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Digital Transformation of
Enterprise Architecture
Digital Transformation of
Enterprise Architecture
Vivek Kale
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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vii
viii Contents
4. Distributed Systems............................................................................................................. 71
4.1 Distributed Systems .................................................................................................... 71
4.1.1 Distributed Computing................................................................................. 73
4.1.1.1 System Architectural Styles .......................................................... 74
4.1.1.2 Software Architectural Styles....................................................... 75
4.1.1.3 Technologies for Distributed Computing ...................................80
4.2 Distributed Databases ................................................................................................83
4.2.1 Characteristics of Distributed Databases ...................................................84
4.2.1.1 Transparency ..................................................................................84
4.2.1.2 Availability and Reliability ...........................................................85
4.2.1.3 Scalability and Partition Tolerance .............................................. 86
4.2.1.4 Autonomy ........................................................................................ 86
4.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Distributed Databases...................... 86
4.2.2.1 Advantages of Distributed Databases ......................................... 86
4.2.2.2 Disadvantages of Distributed Databases .................................... 87
4.2.3 Data Replication and Allocation ..................................................................90
4.2.4 Concurrency Control and Recovery in Distributed Databases .............. 91
4.2.4.1 Distributed Recovery ..................................................................... 92
4.2.5 Rules for Distributed Databases .................................................................. 92
4.3 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 93
Contents ix
xvii
xviii Foreword
The enterprise architecture proposed by PRISM was a 16-cell, 4 × 4 matrix based upon
four architecture domains (infrastructure, data, application, and organization) and four
architecture types (inventory, principles, models, and standards).
John Zachman (1987), who had been working on these issues since the early 1980s
(Sessions, 2007), published a similar 15-cell, 5 × 3 matrix. Zachman’s framework was based
upon five unique architectural observations or perspectives (planner, owner, designer,
builder, and subcontractor) and the questions that each perspective is interested in
answering (what? how? and where?). Zachman’s framework received wide acclaim, and
he has been acknowledged as the single-most influential person in the field of enterprise
architectures.
Spewak’s work was cut short by his passing in March of 2004, but his focus on planning
has resonated and been adopted in virtually all enterprise architecture efforts.
Foreword xix
organizations continued to invest in solutions and in the mid-1990s The Open Group
was founded in response to the federal legislation and enterprise architecture and
systems standardization being implemented by the United States Department of
Defense (DoD).
The Open Group was founded in 1995 with a goal to enable business organizations,
worldwide, to achieve business objectives through the use of open, vendor-neutral stan-
dards. Today, The Open Group is a global consortium with a diverse membership of more
than 625 organizations that includes customers, systems and solutions suppliers, tool ven-
dors, integrators, academics, and consultants across multiple industries.
After establishment in 1995, The Open Group inherited the DoD’s first enterprise
architecture effort, the Technical Architecture Framework for Information Management
(TAFIM). The TAFIM materials were explicitly given to The Open Group and this pro-
vided the basis for the creation The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF)
standard. The TOGAF is now in Revision 9.2 (TOGAF, 2018) and has a multitude of
supporting products, including training and certifications, that may be accessed by
commercial entities.
Summary
Enterprise architectures are critical elements in ensuring that any organizational entity
has sufficient structure in place to access relevant data and information in support of their
business processes. The ability to access, manipulate, and analyze this data and informa-
tion, in a digital format, is an essential element of developing and maintaining competitive
advantage in the modern globally connected economy.
You will find that Vivek’s book fully supports the concepts and notions required to con-
ceptualize, design, and implement enterprise architectures in support of the movement to
a digital enterprise capable of supporting a business’ position in the global economy. By
utilizing this text, readers will be prepared to promote transformability within your orga-
nization and ensure that your enterprise architectures are structured to support modern
systems in a timely and cost-effective manner, thereby meeting the requirements of an
ever-changing business landscape.
Foreword xxi
I hope that each of you enjoy this book as much as I have and are able to successfully
apply its concepts and techniques. Good architecting.
References
Adams, K. M. (2015). Non-Functional Requirements in Systems Analysis and Design. New York: Springer.
CSC. (1986). PRISM: Dispersion and Interconnection: Approaches to Distributed Systems Architecture.
Cambridge, MA: CSC Index and Hammer and Company.
Fong, E. N., & Fong, A. H. (1989). Information Management Directions: The Integration Challenge
(NIST Special Publication 500-167). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institue of Standards and
Technology.
GAO. (1992). Strategic Information Planning: Framework for Designing and Developing System Architectures
(GAO/IMTEC-92-51). Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office.
GAO. (1994). Executive Guide: Improving Mission Performance through Strategic Information Management
and Technology (GAO/AIMD-94-115). Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office.
GAO. (2002). Information Technology: Enterprise Architecture Use across the Federal Government Can Be
Improved (GAO-02-06). Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office.
GAO. (2003a). Information Technology: A Framework for Assessing and Improving Enterprise Architecture
Management (Version 1.1) (GAO-03-584G). Washington, DC: United States General Accounting
Office.
GAO. (2003b). Information Technology: Leadership Remains Key to Agencies Making Progress on Enterprise
Architecture Efforts (GAO 04-40). Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office.
GAO. (2006). Enterprise Architecture: Leadership Remains Key to Establishing and Leveraging Architectures
for Organizational Transformation (GAO-06-831). Washington, DC: United States Government
Accountability Office.
GAO. (2010). Organizational Transformation: A Framework for Assessing and Improving Enterprise
Architecture Management (Version 2.0) (GAO-10-846G). Washington, DC: United States
Government Accountability Office.
GAO. (2012). Organizational Transformation: Enterprise Architecture Value Needs to be Measured and
Reported (GAO-12-791). Washington, DC: United States Government Accountability Office.
Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) 31 U.S.C. 1115, Pub. L. No. 103-62 (1993).
Hester, P. T., & Adams, K. M. (2017). Systemic Decision Making: Fundamentals for Addressing Problems
and Messes (2nd ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
IBM. (1975). Business Systems Planning: Information Systems Planning guide (GE20-0527-1) (1st ed.).
White Plains, NY: IBM Corporation.
IBM. (1978). Business Systems Planning: Information Systems Planning Guide (GE20-0527-2) (2nd ed.).
White Plains, NY: IBM Corporation.
Information Technology Management Reform Act (ITMRA), 40 U.S.C. 1401(3), Pub. L. No. 104-106
(1996).
OMB. (1996). OMB Memorandum 97-02: Funding Information Systems Investments. Washington, DC:
Office of Management and Budget.
OMB. (1997). OMB Memorandum 97-16: Information Technology Architectures. Washington, DC: Office
of Management and Budget.
OMB. (2000). OMB Circular A-130: Management of Federal Information Resources Washington, DC
Office of Management and Budget.
OMB. (2007). FEA Practice Guidance. Washington, DC: Office of Management and Budget.
xxii Foreword
OMB. (2009). Improving Agency Performance Using Information and Information Technology (Enterprise
Architecture Assessment Framework v3.1). Washington, DC: Office of Management and Budget.
OMB. (2012). The Common Approach to Federal Enterprise Architecture. Washington, DC: Office of
Management and Budget.
Sessions, R. (2007) Exclusive Interview with John Zachman. Perspectives of the International Association
of Software Architects (IASA), International Association of Software Architects, Austin, TX.
Simon, H. A. (1996). The Sciences of the Artificial (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Sowa, J. F., & Zachman, J. A. (1992). Extending and formalizing the framework for information sys-
tems architecture. IBM Systems Journal, 31(3), 590–616. doi:10.1147/sj.313.0590.
Spewak, S. H., & Hill, S. C. (1992). Enterprise Architecture Planning: Developing a Blueprint for Data,
Applications and Technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
TOGAF. (2018). The Open Group Standard: The TOGAF® Standard, Version 9.2. San Francisco, CA:
The Open Group.
Zachman, J. A. (1982). Business systems planning and business information control study: A com-
parison. IBM Systems Journal, 21(1), 31–53. doi:10.1147/sj.211.0031.
Zachman, J. A. (1987). A framework for information system architecture. IBM Systems Journal, 26(3),
276–292.
Preface
We would never expect that someone would attempt to scale up the capacity of a suburban
home to become a 30-floor office building (or an indoor sports complex or a multi-speciality
hospital or a luxury hotel). The home doesn’t have the architecture, materials and founda-
tions for this to be even a remote possibility without being completely demolished and
rebuilt in the process. Similarly, we shouldn’t expect software systems that do not employ
transformable architectures, techniques, and technologies to be quickly changeable to
meet alterable capacity needs. The foundation for any transformation needs to be built in
from the beginning, with the recognition that constituent components may transform over
time. By employing design and development principles that promote transformability,
enterprises are able to transform architectures and, hence, systems more rapidly and
cheaply to meet rapidly altering demands, expectations or aspirations. Systems with such
properties are essentially changeable or transformable systems because of the enterprise
architecture (EA).
The present book focuses on the digital transformation of enterprise architecture.
It proposes that it is the perennial quest for interoperability and portability, scalability,
availability, etc., that has directed and driven the evolution of the IT/IS industry in the past
50 years. It is this very quest that has led to the emergence of service-orientation, cloud and
big data computing.
It must be highlighted that any of such digital transformation of enterprises will
necessarily involve a prerequisite stage of virtualization (digital mirroring or digital twinning)
of the business strategies, business architectures, and business processes accompanied
by concomitant transformation (analog to digital) of the corresponding measures of per-
formances. This entails significant amount of efforts, but for maintaining focus on the
primary theme of the book, this virtualization effort is subsumed within the primary
activity of the digital transformation efforts. Accordingly, the book will refer only to the
post-virtualized business models, enterprise architectures, and enterprise processes.
It is important to specify what is meant by digital transformation in this book.
Assuming the context of digital technologies, a transformation that affects exponential change
(amplification or attenuation) in any aspect of enterprise performance—including enterprise
architecture performance—is termed as a digital transformation.
This book proposes that Enterprise Architecture (EA) is the most important element
(after Business Models) for obtaining digital transformation of enterprises. Digital trans-
formation involves three parts effort viz. business models, enterprise architecture, and
enterprise processes. Business model transformations played out during the early 2000s
with the emergence of companies like Amazon, Google, Facebook, and WhatsApp at the
forefront of that transformation wave. But, none of these transformations would have
emerged without corresponding transformations in enterprise architecture enabled by
technologies like service-oriented architecture, cloud computing, and big data computing.
Subsequently, additional EA transformations were enabled by technologies like context-
aware, Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain, and soft and interactive computing. These
played out with companies like Uber, Airbnb, Netflix, and so on.
If we want to anticipate future developments in the area of digital transformations of
enterprises, it is vital to make the connection between digital transformations and enter-
prise architecture—this book attempts to do identify and establish such a connection.
xxiii
xxiv Preface
This is an appropriate place to request for readers’ indulgence to enable the author to
use terms like interoperability, performability, analyticity, etc., since they are similar
sounding to the names of other enlisted attributes of EA, even though they are either
not completely permissible grammatically or really push the envelope on the same.
The Author was motivated to write this book to bring EA in sync with the gigantic
changes that have occurred in the IT/Computing landscape in the last few decades. In an
enterprise, EA plays multiple roles like performative, normative, transformative, and so
on. Performative is the routine role of EA; EA through its constituting attributes delineates
a spectrum of zones of performance across the enterprise fitness landscape: each zone of per-
formance is determined by the composition of EA and the characteristic technologies of
these components and inter-component interfaces. Normative is the reference role of EA;
EA is strong like steel to the extent that the subsequent system/subsystems are built and
maintained in absolute adherence to the dictates of EA. Transformative is the adaptive role of
EA; EA is liminal, i.e., completely abstract to the extent that it is the primary carrier of the
burden of any changes that are wrought by the co-existence and interaction between the
environment and the constituent subsystems. For exponential enterprises, this book com-
pletely reframes the transformative role of EA; the normative role will be impacted by the
constitution and configuration of the enlarged transformative role envisaged in this book.
The Author’s journey for exploring the characteristics of digital transformation started
with an earlier published book, Agile Network Businesses: Collaboration, Coordination, and
Competitive Advantage, which is essentially a book on network and e-Business business
Preface xxv
models. The following book Creating Smart Enterprises: Leveraging Cloud, Big Data, Web,
Social Media, Mobile and IoT Technologies detailed several technologies that are relevant for a
digital transformation initiative. Author’s last book Enterprise Process Management Systems:
Engineering Process-Centric Enterprise Systems using BPMN 2.0 addresses aspects related to
the digital transformation of processes.
1. Identifies three parts effort for any digital transformation: Business Models,
Enterprise Architectures, and Enterprise Business Processes.
2. Describes eight attributes of EA: interoperability, scalability, availability, mobility,
ubiquity, security, analyticity, and usability.
3. Explains the corresponding technologies of service-oriented, cloud, big data, con-
text-aware, Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain, and soft and interactive computing.
4. Briefs on auxiliary technologies like integration, virtualization, replication, spatio-
temporal databases, embedded systems, cryptography, data mining, and interac-
tive interfaces that are essential pre-requisites for affecting or obtaining digital
transformation of enterprises.
5. Introduces interactive interfaces like voice, gaze, gesture, and 3D interfaces.
6. Provides an overview of blockchain computing, soft computing, and customer
interaction systems.
The surge of companies like Amazon, eBay, Schwab, etc., had brought Enterprise
Architecture in focus, but it was relegated on the side lines through the following
decade. The Author wanted to restore enterprise architecture to its earlier pre-eminent
position. This book suggests that in the future an enterprise architect will not only
be responsible to give recommendations on the traditional issues like integration, on-
premise or hosted n-tier architecture, resources (HW, OS, SW, networking etc.), and
configuration, but additionally on:
xxvi Preface
In the final analysis, the advent of cloud and big data computing has blurred the boundar-
ies between hardware, firmware, software, etc.: the operating environment is now divided
between the core and the context. Functional application systems constitute the core and all
other systems are part of the context. The primary theme of this book should also be impor-
tant for software product companies managing the design and development of products
because the evolution of successful products invariably shows a focus alternating between
the core (functional requirements) and the context (non-functional requirements). This book iden-
tifies that all EA-related traditional aspects like interoperability, scalability, availability,
etc., are part of the context. It proposes that many other aspects like mobility, ubiquity,
security, analyticity, and usability are also part of EA and, hence, by implication of the
context. The author wanted to write a book presenting Enterprise Architecture from this
novel perspective; the outcome is the book that you are reading now. Thank you!
The complete mapping between the EA attributes and the corresponding primary tech-
nologies that obtain digital transformation are shown below.
EA Attributes Technologies obtaining
Digital Transformation
7A Integration
8A Virtualization
9A Replication
10. Mobility 18. Context-aware Computing
Vivek Kale
Mumbai, India
You may want to read through the Authors’ related books, especially Agile Network
Businesses: Collaboration, Coordination, and Competitive Advantage, Creating
Smart Enterprises: Leveraging Cloud, Big Data, Web, Social Media, Mobile and IoT
Technologies, and Enterprise Process Management Systems: Engineering Process-
Centric Enterprise Systems using BPMN 2.0. These three books focus respectively on three sig-
nificant aspects of digital transformation viz. business models, relevant technologies and business
processes. Along with the current book, these four books provide the complete toolset for building
your digitally transformed enterprise.
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