V-Semester, Design of Machine Elements

Unit-1
Design for Static Strength

Introduction
Mechanical Design or Machine Design is the branch of Engineering Design. Machine design
or Mechanical Design can lead to the formation of an entirely new machine or it can lead to the
improvement of the existing machine.

Machine Design is the application of mathematics, kinematics, statics, dynamics, mechanics

of materials, engineering materials, mechanical technology of metals and engineering drawing. It
also involves the application of other subjects like thermodynamics, electrical theory, hydraulics,
engines, turbines, pumps, etc. Machine drawing is an integral part of the machine design since all the
components or the machines that have been designed should be drawn to manufacture them as per
the specifications. Without machine drawing the subject of the machine design is incomplete.

Definition of Machine Design

Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information, and
imagination in the description of a machine or mechanical system to perform a specific function with
maximum efficiency and economy.

The machine design may be classified as follows:

1. Adaptive Design. In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with the adaptation of
existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted
by designers with ordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternations or
modifications to the existing designs of the product. Example: The commonly used standard-
model car is manufactured in different models to obtain high speed, style and various sizes.
Similarly, the different models of watches, clocks, televisions, etc.
2. Development Design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing
design, the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product. Example:
Imposing the I.C Engine principle to a cycle, the motorcycle is invented. Similarly, electronic
watches are designed by combining the properties of some electronic goods. The final product
in the developed design may differ quite markedly from the initial product.

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3. New Design: This type of design needs a lot of research, technical ability, and creative
thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can
take up the work of a new design. Example: inventions of the cycle, airplanes etc. Similarly,
the invention of any new product in the future may also be considered as a new design.

According to the methods used, the design may be classified as follows:

(1) Empirical design:

This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the existing practice and past
experience.
(2) Rational design:
This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of the principle of mechanics.
(3) Industrial design:
This type of design depends upon the production aspects to manufacture any machine
component in the industry.
(4) Optimum design:
It is the best design for the given objective function under the specified constraints. It may be
achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.
(5) Element design:
It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like a piston, crankshaft, connecting
rod, etc.
(6) System design:
It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
(7) Computer-aided design:
This type of design depends upon the use of computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis and optimization of a design.

Mechanical Design Markets:

a) Consumer Products
b) Household Appliances
c) Manufacturing systems/general industrial equipment – machine tools, conveyors, test
machines, inspection machines, etc.
d) Construction Equipment/ Agriculture Equipment – loaders, scrapers, vibratory rollers, pavers,
tractors, harvesters, etc.

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e) Aerospace Industry – commercial airliners, helicopters, military jets, etc.

f) Transportation – truck, bus and automotive

Design considerations

To select the materials for any component, the designer must be aware of the parameters that
influence the design of the element or, perhaps, the entire system. Usually, quite a number of such
characteristics must be considered and prioritized in a given design situation. Many of the important
ones are as follows (not necessarily in order of importance):

a) Strength
b) Reliability
c) Cost
d) Safety
e) Weight
f) Processing
g) Wear and corrosion
h) Thermal properties
i) Distortion/deflection/stiffness
j) Shape
k) Size
l) Manufacturability
m) Lubrication
n) Marketability
o) Maintenance
p) Life

Standards and codes

A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve

uniformity, efficiency, and specified quality. One of the important purposes of a standard is to place
a limit on the number of items in the specifications so as to provide a reasonable inventory of tooling,
sizes, shapes and varieties.

❖ Examples: International Standards Organization (ISO)

❖ Bureau of Indian standards (BIS)

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❖ Indian standards institution (ISI)

❖ British Standards Institution (BSI)
❖ Japan Industrial Standards (JIS)

A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of something.
The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency, and performance or
quality.

❖ Examples: American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

❖ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
❖ SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers

The Phases of Design

Identification of need:

Identification of need generally starts the design process. Recognition of the need and
phrasing the need often constitute a highly creative act. The need may come from the customer or
designer. Need is the mother of invention. Therefore, the ‘identification of need’ plays a very
important role in the design of any system.

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Definition of the problem:

The definition of the problem is more specific and must include all the specifications for the
object that is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output quantities, the characteristics
and dimensions of the space the object must occupy, and all the limitations on these quantities. The
specifications define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the
operating temperature, and the reliability. Specified characteristics can include speeds, feeds,
temperature limitations, maximum range, expected variations in the variables, dimensional and
weight limitations, etc.

Synthesis:

The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system elements is sometimes called the
invention of the concept or concept design. Various schemes must be proposed, investigated, and
quantified in terms of established metrics. Example: Select the possible mechanism or group of
mechanisms, which will give the desired motion.

Analysis and optimization

Find the size of each member of the machine by considering the forces/stresses acting on the
member of the machine and the energy transmitted by each member. Select the material best suited
for each member of the machine. The analysis phase requires a designer to verify the analytical
calculations which may pertain to stress, strain, fluid flow etc. Therefore, mathematical models are
required to represent the real system. These mathematical models are then simulated with various
inputs and their results are studied. The design is then checked for optimization. Optimizing is the
selection of the best among the various solutions

Evaluation

Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process. Evaluation is the final proof of a
successful design and usually involves the testing of a prototype in the laboratory.

Presentation

The last stage in the design process is to prepare drawings of the assembly and the individual
components. On these drawings, the material of the component, its dimensions, tolerances, surface
finish grades, and machining symbols are specified.

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Communicating the design to others is the final and vital step in the design process. Presentation is
a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or
supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one.

Selection of materials

The selection of the proper material for the machine component is one of the most important
steps in the process of machine design. The best material is one, which will serve the desired purpose
at minimum cost. It is not always easy to select such material and the process may involve a trial-
and-error method. The factors, which should be considered while selecting the material for a machine
component, are as follows.

a) Availability

The material should be readily available in the market, in large enough quantities to meet the
requirement. Iron and aluminium alloys are available in abundance while copper and lead alloys are
not.

b) Cost

There is a limiting cost for every application beyond which designers cannot move. When
this limit is exceeded, the designer has to consider other alternative materials. In the cost
consideration, there are two factors, namely, the cost of material and the cost of processing the
material into finished goods.

c) Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of the metals are those, which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal include
strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience,
creep, and hardness.

d) Manufacturing Considerations

It is the ease of production, fabrication, and assembly. The shape and material of the part
should be selected in such a way that it can be produced with minimum labor and material costs.

Types of loads:

i. Steady or static or dead load: A load whose magnitude or direction does not change
with respect to time is called a static load. Example: building load on its columns,

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ii. Live or variable or dynamic load: Whose magnitude or direction or both change with
respect to time.

• Fatigue load

A load whose magnitude or direction or both repeats with respect to time.

Example: a shaft or axle of an automobile
• Impact load:

The load applied with an initial velocity is called impact load. Example: The
collision of a two-wheeler or four-wheeler.

iii. Sudden or shock load: Sudden and drastic increase in load.

Types of stresses

a) Normal stress (σ)

When the load is applied perpendicular to the area of the cross-section, it produces a normal
stress. The normal stress may be the axial stress or bending stress

i. Axial Stress:

𝑭
𝝈𝒂 =
𝑨

Examples: Bars, columns, etc.

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ii. Bending Stress:

When the component is subjected to transverse load, bending stress will be developed in it.
Examples: Cantilever beam, simply supported beam.

𝑴𝒃 𝝈𝒃 𝑬
= =
𝑰 𝒚 𝑹

Mb = Bending moment,
I = Second moment of area of the section about its axis
σb= Bending stress induced at the outer/ inner surface of the shaft

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y = Half of Depth
E = Young’s Modulus material
R =Radius of Curvature

From the above equation, the Bending stress is:

𝑴𝒃
𝝈𝒃 =
(𝑰/𝒚)
For a circular cross-section, moment of inertia is:
𝝅𝒅𝟒
𝑰=
𝟔𝟒
Where d is the diameter of the circular cross-section.

For rectangular cross-section moment of inertia is:

𝒃𝒅𝟑
𝑰=
𝟏𝟐
Where b and d are the breadth and depth of the rectangular cross-section.
2. Torsional Shear Stress
When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite couples acting
in parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment), then the machine member is subjected to torsion.
The stress set up by torsion is known as torsional shear stress. It is zero at the centroidal axis and
maximum at the outer surface.

𝑴𝒕 𝝉 𝑮𝜽
= =
𝑱 𝒓 𝒍
Mt = Torque or twisting moment,
J = Second moment of area of the section about its polar axis or polar moment of inertia
τ= Torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft
r = Radius of the shaft=d/2
G = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material
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l = Length of the shaft

θ = Angle of twist in radians
from the above equation, the torsional shear stress is:
𝑴𝒕
𝝉=
(𝑱/𝒓)
For circular cross-section:
𝝅𝒅𝟒
𝑱=
𝟑𝟐

Factor of safety

In designing any mechanical component, it is necessary to ensure that the stress induced in
the component due to forces is less than or equal to the maximum stress (yield or ultimate stress) of
the component.
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of yield or ultimate stress to the working stress or
allowable stress or design stress.
Mathematically
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜎𝑦 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜎𝑢 )
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Factors to be considered during the selection of factor of safety:

1. Variations in the mechanical properties
2. Variations in the geometry
3. Uncertainty in loading conditions
4. Variation in the material compositions
5. Human safety
6. Mode of manufacture
7. Life of member
8. Environmental conditions

General values of factor safety (FOS)

= 1.25 to 1.5 for reliable materials

= 1.5 to 2 for well-known materials
= 2 to 2.5 for average materials
= 2.5 to 3 for less tried materials

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= 3 to 4 for unknown materials

PROBLEMS:
1. The following component (link) is subjected to an axial load of 100 kN. If the maximum
allowable stress is restricted to 200 MPa, determine the factor of safety at both sections.

Answer: i) FOS=2.1
ii) FOS=2.7
2. C-clamp shown in the figure is subjected to load P. If the yield strength of the clamp is 400
MPa and the factor of safety is 1.5, determine the safe load that can be carried by the clamp.
Answer ----2.96 kN

3. A cast iron bracket carries a load of 10 kN as shown in the figure. The yield strength of the
bracket is 350 MPa and the factor of safety to be considered is 2.2. Determine the thickness
of the bracket.

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4. A circular rod of diameter is subjected to axial load, lateral load and twisting moment as
shown in the figure. Determine the nature and magnitude of stresses at critical points.

3.5kN
Mt=1.4 kN-m

12 kN
O 40

150

Theories of Failure Under Static Load

It has already been discussed in the previous section that the strength of machine members is
based on the mechanical properties of the materials used. Since these properties are usually
determined from simple tension or compression tests, therefore, predicting failure in members
subjected to uniaxial stress is both simple and straightforward. However, the problem of predicting
the failure stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses is much more complicated.
In fact, the problem is so complicated then a large number of different theories have been formulated.

The important theories of failure for a member subjected to bi-axial or triaxial stress are as
follows:

1. Maximum Principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory)
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory)

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4. Maximum Principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory)
5. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory)

Since ductile materials usually fail by yielding i.e., when permanent deformations occur in
the material and brittle materials fail by fracture, therefore the limiting strength for these two classes
of materials is normally measured by different mechanical properties. For ductile materials, the
limiting strength is the stress at the yield point as determined from a simple tension test and it is,
assumed to be equal in tension or compression. For brittle materials, the limiting strength is the
ultimate stress in tension or compression.

1. Maximum Principal (or normal) stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

The failure of the mechanical component subjected to different stresses occurs when the
induced maximum normal stress at any point in the component becomes equal to the yield or ultimate
strength of the standard specimen.

If σ1, σ2 & σ3 are the three principal stresses such that σ1>σ2 > σ3
𝜎𝑦𝑡 𝑢𝑡 𝜎
Failure takes place when: 𝜎1 = 𝐹𝑂𝑆 = 𝐹𝑂𝑆

Experimental investigation suggests that the maximum normal stress theory gives good
predictions for brittle materials.

2. Maximum shear stress theory Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).

This theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to different stresses
occurs when the induced maximum shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to the
maximum shear stress in the standard specimen.

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑡
Failure takes place when: τ= = 2∗𝐹𝑂𝑆
𝐹𝑂𝑆

From the above equation, maximum shear stress is half of the yield stress
Experimental investigation suggests that the maximum shear stress theory gives good
predictions for ductile materials.

3. Maximum distortion energy theory (Hencky and Von Mises theory)

This theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to different stresses
occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit volume at any point in the component becomes
equal to the maximum strain energy per unit volume in a standard test specimen when yielding starts.

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𝜎𝑦𝑡 (𝜎1 −𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 −𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 −𝜎1 )2

For triaxial stresses: =√
𝐹𝑂𝑆 2

Problems:

5. A plate of C45 steel (σyt=400 MPa) is subjected to the following stresses.

σx=150 MPa, σy=120 MPa and τxy=75 MPa. Find the factor of safety as per the following
theories of failure.
1. Maximum Principal (or normal) stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
2. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum distortion energy theory (Hencky and Von Mises theory)

6. A rod of circular cross-section is to sustain a torsional moment of 300 kN-m and a bending
moment of 250 kN-m. By assuming C45 Steel of yield strength 450 MPa and factor of safety
as 2.8, determine the diameter of the rod.
7. A machine element having a maximum yield strength of 250 MPa is loaded such that σ1=150
MPa, σ2=100 MPa and σ3=-100 MPa. Determine the factor of safety from the following
theories of failure.
1. Maximum Principal (or normal) stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
2. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum distortion energy theory (Hencky and Von Mises theory)

8. A cantilever beam of a rectangular cross-section is subjected to the forces as shown in the

following figure. By assuming the yield strength of the material as 420 MPa and the factor of
safety as 2.3, determine the dimensions of the beam as per the following theories of failure.
1. Maximum Principal (or normal) stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
2. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum distortion energy theory (Hencky and Von Mises theory

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3.0kN

t
10 kN
2.5t

100

Stress Concentration

In the development of the basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending, and
torsion, it is assumed that no geometric irregularities occurred in the member under consideration. In
developing a machine, it is impossible to avoid changes in cross-section, holes, notches, shoulders
etc. A bolt has a head on one end and screw threads on the other end, both of which account for abrupt
changes in the cross-section. The shafts must have key slots machined into them for securing pulleys,
gears etc. Other parts require holes, oil grooves, and notches of various kinds. Any discontinuity in a
machine part alters the stress distribution so that the elementary stress equations no longer describe
the state of stress in the part at these locations. Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the
regions in which they occur are called areas of stress concentration.

A localized increase in stress due to the discontinuity of geometry is called stress

concentration. Examples:

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Stress concentration factor:

The ratio of maximum stress to nominal stress is called as stress concentration factor.

Mathematically:

• For axial and bending loads

𝜎
𝐾𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛𝑜𝑚

• For twisting moments

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝜏 =
𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚

Methods to be used to reduce stress concentration

The presence of stress concentration cannot completely be eliminated. However, it may be

reduced to some extent.
A number of methods are available to reduce stress concentration in machine parts. Some of
them are as follows:
• Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually.

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• By drilling holes on both sides of the notch or V groove

• If a notch is unavoidable, it is better to provide a number of small notches rather than a long
one. This reduces the stress concentration to a large extent.

• By drilling additional holes on both sides of a big hole in shafts

• By removing excess material on cylindrical objects

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Problems:

9. Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases by considering stress concentration
into account
a) A rectangular plate 60 mm ×10 mm with a hole 12 diameter subjected to a tensile load of
12 kN.

b) A stepped shaft carrying a tensile load of 12 kN.

c) A grooved shaft transmitting power of 6 kW at a speed of 600 rpm.

70

58
R6

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d) A flat plate shown in the figure is subjected to a bending moment of 1.8 kN-m. By taking the
factor of safety as 1.9 and σy=350 MPa, determine the thickness of the plate.

10. A stepped shaft is subjected to a transverse load of 8 kN as shown in figure. The shaft is made
of steel with an ultimate tensile strength of 480 MPa. Determine the diameter of the shaft based
on a factor of safety of 2.

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