The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12494-8

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Joining of cemented carbides WC–Co and tool steel X153CrMoV12

with capacitor discharge welding process
Nicolas Stocks1 · Marie Kolaříková2 · Rostislav Chotěborský3 · Marek Vronka4 · Ladislav Kolařík2

Received: 14 March 2023 / Accepted: 6 October 2023 / Published online: 23 October 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
Welding a combination of hard-to-weld materials such as cemented carbides WC–Co and tool steel X153CrMoV12 is a big
challenge due to the diametrically different properties of the materials being joined. Such joint makes it possible to combine
the high hardness of sintered carbide with the high fracture toughness of steel. Then, the unique property profile of joint
allows to use the sintered carbides as a material for demanding applications that are subject to high levels of stress and wear.
The connection of sintered carbides (WC–Co) with steel can be achieved in various ways. However, each of these techniques
can lead to manufacturing defects. The solution can be the method of multi-capacitor discharge welding, which allows high
temperatures to be reached for very short times. Standard single-capacitor systems do not allow control of the welding pro-
cess. Therefore, in this study, a new multi-capacitor method was used for welding. The method allows influencing the process
due to the variability of adjustable parameters, mainly targeted influencing of the welding current. After finding the optimized
parameters, a set of test samples was welded from cemented carbides WC–Co and tool steel X153CrMoV12. The joined
test specimens achieved a demonstrable fusion bond during the welding process. The connection occurred around the entire
perimeter of the contact surface. During joining, a mixed layer (consisting of cemented carbide and tool steel components)
and a melting zone (depleted of chromium) were created at the interface of the materials. The average quasi-static strength
of the connection was 12.5 kN. The study provides insight into the use of the multi-capacitor discharge welding method to
join a combination of difficult-to-weld materials suitable for demanding industrial applications.

Keywords WC–Co · Tool steel · Capacitor discharge welding (CDW) · Multi-pulse · Fusion zone · Diffusion

1 Introduction

Welding of sintered carbide with tool steel is a challenging

task of scientific and industrial importance. The joint makes
it possible to combine the high hardness of sintered carbide
Highlights
• At multi-CD welding of cemented carbides and tool steel, a
molten phase is formed. Ladislav Kolařík
• The zone with chromium depletion and mixed layer are formed [email protected]
in the joining zone. 1
• The molten phase is pushed out of the joint in the form of the Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Institute
bead with dendritic structure Cr is enriched. of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Technical
University Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
* Marie Kolaříková 2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department
[email protected] of Manufacturing Technology, Czech Technical University
Nicolas Stocks in Prague, Technická 4, Prague 16607, Czech Republic
[email protected] 3
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Material Science
Rostislav Chotěborský and Manufacturing Technology, Czech University
[email protected] of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129165 00, Prague 6,
Czech Republic
Marek Vronka 4
[email protected] FZU-Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences,
Na Slovance, 1999/2, Prague 182 00, Czech Republic

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3156 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

with the high fracture toughness of steel. The unique prop- materials into account, by means of process and heat man-
erty profile of joint ensures the preferred, dominant posi- agement, according to the requirements.
tion of sintered carbides, for use as a material for demand- The focus of this study is to investigate the resulting
ing applications that are subject to high levels of stress and joining (provided by new multi-pulse CD welding) of the
wear. The partial integration of sintered carbides in metal- material combination tool steel/cemented carbide and the
lic carrier materials allows the production of material com- predominant bonding mechanisms. Since sintered carbides
posites with individual properties that far exceed those of a are predominantly covalent bonds and steel is metallic,
monolithic component. The challenges in thermal joining the bonding mechanism is very complex. The knowledge
of sintered carbide and steel lie in the consideration and obtained from this investigation will help in expanding
appropriate handling of the strongly differing properties of understanding of the capacitor discharge welding process.
the two materials and the interaction between their chemical The paper deals with CD welding of sintered carbide
components. WC in Co matrix to tool cold-work steel. The experiment
The connection of sintered carbides (WC–Co) with steel is unique in the use of the innovative multi-capacitor dis-
can be achieved in various ways. Ma et al. [1] or Maizza charge welding method. Also, the proof of fused zone pres-
et al. [2] made an extensive study of possible joining meth- ence brings new knowledge.
ods. More or less successful methods used by various
authors to join sintered carbides and steel include, in particu-
lar, laser beam welding with [3, 4] with or without interlayer 2 Materials and methods
[5], electron beam welding [6], tungsten inert gas (TIG)
welding [7], laser-TIG [8], diffusion welding [9], friction The metallic base material is made of the high-alloy, tool
stir welding (FSW) [10, 11], vacuum brazing [12], and high- cold-work steel X155CrVMo12-1 (Material Number 1.2379)
frequency induction [13]. However, each of these techniques in a soft-annealed condition, as a typical tool-making mate-
can lead to manufacturing defects that generally accumu- rial. The chemical composition is in Table 1. The melting
late in the weld area, such as pores, cracks, delaminations, point is 1421 °C. The tool steel is characterised by the for-
unbonded areas, phase embrittlement, residual stresses, and mation of primary chromium carbides and moulded alloyed
even peeling. The advantage of the fusion welding method cementite in a ferritic matrix.
lies in the relative speed and simplicity. However, solid The welded part has the shape of a tube with a flange. The
phase bonding minimizes grain growth, accelerating phase projection is located on a narrow section (Fig. 1). The geom-
segregations [14]. etry, which is introduced in the form of an annular projec-
Another possible method of joining sintered carbides to tion, has a projection angle of 90° and a projection height of
steel is capacitor discharge (CD) welding. CD welding uses 0.8 mm. The diameter of the annular projection is 7.8 mm.
a combination of a high-intensity electric current pulse along The second welded part is from cemented carbide. Tung-
with mechanical pressure. The advantages of capacitor dis- sten monocarbide and cobalt-based cemented carbides are
charge joining method (compared with other conventional still used most widely in industrial applications. Due to its
joining methods) is in very high joining speed. In addition, high flexural strength, the material used for the tungsten car-
this technique can be employed not only in vacuum but also bide insert was Grade K40F tungsten monocarbide and 12%
in atmospheric-air circumstances [15]. The plasma beam cobalt (see DIN ISO 513). Phase volume is 88% WC + 12%
from the cathode (Cu alloy electrode) dynamically expels Co; the melting point is 2867 °C. The sintered tungsten car-
melted metal from the anode (welded part) during the arc- bide is designed in the form of a disc, 3 mm high and 9 mm
ing time. This metal expulsion causes cooling of the anode. in diameter (Fig. 2).
Metal spatter from the weld is not caused by extrusion upon The investigations were carried out on a capacitor dis-
contact of the electrodes. It is caused by expulsion by high- charge welding machine, with a portal design and a servo-
intensity magnetic fields, originating from the electric dis- electric drive (Fig. 3, left). The CD welding machine was
charge during the arcing time [2, 16]. equipped with a PrimKoS18 welding power source, with a
Capacitor discharge welding is mainly used for projection
welding recently. By default, capacity discharge is a single-
pulse method [2, 14, 17–21]. It is very difficult to influence Table 1  Chemical composition of cold-work steel X155CrVMo12-1
the discharge time of the capacitor. Only welding force and (the chemical composition was verified by SEM analysis)
the loading energy can be set. The new innovative multi- Ele- C Si Mo Mn Cr V
pulse technology, which is described here, enables targeted ment
influencing of the welding current. This makes it possible
wt% 1.55 0.4 0.8 0.4 12 0.9
to take the widely differing properties of different types of

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169 3157

Fig. 1  Welded part of tool

steel—schema (left), detail with
dimensions the projection (mid-
dle), real part (right)

Fig. 2  Welded part of cemented

carbide and its geometry —
schema with dimensions (left
and middle) and real part (right)

Fig. 3  Used capacitor discharge welding machine (left); detail of workplace (right)

multi-capacitor source system (MCS), from Kapkon GmbH. The movable top electrode can be moved via a servo-
Four banks of capacitors, connected in parallel (bank A, electric drive and can build up a maximum welding force
12.3 mF; B, 5.7 mF; G, 1.6 mF; and H, 0.8 mF) allowed of 20 kN. The follow-up unit is realised via four alternat-
welding pulses to be increased or strung together, without ing cup springs connected in series (spring stiffness 5.3
any interruption, via extinguishing thyristors. The different kN/mm). The design as a portal frame and the associated
capacitances enable the current rise time to be influenced, symmetrical construction ensure an almost vertical and
thereby having an effect on the heat conduction. At a maxi- uniform force effect on the joining components (deter-
mum charging voltage of 1300 V, a cumulative charging mined deflection of − 0.0017 mrad according to DIN EN
energy can be approx. 18 kW. ISO 669).

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3158 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

Figure 3 (right) shows the test set-up with inserted test a maximum tensile or compressive force of 50 kN is avail-
components and corresponding electrode tools. Standard able for the tests. The arrangement scheme of samples and
electrodes of the design variant C0-20–22 according to DIN tools during the punch test is shown in Fig. 5.
EN ISO 5821 made of the material CuCr1Zr (material num- Welded samples were also evaluated by optical and elec-
ber CW106C, formerly 2.2193) are used for the lower and tron microscopy (scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
upper electrode. This follows the recommendation of DVS energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)). Axio
Merkblatt 2911 to maintain a ratio of at least 3:1 between Observer D1m optical microscope, Zeiss and Tescan Mira
the electrode contact surface and the joining surface. All test 3 GM electron microscope, EDS Oxford instruments, and
components are manufactured using CNC machine tools and EBSD Oxford instruments and EBIC were used for the
then subjected to a visual inspection to determine whether analyses. In Fig. 6, the scheme of the designed experiment
there are any apparently identifiable defects. is shown.
The welding parameter setting is a difficult process. Suit-
able capacitors must be selected for the initial and press
pulses. For multi-pulse welding, both the height of the indi- 3 Results and discussion
vidual welding pulses and their time interval from each other
must be defined. The criterion of excessive macro spatter Figure 7 on the left shows resulting welded parts. The met-
leakage, which otherwise functions as the upper parameter allographic examination of the material combination of
limit of the welding range, is not applicable, since macro cold-work tool steel and carbide is on Fig. 7, left. Detail of
spatter is absent with all welding parameter combinations. interface is on Fig. 7, right. Due to the high strength of the
After optimizing the welding process, two capacitors—G tungsten carbide, crack-free preparation of the samples using
and A—were chosen for welding. Table 2 shows the opti- conventional cutting discs is not possible.
mized welding parameters used in the experiment. Figure 4 Figure 8 shows a scanning electron microscope image of
shows the resulting secondary current curve. the welding zone, in a perpendicular view to the symmetry
In order to compare the strengths of the different welded
joints, the components are tested destructively in a push-out
test as part of a quasi-static strength test. The monitoring of
the strength thus serves to check the set welding parameters
and to prove the process reliability. In order to separate the
components from each other with compressive force via
an ejector, a push-out device is required in the form of a
sleeve for supporting the base die and a punch for transfer-
ring the force to the carbide insert. The sleeve should be as
close as possible to the outer contour of the bore of the base
die. The universal testing machine PM50 from Darto with

Table 2  Used welding parameters

Welding force Initial pulse Ignition delay Pressing pulse
(capacitor G) (capacitor A)

13 kN 90 Ws/50 μΩ 1.2 ms 235 Ws/50 μΩ

Fig. 5  Schema of placing samples during punch test

Fig. 4  The real curve of weld-

ing current

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169 3159

Fig. 6  Schema of the designed

experiment

Fig. 7  Metallographic cross section of the welded part (left); the detail of interface, optical microscopy, × 1000 (right)

Fig. 8  Scanning electron microscope image of the welding zone between cemented carbide and cold-work steel. Topographic contrast is in the
SE (secondary electrons) image and chemical contrast is in the BSE (backscattered electrons) image

axis of the workpiece. The axis of symmetry is situated This morphology of the welding zone was analysed
underneath the image. As the image is magnified, it becomes on both sides, starting from the cemented carbide, in the
clear that the transition between the cemented carbide and direction of the cold-work steel. While in no-heat-affected
the cold-work steel, which appears smooth at first, has a material, the cemented carbide has a very homogeneous
much more complex morphology in the welding zone. structure and absolutely no microstructure, this changes

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3160 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

significantly in the contact area (Fig. 9). Due to the local destabilised areas of the cemented carbide matrix. The haze
heat influx, which is characteristic of capacitor discharge of tungsten visible around the tungsten monocarbides is dis-
welding (see [22]), the cemented carbide destabilises within cussed in more detail in the explanation of Fig. 15, which
a narrow area of approx. 20 µm. The assumption that the has been supplemented with X-ray spectroscopic images for
strength of the cemented carbide has been reduced locally, the element cobalt. As Fig. 10 shows, the shape of the weld-
to such an extent that deformation and thus a breakdown of ing zone changes as the relative movement increases.
the matrix structure are possible within the welding zone, As a result of the greater relative motion resulting from
was confirmed. This confirms the hot hardness properties the increasing plastic deformation, the transport of mate-
of cemented carbides, such as tungsten carbide. Due to the rial becomes more intense and takes the resulting mixed
hot hardness properties of the metallic bonding phase, the or boundary layers out of the welding zone. This signifi-
yield point of pure cobalt is reduced at 500 °C to under 10 cantly reduces the proportion of the mixed layer consisting
N/mm2. The hardness of the cemented carbide already falls of cemented carbide and cold-work steel components in the
below 120 HV2 at 800 °C, thus permitting a commensurate welding zone but does not completely eliminate it due to
tendency to distortion [23]. On interface, the hard material the continuity of formation. The higher dynamics during
phase detaches itself from the agglomerate. In the direction the welding process also affects the cemented carbide. The
of the cold-work steel, the tungsten monocemented carbides cemented carbide, which is ductile due to the heat input,
are present in an increasingly isolated and widely dispersed no longer peels off in layers that are only a few microm-
form, with increasing distance from the base material. In eters thick in some places. Rather, grooves that extend 10
order to examine the chemical composition of the welding to 15 µm into the edge of the cemented carbide area could
zone, Fig. 9 shows an energy-dispersive X-ray image for be formed. These grooves are usually filled with cold steel.
the elements chromium and iron, as representatives of the A similar phenomenon, but on a much larger scale (crack
cold-work steel, and tungsten as the representative of the lengths on the order of millimeter, accompanied by distinct
cemented carbide. signs of superheating), was also observed by [24] when
The energy-dispersive X-ray image demonstrates that no investigating the ‘self-healing effect’, which states that the
distinguishable areas of the individual components can be cracks in the welding zone are ‘filled’ by the molten support
systematically identified. Pure compressive stress in a verti- material. Although the existence of a molten phase cannot
cal direction, without plastic deformation, would lead to a be questioned, due to the chosen energy sources with corre-
layered structure of the components. However, the longi- spondingly long welding times and the conventional under-
tudinal movement towards the contact surface, caused by standing of the resistance welding process (see e.g. [25]),
extrusion of the projection geometry (see yellow arrows these findings cannot be simply translated to CD welding.
in Fig. 10), results in the components becoming mixed. So far, when presenting the results, the temperature rise due
This is particularly evident in the distribution of the iron, to heat input has been discussed in a very general way, since
which encloses the tungsten components and penetrates into direct measurement of the temperature in the welding zone

Fig. 9  Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of the welding zone between cemented carbide and cold-work steel

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169 3161

Fig. 10  Scanning electron microscope image of the welding zone between the cemented carbide and the cold-work steel. Yellow arrows, longitu-
dinal movement caused by extrusion of the projection

is not feasible from the point of view of process design and no longer qualitatively detectable along the contact area,
technology. The main question is whether the welding of in a region about 20 µm wide. It is therefore clear that an
cold-worked steel and cemented carbides produces a molten additional area is formed between the transition of the mixed
phase in the weld zone or whether the joint is formed by a zone and the base material of the cold forming steel. The
doughy viscous state. The formation of primary chromium introduction and definition of this region as a fusion zone
carbides in the ferritic matrix, which is highly alloyed with will follow later. In order to determine whether there is car-
carbon and chromium, is characteristic. This can be clearly bide precipitation or dissolution in the melt zone, or if there
seen in the intact base material of the cold-working steel is a total loss of chromium, a line scan was performed as
in Fig. 11 on the left of the image. The chromium carbide shown in Fig. 11, right, to analyze and quantify the elements.
is indicated by the red arrow. It can also be seen from the Figure 12 shows the EDX line scan, with mixed layer and
image that these chromium carbides in the weld zone are the melting zone.

Fig. 11  Schematic allocation of the melting zone between the cemented carbide and the cold-work steel (left) and line scan of the melting zone
(right)

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3162 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

Fig. 12  Section of the line scan,

between the cemented carbide
and the cold-work steel from
Fig. 11, with schematic arrange-
ment of the different areas

The line scan begins at a chromium carbide and thus a factor of 1­ 0−2 to 1­ 0−3, do not allow a zone that is rich
has a very high chromium content of over 28 wt% at the in chromium to be identified as a zone with a high carbon
initial measuring point. This falls rapidly to a level below content [26, 27]. Since energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX)
6 wt.% after a few micrometers. After approx. 5.5 µm, the spectroscopy does not allow such an analysis of the carbon
chromium content remains at an almost uniformly low content and the added value is considered to be of second-
level inside the melting zone, before continuing to drop ary importance for the scientific paper in question, we will
in the direction of the mixed layer. As only four elements not pursue this aspect any further. In the following section,
are weighted together in the line scan, it is not possible however, the conditions leading to the disintegration or
to consider the chromium content in absolute terms, but dissolution of chromium carbides will be considered. The
within the melting zone and the mixed layer, it is well possible existence of a difference in chromium content will
below the manufacturer’s specifications, with regard to be revealed in the further course of the investigation of the
the nominal chromium content of 12% by weight. As can bead formed during the CD welding process.
be seen in Figs. 11 and 12, no carbides are present in the Basically, the existing cold-work steel is usually classified
melting zone. Accordingly, a significant chromium content into the group of stainless steels, due to its alloy compo-
depletion occurs in there. The iron content remains con- nents. However, in terms of its chromium and carbon content
stant throughout the melting zone. Within the mixed layer, (12 wt.% chromium and 1.6 wt.% carbon), cold-work steel
a small portion gives way to the increasing cobalt content. clearly exceeds the customary alloy compositions of this
Furthermore, the occurrence of a tungsten monocarbide group, and it is therefore included among the other alloyed
or tungsten elements is clearly indicated by a peak in the steels, according to [28]. The literature and findings from the
tungsten content. Since the melting zone is surrounded by field of stainless steels can therefore be regarded as indica-
carbides, both in the direction of the cemented carbide and tive, but not as directly applicable to the cold-work steel
in the direction of the cold-work steel, the determination in question. Figure 13 shows a status diagram of a verti-
of the local carbon concentrations would provide a valu- cal section of the Fe–Cr-C ternary system, calculated via
able opportunity to gain further in-depth knowledge. Not CALPHAD (CALculation of PHAse Diagrams), with a Cr
only the sensitivity of tungsten or chromium to solubility content of 13 wt.%, based on data from [29, 30].
in cobalt and iron is dependent on the carbon content— In the following considerations, it should be noted that the
the diffusion coefficients for the diffusion of chromium status diagram describes states of equilibrium that cannot
and carbon in iron also differ significantly. The diffusion be realised in a dynamic heat process, such as CD welding.
coefficients of chromium at 1300 °C, which are lower by Therefore, the knowledge that has been acquired is relative,

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169 3163

there are no findings regarding the heat treatment of a com-

posite of cemented carbide and steel, but interdependencies
must nevertheless be taken into account [32–35].
However, the above-mentioned explanations make it clear
why the chromium depletion within the welding zone alone
is not a sufficient indicator for the detection of a molten
phase, since the chromium carbides already dissolve at well
below the melting temperature. However, when consider-
ing the evaluation of the energy-dispersive X-ray spectros-
copy in Fig. 9, it can already be observed that the tungsten
monocarbide areas cannot be clearly distinguished from the
surrounding elements, but rather, they are surrounded by an
area with a reduced tungsten content. This phenomenon is
mainly observed in the centre and at the outer edges of the
welding zone (e.g. Figure 11, left), but it occurs sporadically
throughout the entire welding zone. We will examine this
phenomenon in more detail on the basis of the overview
image shown on the left and the detailed image shown on
the right in Fig. 14.
In the melting zone, a hazy anomaly is formed in the
Fig. 13  Status diagram of a vertical section of the Fe–Cr-C ternary
system, calculated via CALPHAD, with a Cr content of 13 wt.% direction of the cold-work steel or alternatively, oriented
towards the relative movement. This bright haze can be
assigned to the elements tungsten and cobalt, of differing
rather than absolute, with regard to temperatures and phase intensities regarding the concentration of the elements,
compositions. based on the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy images in
At room temperature, the alpha solid solution only dem- Fig. 5. The further it moves away from the base material of
onstrates a very low solubility for carbon. With a higher the cemented carbide, the more the concentration decreases.
carbon content, the excess carbon is mainly precipitated in In the selected example, the haze extends for a length
the form of chromium carbides, in a ratio of ­M7C3 or ­M6C3, of 10 to 15 µm. The results of [36] are used, to enable one
and with a lower carbon content than M ­ 23C6. The chromium to estimate whether the dispersion of tungsten and cobalt
content of the carbides is within a range of about 42 to 65 could be a diffusion in the solid state (solid diffusion)
wt.%; therefore, the carbides are highly enriched with chro- below the melting temperature, despite the short welding
mium [31]. If we now consider the area marked as relevant times of less than 20 ms. In comprehensive investigations,
in Fig. 13 and increase the temperature gradually, the chro- [36] determines the volume diffusion coefficients in the
mium carbides begins to dissolve from about 800 °C, during iron-cobalt alloy system. In the further considerations, the
the austenitisation process. The conversion into austenite area of the melting zone is simplified as a two-phase area,
also increases the solubility of the carbon, and carbon and in order to estimate the mean diffusion paths. However, it
chromium are released by the carbides. Once the solubility should be noted that the coefficients for the timescales, as
temperature TL (green line) has been reached, all the carbides determined in [36], were determined in the seconds or hour
will be dissolved. The solubility temperature, TL, cold-work steel, range, but these are useful for a tendentious classification.
for the cold-work steel under consideration is about 1300 °C. Moreover, the influence of relative motion, which tends to
From 1400 °C, the ternary system Fe–Cr-C changes into a extend theoretically determined diffusion paths, is not taken
completely molten state. Basically, the effects of the new into account. Furthermore, due to the increase in the carbon
composition of the chromium distribution should not be content, a possible increase in the tungsten monocarbide
neglected with regard to the risk of inter-crystalline corro- content within the melting zone favours a reduction in the
sion. Inter-crystalline corrosion advances into the material, melting temperature. The temperature-dependent diffusion
along the grain boundaries that have been depleted of chro- coefficient of the volume diffusion DV can be described by
mium, whereby the material can be damaged significantly the Arrhenius relationship (1) [37].
through the dissolution of the crystal grains. This process −ΔH Akt
is therefore also referred to as grain disintegration. When DV = D0 e Rallg T (1)
observing the individual steel materials, an appropriate heat
treatment, above the austenitising temperature, is suitable for Here, D0 is the pre-factor, ∆HAkt is the activation energy
the homogenisation of the chromium distribution. Currently, of the respective diffusion mechanism, Rallg is the general

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3164 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

Fig. 14  Scanning electron microscope image of the cemented carbide/steel welding zone, showing the chromium carbides and the melting zone
(left) and detail (right)

gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. By means this difference cannot be compensated. To allow mass trans-
of the temperature-dependent diffusion coefficient, the mean fer to the extent that was detected, the existence of a molten
diffusion path x can be determined as a function of time t phase is required. The solubility of cobalt and iron, which is
(2). [37] already sufficient in the solid phase, is further increased by
the transition to diffusion or the mass transport in the liquid
(2)
√
x = 2 DV t phase [37]. The tungsten monocarbide also exhibits a high
dissolution affinity in molten iron phase. Due to its solubility
Table 3 shows an extract of the volume diffusion coef-
and very good wetting properties, iron is used as a substitu-
ficient data determined in [36], for varied phase fractions.
tion binder phase for cobalt in the W–C-Co trivalent system
If the mean diffusion path is calculated at an absolute
[23]. The ternary state diagrams W–C-Co and W–C-Fe show
temperature of 1573.15 K and it is assumed that the cobalt
a high degree of coverage in the technically relevant range
dissolves in the iron (5 At.% Co), then in a time shorter
(see [38] or [39]).
than 4 s, the mean diffusion paths x4s < 1 µm, and in a time
Finally, the dark spots visible around the haze, within
longer than 90 s, mean diffusion paths x90s > 5 µm. Calcu-
the welding zone, in Fig. 15, right, were examined for their
lated and measured values were compared. The calculated
chemical composition. The dark spots display a high propor-
diffusion paths in the solid state are very short compared
tion of iron and nitrogen. This is assumed to be an F ­ exNy
to the measured value. The measured haze length is 10 to
phase—an unspecified iron nitride—which was not inves-
15 µm. According to the calculated values, diffusion in the
tigated any further.
solid state below the melting temperature cannot reach such
The areas of the base material cemented carbide WC–Co,
values (with welding time th < 20 ms). Even considering the
the mixed layer, the melting zone, and the base material
relative movement that extends the dimensions of the haze,
cold-work steel, which have been described, are subse-
quently summarised and schematically classified in Fig. 16.
There are fluid transitions here, and the layers or zones can-
Table 3  Data for the calculation of the mean diffusion path of the not be clearly delineated. Depending on the relative move-
volume diffusion, as a function of the Co content [36] ment, the mixed layer has different characteristics. It con-
At.% Co Temperature range Activation energy Pre-factor D0 tains molten components of weld area but is separated from
ΔHAkt the melting zone by the high proportion of tungsten mono-
carbides in a wider cemented carbide matrix. The bound-
5 1050–1300 °C 78.7 kcal/mol 4.52 × 10 ­cm2/s
ary of the melting zone is determined by the presence or
95 1000–1300 °C 76.0 kcal/mol 5.72 × 10 ­cm2/s
absence of chromium carbides. A melting zone is named

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169 3165

Fig. 15  Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of the melting zone of cemented carbide and steel

Fig. 16  Separation of the weld-

ing zone, between cemented
carbide and cold-work steel,
into four characteristic areas
(optical microscope, DIC)

according to the possible occurrence of the dissolution of Figure 17 shows an overview image on the left, in which
the cemented carbide components in the liquid phase, as the corresponding bead is marked. As already confirmed
analysed in Fig. 15. The described morphology is charac- above, there is a molten phase within the welding zone.
teristic of the material combination of cold-work steel and Due to the welding force exerted during the process, the
cemented carbide. molten phase is transported to the outer edges of the weld-
While until now the welding zone and its various charac- ing zone by means of relative motion. As sufficient heat is
teristics have been the focus of this study, we will now turn no longer available within the bead to maintain the molten
our attention to the bead produced outside the welding zone. phase, the molten mass cools down and forms a characteris-
As a result of the welding force, the fluid material from the tic solidified structure. Similar to pure metal, a temperature
melting zone, the mixed zone and the surrounding pasty- gradient occurs in a solidifying alloy [40]. Due to changes
viscous material is set in motion and the thin heated layer in concentration while the molten mass solidifies, super-
is pressed outwards. Thereby, this material is successively cooling occurs. This is the reason why the crystallisation
transported out of the welding zone (e.g. the yellow arrows front does not remain completely flat and individual crystals
in Fig. 10). grow quickly into the molten mass in a stem-shaped manner,

13

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3166 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

Fig. 17  Scanning electron microscope image of the cemented carbide/cold-work steel bead (left) and detailed images of the dendrite formation,
optical microscope (centre and right)

thereby exhibiting so-called dendritic growth. From crys- detection rate is therefore not surprising. However, when
tallisation nuclei, fir-tree-shaped structures grow here, in analysing the elements in the bead, it is noticeable that
which more favourable growth conditions exist in the direc- the chromium concentration is in particular very high,
tion of the trunk and branches than in all the other directions compared to the cold-work steel. Figure 18 shows the rel-
[41]. At a very high cooling rate, the length of the dendrites evant result of the elemental analysis of the chromium.
decreases to within the submicroscopic range. The branching As already explained in detail, chromium carbides M ­ 7C 3
of the dendrites also decreases as subcooling increases [42]. contain two to four times more chromium than the sur-
A corresponding dendritic solidification microstructure with rounding base material. If the chromium carbides are dis-
extruded material can be detected in the area surrounding solved by the temperature influence, a significant amount
the bead. Figure 17 shows an overview image on the left and of chromium accumulates in the immediate surroundings
detailed views on the right. of the original chromium carbides. Due to the high cool-
Tungsten and cobalt components are only sporadically ing rates (down to room temperature) during CD welding,
detectable within the bead. These elements are more often the elements responsible for the formation of carbides and
found at the basement of the bead protrusion and in the intermetallic phases remain in a dissolved state. The mate-
outer area. If the volume of extruded bead is compared rial remains in a metallurgical state of imbalance. At room
with the minimal amount of cemented carbide removed temperature, the diffusivity of the elements is so low that
from within the welding zone, it can be seen that cobalt equilibrium cannot be achieved without further heat input
and tungsten make up only a small proportion. The lower [32–35].

Fig. 18  Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of the bead of cemented carbide and cold-work steel

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169 3167

Fig. 19  Fracture surface analysis of the material combination cold-work steel/cemented carbide

The predominant mechanisms that lead to such a high which are initially not visible from a metallurgical point
concentration of chromium in the bead cannot be con- of view, are introduced into the cemented carbide, as the
clusively clarified within the scope of this scientific initiators of cracks.
paper. Theoretically, there is a concentration gradient of
chromium between cold-work steel and cemented car-
bide. Hypothetically, the heat input might promote mass 4 Conclusion
transport in the direction of the cemented carbide. And
the corresponding layer of material with high chromium The fusion joining of materials such as cemented carbides
concentration might be transported out of the welding WC–Co and tool steels X153CrMoV12 offers the use of
zone by the relative movement. Since carbon moves a combination of their excellent properties for demand-
much faster than chromium in iron [43], transport routes ing applications. However, these materials are difficult to
and concentration distributions of the carbon are also of fusion weld. One method can be capacitor discharge weld-
interest since chromium is no longer present in the bead ing, which allows a very high temperature to be reached
in the form of the original chromium carbides. in an extremely short time. However, the welding process
A quasi-static strength test was performed on the welded cannot be controlled. The solution turned out to be innova-
samples. The average value of the tensile force required to tive multi-capacitor discharge welding, which enables the
break the sample was 12.5 kN. The tensile forces obtained use of a multi-pulse welding mode.
in the quasi-static strength test are not sufficient to classify In this study, a combination of cemented carbide
the value of the resulting joints with cemented carbide, WC–Co and tool steel X153CrMoV12 was welded by the
due to the differing properties of the materials. Therefore, multi-capacitor discharge welding method. The results
universal criteria from the fracture surface and fracture showed that it is possible to achieve a heterogeneous
position analysis were included in the analysis. In Fig. 19, connection of cemented carbides WC–Co and tool steel
right, the fracture pattern of the material combination of X153CrMoV12 using this method and that this new inno-
cold-work steel and cemented carbide is shown. From the vative method is suitable to use.
fracture test (respectively from the shape and size of the It was shown that a mixed layer, a melting zone, and
fracture surface), it can be seen that the weld was formed a melting zone with chromium depletion in different
continuously around the entire circuit. degrees were formed in the weld area. During welding,
The matte surface of the torn-out area indicates a the molten phase was gradually removed from the weld
brittle separation fracture. The figure on the left shows site by compressive force in the form of Cr-enriched
that (due the position) the fracture can be classified as beads. A dendritic solidification structure was detected
part of the cemented carbide area. However, the result- in the bead phase. In the melting zone, a hazy anomaly
ing strength of this material combination is significantly was formed in the direction of the cold-work steel or
lower than the basic strength of the cemented carbide. alternatively, oriented towards the relative movement.
Due to the thermal influence of the joining process, the Fusion bonding occurred around the entire perimeter
strength of the cemented carbide is reduced locally, a of the sample. The average value of the tensile force
critical residual stress state results, or invisible notches, required to break the sample was 12.5 kN.

13

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3168 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 129:3155–3169

Acknowledgements We acknowledge CzechNanoLab Research Infra- 12. Ad A (2020) Sarhan, Dissimilar vacuum brazing of WC-Co and
structure supported by MEYS CR (LM2018110). cold work steel utilizing a new near-eutectic silver-copper filler
alloy. Proc Inst Mech Eng, Part B: J Eng Manuf 234(6–7):1019–
Author contribution All authors contributed to the study conception 1031. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1177/​09544​05419​893854
and design. Material preparation and data collection were performed 13. Ju J, Xue F, Zhou J, Bai J, Sun L (2015) Interface and bond
by NS and MK. Analysis was performed by MK, RC, MV, and LK. strength of brazing cemented carbide K20 to alloy steel AISI 4140
The first draft of the manuscript was written by NS and all authors by high-frequency induction. Mater Manuf Proc 31(8):1052–
commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read 1060. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​10426​914.​2015.​10483​57
and approved the final manuscript. 14. Maizza G, Cagliero R, Iacobone A, Montanari R, Varone A,
Mezzi A, Kaciulis S (2016) Study of steel-WC interface produced
Funding This work was supported by MEYS CR (LM2018110). by solid-state capacitor discharge sinter-welding. Surf Interface
Author M.V. has received research support from CzechNanoLab Anal 48(7):538–542. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​sia.​5945
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