Chapter 2: Metal Forming and Sheet Metalworking

Lecture 1 Metal Forming

What Is Bulk Deformation?

Operations that shape changes on the metal work piece by plastic deformation under
forces applied by various tools and dies. Starting forms like cylindrical bars and billets,
rectangular billets and slabs. These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently to cause
plastic flow into desired shape. The cross-section of work piece changes without volume
change. It produces common shapes inexpensively and good mechanical properties.
Classification of Bulk Deformation Processes:
1. Cold Working: Metal forming performed at room temperature
Advantages:
1. Better accuracy and surface finish
2. High strength and hardness of the part
3. No heating is required.
Disadvantages:
1. Higher forces and power
2. Limitations to the amount of forming
3. Additional annealing for some material is required.
4. Some materials are not capable of cold working.
2. Warm Working:
Metal forming performed at temperature above the room temperature but below the
recrystallization condition.
Advantages:
1. Lower forces and power.
2. More complex part shapes.
3. No annealing is required.
Disadvantages:
1. Financial investment in furnaces is needed.
3. Hot Working:

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 It involves deformation of pre-heated material at temperature above the recrystallization
temperature.
Advantages:
1. Big amount of forming is possible
2. Lower forces and power are required
3. Forming of materials with low ductility
4. No hardening work - no additional annealing is required.
Disadvantages:
1. Lower accuracy and surface finish
2. Higher production cost
3. Shorter tool life.
Types of Bulk Deformation Processes:
1. Rolling: Compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a plate is
reduced by squeezing it through two rotating cylindrical rolls
2. Forging: The work piece is compressed between two opposing dies so that the die
shapes are imparted to the work.
3. Extrusion: Work material is forced to flow through a die opening taking its shape.
4. Drawing: The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening (bar drawing) or a series of die openings (wire drawing).

1. Rolling:
It is process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section of a work-piece by
compressive forces exerted by a pair of rotating rolls.
• Products: plates & sheets - plates are used for structural applications like bridges,
ships and nuclear vessels while sheets (6 mm or less in thickness) are used for
automotive, beverage cans, office & kitchen equipment.

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Steps of Rolling:
The preheated at 1200oC cast ingot is rolled into one of the three intermediate shapes.
Then they are rolled into a different product.
1. Bloom – square cross-section of 150/150 mm or more
2. Slab – 40/250 mm or more is rolled from an ingot or a bloom
3. Billet – 40/40 mm or more is rolled from a bloom

Basic types of rolling

1. Shape Rolling: Work is deformed by a gradual reduction into a contoured cross
section (I-beams, L-beams, U-channels, rails, round, square bars and rods, etc.).
2. Ring Rolling: Thick-walled ring of small diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring
of larger diameter.
3. Thread Rolling: Threads are formed on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two thread dies.

2. Forging:
Process in which the work is compressed between two dies / mould. Some finishing
operations are necessary. Dies and equipment costs are high. Involves moderate to high
labor costs. Require moderate to high operator skills
• Three types of forging: (Open-die, Impression-die, and Flash-less forging).

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 Forging:
A. Open-die forging:
Known as upsetting, it involves compression of a work between two flat dies or
platens. Operations reduce height and increases diameter of work.

Barreling caused by frictional forces at the die-work piece interfaces, can be minimized
by effective lubricant.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Simple and inexpensive dies 1. Limited to simple shape
2. Wide range of part sizes 2. Difficult to hold close tolerances
3. Good strength characteristics 3. Machining to final shape necessary
4. Generally for small quantities 4. Low production rate

Cogging : thickness of a bar is reduced by successive forging steps at specific intervals.

B. Impression-die forging:
Work piece takes the shape of die cavity while being forged between two shaped
dies. It carried out at elevated temperatures for improve ductility of the metals and
to lower the forces. Some of the material flows radically outward to form a flash.

C. Closed-die / Flashless Forging:

Work material is completely surrounded by the die cavity during compression and
no flash is formed. It suitable to part geometries that is simple and symmetrical.

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 Work volume must equal the space in the die cavity to a very close tolerance.
3. Extrusion:
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile by
pushing material through a die of the desired cross-section. It used to produce long parts
of hollow or solid uniform cross sections. Aluminum, copper, steel, magnesium and
plastics are most suitable for extrusion. It is moderate to high die and equipment cost, low
to moderate labor costs and operator skill.
Depending on the ductility of the material used, extrusions can be caries out various in
ways: 1. Hot extrusion 2. Cold extrusion.

Advantages:
1. Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion.
2. Grain structure and strength improved in cold and hot extrusion.
3. Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion.
4. Little or no waste of material in some operations.
Disadvantages:
1. Part cross-section must be uniform throughout length.
2. Service life of extrusion tooling is shorter due to high contact stresses and slip rates.
3. Relatively high tooling costs.
4. Cost of extrusions is generally greater as compared to other techniques.

1. Hot Extrusion:
It carried out at elevated temperatures in 2 situations: First; for metals and
alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room temperature. Second; to reduce the
forces required. Die wear can be excessive and cooling of the hot billet in the
chamber can be a problem, which results in highly non-uniform deformation. To
reduce cooling of the billet and to prolong die life, extrusion dies may be preheated.

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 2. Cold Extrusion:
Metals worked possess the plasticity necessary (high ductility) for successful
forming without heating them, so improve the physical properties of a metal and to
produce a finished part. It is fast, no wastes or little materials and gives higher
accuracy and tolerance.
A. Direct Extrusion:
Billet is placed in the container and a ram towards the die pushes forced to flow
through die opening. At the end of the extruding operation, a small piece of metal,
called butt-end scrap, remains in the container and cannot be extruded.

B. Indirect / Hydrostatic Extrusion:

Die is mounted on the end of a hollow ram and enters the container. As the ram
travels, die applies pressure on the billet and the deformed metal flows in the
direction opposite to the hollow ram motions and the product is extruded.

4. Drawing:
Produce long rod, wire (0.03 mm) and tubing with round or various cross sections
than extrusions by pulling the material through a die opening. Similar to extrusion
except work is pulled through die in drawing.

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