merits of white supremacy and also made race claims that the West
had superior gifts that other races and ethnicities in other parts of the globe
lacked. Modernization theorists argued that this was not the case; rather, all
peoples would increase their technology, their cosmopolitanism, and
increase their countries’ industrial development and likely would pass
through the same steps to achieve modernization.
Dependency theorists opposed modernization theorists, with depen-
dency analyses becoming more complex throughout the 1970s and early
1980s. Initially, dependency theorists warned that multinational capitalists
were stealing the resources needed for development in late-industrializing
states, including those of Africa, through international trading structures
that produced and reproduced inequalities of trade.13 Multinational capi-
talism was an obstacle preventing the development of African states.
Later, more complex dependency theories argued that multinational
capitalists often “bought” local capitalists or state officials through class
alliances across states, ignoring the needs of the public in late-industrializing
countries and shipping valuable resources to the North.14 Dependency
theorists often drew upon the work of Alexander Gerschenkron’s con-
cerns with uneven development paths. Gerschenkron argued that an
“economically backward” state (Russia was his example) that engaged in
industrialization likely would not follow a British model because when
Britain had undertaken industrialization, it was not “economically back-
ward” compared to other states in its world. Additionally, Immanuel
Wallerstein’s insights on the dynamics of our evolving capitalist world sys-
tem and the roles that different countries and regions fulfill as that world
system evolves also provided important supports for dependency theo-
rists.15 Both Gerschenkron’s and Wallerstein’s work suggested that what
the modernization theorists proposed, a process of states passing through
similar paths to development, was not accurate.
Debates from the late 1980s that continue today address the contribu-
tions of African capitalists to national development. They mainly are con-
ducted within the overarching debates concerning whether or not African
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYZING AFRICAN ENTREPRENEURS 7
Rural citizens, not just urban workers who lost their jobs in state and
commercial enterprises, were also hit hard. In what have been called “land
grabs,” foreign companies came into African states and displaced peasants
who had worked the land, often with permission of national government
officials and often by paying off local chiefs. Generally, these foreign com-
panies produced goods for export to Western countries where workers
with jobs had discretionary income and could afford to purchase imported
goods. They exported coffee or flowers, for example. The rural producers,
who were forced off the land that they had traditionally worked, then had
no food for their families to eat, nor food to sell at market. In turn, they
could not make purchases from those entrepreneurs who offered goods
and services such as brick making, cooking oil, and hand hoes, to name a
few examples of goods that previously had been designed for rural mar-
kets. As a result of such foreign investment under neo-liberal capitalist
principles, many rural Africans suddenly lacked food and could not earn
money either to purchase food or to buy the goods of any entrepreneur
offering products rural residents might desire.
Critics believed the austerity programs were not even designed to save
the states, but rather to save the Western banks, Western corporations, and
Western governments who had failed in their fiduciary investment obliga-
tions and extended huge loans to governments that could not repay those
loans. These critics have been even more censorious in arguing that the
poor in late-industrializing and medium-sized industrial countries should
not have paid for the errors of elite Western investors.25 So in the 1990s
and 2000s, when Marxism no longer posed a credible alternative to capi-
talism, not all citizens around the globe were supportive of the neoliberal
austerity SAPs.
By the late 1990s and into the twenty-first century, those who studied
political economies in Europe began to challenge the image of an evolving
single model of a Western-inspired political economy, arguing instead,
that even among Western European states many variations in the forms of
capitalism could be found. A variety of entrepreneurs and corporations
were important actors and institutions in those studies. As analyses of the
varieties of capitalism increased, according to Bob Hancké, the business
firm remained the central unit of analysis.26 Scholars analyzed the firms’
relations with labor, the state, those in the market who purchased the
firms’ goods and services, the banks and other sources of capital from
whom the firms borrowed, the suppliers of goods (mainly tools and tech-
nology) to firms, and the markets for purchasing those goods which firms
needed in order to produce their own products.27
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYZING AFRICAN ENTREPRENEURS 11
welfare states and strong labor unions and generous welfare states and
also strong left parties without strong labor unions and generous (or not)
welfare states.33
In one of their most illuminating chapters, Aligica and Tarko analyzed
the evolving “entrepreneurship capitalist” economy within a globalizing
world with “oligopolistic market structures.” They argue that even large
firms such as Walmart and Amazon adopted decentralized management
structures and changing communications practices that employed lessons
learned from those who promoted small-scale entrepreneurship.34 Thus it
seems that the practices of capitalist entrepreneurs for spurring national
development and economic success remain an important concern for
many in the twenty-first century.35
In today’s world, however, the capitalist entrepreneur faces some
unique challenges, as well as some that are seen to be inherently part of
any capitalist formation during any period. In Africa, where state actions
still dominate national political economies despite decades of the IFIs’
structural adjustment policies, many indigenous, independent, African
entrepreneurs, as well as African workers, remain marginalized compared
to the foreign entrepreneurs and Africa’s political and military leaders.
This volume then gathers together a group of authors who have
researched African entrepreneurs and businesses within the contempo-
rary, evolving political economy of Africa. In fact, some of our authors
are scholars who have already published full-length manuscripts in the
newly growing subfield of black African entrepreneurs. In light of the
(chapter) contributions of our authors, we argue that African independent
businesspeople face extraordinary domestic and foreign pressures, and
that the role of businesses within the African state formation is diversify-
ing, with some African businesses assuming unusual responsibilities pre-
viously undertaken by the state, public institutions, and in some cases, by
non-governmental organizations.36 We also argue that African states’
domestic political networks largely determine the success or failure of its
entrepreneurs.
This introductory chapter begins our volume’s exploration of black
African business actors and their strategies by contextualizing the evolving
roles of African-owned businesses. We begin by exploring the past in order
to offer context to the circumstances of African entrepreneurs today.
Therefore, this chapter first asks why were there so few indigenous African
entrepreneurs during the colonial period? Next, it investigates the condi-
tions that African entrepreneurs faced in the post-independence decades of
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYZING AFRICAN ENTREPRENEURS 13
the 1960s, 1970s, and during the 1980s. Then, in the following chapters,
the contributing authors to this volume identify some of the major chal-
lenges faced by African entrepreneurs, and the strategies they have
employed in order to cope with African state leaders and the African state
political formations that have evolved within the globalization of the late
twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. The final chapter of this volume
summarizes the challenges facing black African entrepreneurs today.
focus on the undermining roles of slavery, the limited role of wage labor,
and the lack of access to capital accumulation by Africans at a time when
foreigners could secure access to capital outside the continent. An
additional variable concerning why African capitalism and an African busi-
ness class able to play a strong role vis à vis the state did not arise prior to
independence has to do with the white settler population. White settlers
across Africa crowded out most aspiring black entrepreneurs and also
helped to achieve the conditions for state-led, capitalist enterprises in post-
independent states.
Basically, there is agreement among scholars that a colonial settler com-
munity in a given colonial territory facilitated a colonial power’s invest-
ment in the infrastructure necessary for production and trade in that
territory. After independence was attained, those countries with large set-
tler populations often had more advanced capitalist enterprises than coun-
tries with fewer white settlers. The major exception of course can be found
in the mining sector where outside investors did not require a settler pop-
ulation to encourage their investment. An additional impact of a white
settler population was that it provided a target market for commercial
trade from capitalists in foreign countries.
US corporations, for example, changed the nature of their exports to
Southern Africa according to the needs of the white colonizers and also
according to the pace of industrialization in the United States. Whereas in
the first half of the 1800s US exports to Africa (especially Southern Africa)
were comprised largely of agriculture, by end of the 1800s and after its
industrialization revolution, the United States exported mass-produced,
cheap products to Southern Africa.47 Singer sewing machines, American
firearms, agricultural tools such as the reaper/harvester, barbed wire and
kerosene were leading US exports to Africa, especially South Africa, in the
late 1800s and were purchased largely by white Boer farmers and British
officials and colonists.48 This provided Boer and British South Africans
with the proper equipment to engage in medium- and large-scale produc-
tion with which black Africans could not compete.
Colonial settlers demanded that colonial powers develop infrastructure
in their colonies because infrastructure was necessary to accelerate capital-
ist production and distribution. The settlers maintained access to distribu-
tion networks for themselves and largely precluded the development of
black African-led businesses. But even where black Africans might have
been able to avail themselves of the transport routes within an African
country for distribution of goods, the lack of a banking structure pre-
vented Africans from accessing capital as foreigners could do. Without
16 E. SANDBERG
*****
*****
*****
*****
On täysi syy uskoa, että Ida Aalberg päivä päivältä oppi antamaan
yhä suuremman arvon miehelleen ja kunnioittamaan tämän
ihanteellista mieltä. Hänen useista lausunnoistaan voi päätellä näin
käyneen. Syrjäisestä Ida Aalbergin ja vapaaherra Uexküll-
Gyllenbandin yhdyselämä tuntui erittäin sopusointuiselta. Niinpä
lieneekin katsottava suureksi osaksi hermosairaudesta johtuvaksi,
että Ida Aalberg elämänsä lopulla epäili miestään, syytti tätä
uskottomuudesta, koetti vaania hänen toimiaan ja seurata hänen
kaikkia askeleitaan. Sairaalloinen mustasukkaisuus näyttäytyi joskus
seurassakin hämärinä viittauksina ja härnäilemisenä. Epäluulonsa
alkuaiheen Ida Aalberg eräälle ystävälleen sanoi saaneensa siitä,
että hänen miehensä muka ei ollut voinut tyydyttävästi selvittää,
mihin eräs suurehko rahasumma oli kulutettu. Hän koetti käyttää
vakoilijoina läheisiä henkilöitä, ja vaikka hän ei saanut mitään
vahvistusta epämääräisille luuloilleen, hänen tuskansa näyttäytyi
joskus mielettömän raivokkaana.
*****
Nataša Radlov sai kiihkeän halun teatteriin, mutta kun hän tiesi,
että kotona oltaisiin jyrkästi vastaan, hän kerran karkasi koulusta ja
pyrki Ida Aalbergin puheille. Tämä otti hänet ystävällisesti vastaan ja
puhui nuorelle tytölle vakavasti:
Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.
textbookfull.com