SQL for Data Analysis

Cheat Sheet

CONTENTS
SELECT 2
GROUP BY 4
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS 4
ORDER BY 6
COMPUTATIONS 6
ROUNDING NUMBERS 6
TROUBLESHOOTING 7
JOIN 8
INSERT 8
UPDATE 9
DELETE 9
DATE AND TIME 10
INTERVALS 14
EXTRACTING PARTS OF DATES 16
GROUPING BY YEAR AND MONTH 17
CASE WHEN 18
GROUP BY EXTENSIONS 20
GROUPING SETS 20
CUBE 21
ROLLUP 22
COALESCE 23
COMMON TABLE EXPRESSIONS (CTE) 24
WINDOW FUNCTIONS 25
RANKING, RUNNING TOTAL 26
MOVING AVERAGE, DELTA 27

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SQL for Data Analysis
Cheat Sheet

SQL
SQL, or Structured Query Language, is a language for talking to databases.
It lets you select specific data and build complex reports. Today, SQL is a
universal language of data, used in practically all technologies that
process data.

SELECT
Fetch the id and name columns from the product table:
SELECT id, name
FROM product;

Concatenate the name and the description to fetch the full description of
the products:
SELECT name || ' - ' || description
FROM product;

Fetch names of products with prices above 15:

SELECT name
FROM product
WHERE price > 15;

Fetch names of products with prices between 50 and 150:

SELECT name
FROM product
WHERE price BETWEEN 50 AND 150;

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Fetch names of products that are not watches:

SELECT name
FROM product
WHERE name != 'watch';

Fetch names of products that start with a 'P' or end with an 's':
SELECT name
FROM product
WHERE name LIKE 'P%' OR name LIKE '%s';

Fetch names of products that start with any letter followed by 'rain'
(like 'train' or 'grain'):
SELECT name
FROM product
WHERE name LIKE '_rain';

Fetch names of products with non-null prices:

SELECT name
FROM product
WHERE price IS NOT NULL;

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SQL for Data Analysis
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GROUP BY
PRODUCT
name category
Knife Kitchen
Pot Kitchen category count
Mixer Kitchen Kitchen 3
Jeans Clothing Clothing 3
Sneakers Clothing Electronics 2
Leggings Clothing
Smart TV Electronics
Laptop Electronics

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
Count the number of products:
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM product;

Count the number of products with non-null prices:

SELECT COUNT(price)
FROM product;

Count the number of unique category values:

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT category)
FROM product;

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Get the lowest and the highest product price:

SELECT MIN(price), MAX(price)
FROM product;

Find the total price of products for each category:

SELECT category, SUM(price)
FROM product
GROUP BY category;

Find the average price of products for each category whose average is
above 3.0:
SELECT category, AVG(price)
FROM product
GROUP BY category
HAVING AVG(price) > 3.0;

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ORDER BY
Fetch product names sorted by the price column in the default
ASCending order:
SELECT name
FROM product
ORDER BY price [ASC];

Fetch product names sorted by the price column in DESCending order:

SELECT name
FROM product
ORDER BY price DESC;

COMPUTATIONS
Use +, -, *, / to do basic math. To get the number of seconds in a week:
SELECT 60 * 60 * 24 * 7;
-- result: 604800

ROUNDING NUMBERS
Round a number to its nearest integer:
SELECT ROUND(1234.56789);
-- result: 1235

Round a number to two decimal places:

SELECT ROUND(AVG(price), 2)
FROM product
WHERE category_id = 21;
-- result: 124.56

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SQL for Data Analysis
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TROUBLESHOOTING
INTEGER DIVISION
In PostgreSQL and SQL Server, the / operator performs integer division for
integer arguments. If you do not see the number of decimal places you
expect, it is because you are dividing between two integers. Cast one to
decimal:
123 / 2 -- result: 61
CAST(123 AS decimal) / 2 -- result: 61.5

DIVISION BY 0
To avoid this error, make sure the denominator is not 0. You may use the
NULLIF() function to replace 0 with a NULL, which results in a NULL for
the entire expression:
count / NULLIF(count_all, 0)

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JOIN
JOIN is used to fetch data from multiple tables. To get the names of
products purchased in each order, use:
SELECT
orders.order_date,
product.name AS product,
amount
FROM orders
JOIN product
ON product.id = orders.product_id;

Learn more about JOINs in our interactive SQL JOINs course.

INSERT
To insert data into a table, use the INSERT command:
INSERT INTO category
VALUES
(1, 'Home and Kitchen'),
(2, 'Clothing and Apparel');

You may specify the columns to which the data is added. The remaining
columns are filled with predefined default values or NULLs.
INSERT INTO category (name)
VALUES ('Electronics');

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UPDATE
To update the data in a table, use the UPDATE command:
UPDATE category
SET
is_active = true,
name = 'Office'
WHERE name = 'Ofice';

DELETE
To delete data from a table, use the DELETE command:
DELETE FROM category
WHERE name IS NULL;

Check out our interactive course How to INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
Data in SQL.

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SQL for Data Analysis
Cheat Sheet

DATE AND TIME

There are 3 main time-related types: date, time, and timestamp. Time
is expressed using a 24-hour clock, and it can be as vague as just hour and
minutes (e.g., 15:30 – 3:30 p.m.) or as precise as microseconds and time
zone (as shown below):
2021-12-31 14:39:53.662522-05
date time
timestamp
YYYY-mm-dd HH:MM:SS.ssssss±TZ
14:39:53.662522-05 is almost 2:40 p.m. CDT (e.g., in Chicago; in UTC
it'd be 7:40 p.m.). The letters in the above example represent:
In the date part: In the time part:
YYYY – the 4-digit year. HH – the zero-padded hour in a 24-hour
mm – the zero-padded clock.
month (01—January MM – the minutes.
through 12—December). SS – the seconds. Omissible.
dd – the zero-padded ssssss – the smaller parts of a second
day. – they can be expressed using 1 to 6
digits. Omissible.
±TZ – the timezone. It must start with
either + or -, and use two digits relative
to UTC. Omissible.

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CURRENT DATE AND TIME

Find out what time it is:
SELECT CURRENT_TIME;

Get today's date:

SELECT CURRENT_DATE;
In SQL Server:
SELECT GETDATE();

Get the timestamp with the current date and time:

SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;

CREATING DATE AND TIME VALUES

To create a date, time, or timestamp, write the value as a string and cast it
to the proper type.
SELECT CAST('2021-12-31' AS date);
SELECT CAST('15:31' AS time);
SELECT CAST('2021-12-31 23:59:29+02'
AS timestamp);
SELECT CAST('15:31.124769' AS time);

Be careful with the last example – it is interpreted as 15 minutes 31

seconds and 124769 microseconds! It is always a good idea to write 00 for
hours explicitly: '00:15:31.124769'.

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SQL for Data Analysis
Cheat Sheet

SORTING CHRONOLOGICALLY
Using ORDER BY on date and time columns sorts rows chronologically
from the oldest to the most recent:
SELECT order_date, product, quantity
FROM sales
ORDER BY order_date;

order_date product quantity

2023-07-22 Laptop 2
2023-07-23 Mouse 3
2023-07-24 Sneakers 10
2023-07-24 Jeans 3
2023-07-25 Mixer 2

Use the DESCending order to sort from the most recent to the oldest:
SELECT order_date, product, quantity
FROM sales
ORDER BY order_date DESC;

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SQL for Data Analysis
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COMPARING DATE AND TIME VALUES

You may use the comparison operators <, <=, >, >=, and = to compare
date and time values. Earlier dates are less than later ones. For example,
2023-07-05 is "less" than 2023-08-05.

Find sales made in July 2023:

SELECT order_date, product_name, quantity
FROM sales
WHERE order_date >= '2023-07-01'
AND order_date < '2023-08-01';

Find customers who registered in July 2023:

SELECT registration_timestamp, email
FROM customer
WHERE registration_timestamp >= '2023-07-01'
AND registration_timestamp < '2023-08-01';

Note: Pay attention to the end date in the query. The upper bound
'2023-08-01' is not included in the range. The timestamp '2023-
08-01' is actually the timestamp '2023-08-01 00:00:00.0'. The
comparison operator < is used to ensure the selection is made for all
timestamps less than '2023-08-01 00:00:00.0', that is, all
timestamps in July 2023, even those close to the midnight of August 1,
2023.

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INTERVALS
An interval measures the difference between two points in time. For
example, the interval between 2023-07-04 and 2023-07-06 is 2 days.

To define an interval in SQL, use this syntax:

INTERVAL '1' DAY

The syntax consists of three elements: the INTERVAL keyword, a quoted

value, and a time part keyword. You may use the following time parts:
YEAR, MONTH, DAY, HOUR, MINUTE, and SECOND.

Adding intervals to date and time values

You may use + or - to add or subtract an interval to date or timestamp
values.

Subtract one year from 2023-07-05:

SELECT CAST('2023-07-05' AS TIMESTAMP)
- INTERVAL '1' year;
-- result: 2022-07-05 00:00:00

Find customers who placed the first order within a month from the
registration date:
SELECT id
FROM customers
WHERE first_order_date >
registration_date + INTERVAL '1' month;

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Filtering events to those in the last 7 days

To find the deliveries scheduled for the last 7 days, use:
SELECT delivery_date, address
FROM sales
WHERE delivery_date <= CURRENT_DATE
AND delivery_date >= CURRENT_DATE
- INTERVAL '7' DAY;

Note: In SQL Server, intervals are not implemented – use the DATEADD()
and DATEDIFF() functions.

Filtering events to those in the last 7 days

in SQL Server
To find the sales made within the last 7 days, use:
SELECT delivery_date, address
FROM sales
WHERE delivery_date <= GETDATE()
AND delivery_date >=
DATEADD(DAY, -7, GETDATE());

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EXTRACTING PARTS OF DATES

The standard SQL syntax to get a part of a date is
SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM order_date)
FROM sales;

You may extract the following fields:

YEAR, MONTH, DAY, HOUR, MINUTE, and SECOND.

The standard syntax does not work In SQL Server.

Use the DATEPART(part, date) function instead.
SELECT DATEPART(YEAR, order_date)
FROM sales;

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GROUPING BY YEAR AND MONTH
Find the count of sales by month:
SELECT
EXTRACT(YEAR FROM order_date) AS year,
EXTRACT(MONTH FROM order_date) AS month,
COUNT(*) AS count
FROM sales
GROUP BY
year,
month
ORDER BY
year
month;

year month count

2022 8 51
2022 9 58
2022 10 62
2022 11 76
2022 12 85
2023 1 71
2023 2 69

Note that you must group by both the year and the month.
EXTRACT(MONTH FROM order_date) only extracts the month
number (1, 2, ..., 12). To distinguish between months from different years,
you must also group by year.

More about working with date and time values in our interactive
Standard SQL Functions course.

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CASE WHEN
CASE WHEN lets you pass conditions (as in the WHERE clause), evaluates
them in order, then returns the value for the first condition met.

SELECT
name,
CASE
WHEN price > 150 THEN 'Premium'
WHEN price > 100 THEN 'Mid-range'
ELSE 'Standard'
END AS price_category
FROM product;

Here, all products with prices above 150 get the Premium label, those with
prices above 100 (and below 150) get the Mid-range label, and the rest
receives the Standard label.

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CASE WHEN and GROUP BY

You may combine CASE WHEN and GROUP BY to compute object
statistics in the categories you define.
SELECT
CASE
WHEN price > 150 THEN 'Premium'
WHEN price > 100 THEN 'Mid-range'
ELSE 'Standard'
END AS price_category,
COUNT(*) AS products
FROM product
GROUP BY price_category;

Count the number of large orders for each customer using CASE WHEN
and SUM():
SELECT
customer_id,
SUM(
CASE WHEN quantity > 10
THEN 1 ELSE 0 END
) AS large_orders
FROM sales
GROUP BY customer_id;

... or using CASE WHEN and COUNT():

SELECT
customer_id,
COUNT(
CASE WHEN quantity > 10
THEN order_id END
) AS large_orders
FROM sales
GROUP BY customer_id;

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GROUP BY EXTENSIONS
GROUPING SETS
GROUPING SETS lets you specify multiple sets of columns to group by in
one query.
SELECT region, product, COUNT(order_id)
FROM sales
GROUP BY
GROUPING SETS ((region, product), ());

region product count

USA Laptop 10
USA Mouse 5 GROUP BY (region, product)
UK Laptop 6
NULL NULL 21 GROUP BY () – all rows

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CUBE
CUBE generates groupings for all possible subsets of the GROUP BY
columns.
SELECT region, product, COUNT(order_id)
FROM sales
GROUP BY CUBE (region, product);

region product count

USA Laptop 10
USA Mouse 5 GROUP BY region, product
UK Laptop 6
USA NULL 15
GROUP BY region
UK NULL 6
NULL Laptop 16
GROUP BY product
NULL Mouse 5
NULL NULL 21 GROUP BY () – all rows

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ROLLUP
ROLLUP adds new levels of grouping for subtotals and grand totals.
SELECT region, product, COUNT(order_id)
FROM sales
GROUP BY ROLLUP (region, product);

region product count

USA Laptop 10
USA Mouse 5 GROUP BY region, product
UK Laptop 6
USA NULL 15
GROUP BY region
UK NULL 6
NULL NULL 21 GROUP BY () – all rows

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COALESCE
COALESCE replaces the first NULL argument with a given value. It is often
used to display labels with GROUP BY extensions.
SELECT region,
COALESCE(product, 'All'),
COUNT(order_id)
FROM sales
GROUP BY ROLLUP (region, product);

region product count

USA Laptop 10
USA Mouse 5
USA All 15
UK Laptop 6
UK All 6
All All 21

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COMMON TABLE EXPRESSIONS

A common table expression (CTE) is a named temporary result set that can
be referenced within a larger query. They are especially useful for complex
aggregations and for breaking down large queries into more manageable
parts.

WITH total_product_sales AS (
SELECT product, SUM(profit) AS total_profit
FROM sales
GROUP BY product
)

SELECT AVG(total_profit)
FROM total_product_sales;

Check out our hands-on courses on Common Table Expressions and

GROUP BY Extensions.

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WINDOW FUNCTIONS
Window functions compute their results based on a sliding window frame,
a set of rows related to the current row. Unlike aggregate functions,
window functions do not collapse rows.

COMPUTING THE PERCENT OF TOTAL WITHIN A GROUP

SELECT product, brand, profit,
(100.0 * profit /
SUM(profit) OVER(PARTITION BY brand)
) AS perc
FROM sales;

product brand profit perc

Knife Culina 1000 25
Pot Culina 3000 75
Doll Toyze 2000 40
Car Toyze 3000 60

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RANKING
Rank products by price:
SELECT RANK() OVER(ORDER BY price), name
FROM product;

RANKING FUNCTIONS
RANK – gives the same rank for tied values, leaves gaps.
DENSE_RANK – gives the same rank for tied values without gaps.
ROW_NUMBER – gives consecutive numbers without gaps.

name rank dense_rank row_number

Jeans 1 1 1
Leggings 2 2 2
Leggings 2 2 3
Sneakers 4 3 4
Sneakers 4 3 5
Sneakers 4 3 6
T-Shirt 7 4 7

RUNNING TOTAL
A running total is the cumulative sum of a given value and all preceding
values in a column.
SELECT date, amount,
SUM(amount) OVER(ORDER BY date)
AS running_total
FROM sales;

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MOVING AVERAGE
A moving average (a.k.a. rolling average, running average) is a technique
for analyzing trends in time series data. It is the average of the current
value and a specified number of preceding values.
SELECT date, price,
AVG(price) OVER(
ORDER BY date
ROWS BETWEEN 2 PRECEDING
AND CURRENT ROW
) AS moving_averge
FROM stock_prices;

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO ROWS (DELTA)

SELECT year, revenue,
LAG(revenue) OVER(ORDER BY year)
AS revenue_prev_year,
revenue -
LAG(revenue) OVER(ORDER BY year)
AS yoy_difference
FROM yearly_metrics;

Learn about SQL window functions in our interactive Window Functions

course.

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