COLOR AND COLOR SPACES

Douglas A. Kerr, P.E.

November 8, 2005
Issue 8

ABSTRACT

“Color space” refers to a specific system of coordinates that allows us to

describe a particular color of light. In this article we discuss the concept of
the color of light and the concept of a “color model”—which if precisely
specified is today most often described as a “color space”. We then describe
in some detail a number of specific color spaces used in a wide range of
fields.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
BACKGROUND .................................................................................... 2
Color ............................................................................................... 2
“Color model” and “color space” ......................................................... 3
Luminance and related metrics ............................................................ 3
COLOR SPACE FAMILIES ...................................................................... 3
Luminance-chromaticity color spaces ................................................... 3
The luminance-hue-saturation space ................................................. 3
The CIE xyY color space and the CIE chromaticity diagram.................. 4
Tristimulus spaces............................................................................. 5
Luminance-chrominance spaces .......................................................... 5
Chromaticity vs. chrominance ............................................................. 6
GAMMA.............................................................................................. 7
COLOR SPACES FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS.......................................... 8
The RGB space ................................................................................. 8
The HSV (HSB) space ...................................................................... 10
The HSL space................................................................................ 12
COLOR SPACES FOR TELEVISION IMAGES........................................... 12
Introduction .................................................................................... 12
The YUV color space ....................................................................... 13
The YIQ color space ........................................................................ 14
The YPbPr space ............................................................................. 15
The YCbCr space ............................................................................ 16
COLOR SPACES RELATED TO COLOR PRINTING ................................... 17
Three-color printing ......................................................................... 18

Copyright 2001-2005 Douglas A. Kerr. May be reproduced and/or distributed but only intact, including this
notice. Brief citations may be reproduced with credit.
Color Spaces Page 2

The CMY space .............................................................................. 19

Four-color printing ........................................................................... 20
The CMYK color space..................................................................... 20
MODERN CIE COLOR SPACES ............................................................. 21
The new “gamma” .......................................................................... 21
The CIE L*a*b* (“CIELAB”) space..................................................... 22
The CIE L*uv (“CIELUV”) space ........................................................ 25
The CIE L*CH space ........................................................................ 26
COLOR SPACES FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES .................................... 27
The sRGB color space ...................................................................... 27
The Adobe RGB color space ............................................................. 28
The sYCC color space...................................................................... 28
The e-sRGB color space ................................................................... 30
The PCS color space........................................................................ 31
APPENDIX A The CIE Chromaticity Diagram ......................................... 32
Wavelength .................................................................................... 32
The Spectrum ................................................................................. 33
Back to the CIE ............................................................................... 33
APPENDIX B The CIE XYZ and xyY color spaces ................................... 38

BACKGROUND
Color
Color is the principal property of visible light by which a human observer can
distinguish different “kinds” of light. It is a subjective property, and in
general the color of a light source cannot be determined by simple
measurement of fundamental physical properties of the light.

It has been ascertained that to describe a particular color of light we must

state three values. Color is thus a “3-dimensional property” in the
mathematical sense. In the case of another three-dimensional property, the
location of a point in space, many different sets of three variables
(coordinates) may be used.1 Similarly, in the case of color, many different
systems of three variables may be utilized. A particular one is traditionally
called a color model, and its variables are said to be the coordinates of its
three-dimensional color space.

In this article, we describe a number of color models which are important

both in theoretical work and in the representation of color in a wide range of

1
For example: rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates, cylindrical coordinates, spherical
coordinates, geodesic coordinates.
Color Spaces Page 3

technical fields, including the representation of still and moving images in

digital form.

“Color model” and “color space”

In recent times, it has become common to use the term “color space” not in
the sense just described but rather to mean a particular fully specified color
model. In the interest of consistency, we will use the term color space here
in that new sense.

Luminance and related metrics

Luminance is a measure of the “potency” of light emitted from a surface—
generally as it relates to the light emitted in a particular direction (such as
toward an observer) from any particular small region of the surface.

There are other potency metrics that are closely parallel to luminance. If we
are interested in the totality of light emitted by some emitter, the potency
metric is luminous flux. If we are interested in the light emitted in a particular
direction from a “point source” (such as a distant star), the potency metric is
luminous intensity. If we are interested in the light falling on a surface, the
potency metric is illuminance. These metrics have different dimensionalities
and are quantified with different units.

Luminous flux is rather akin to electrical power, and the other metrics follow
this similarity. Accordingly, if we combine the output of two sources which
exhibit certain luminances, the total emission has a luminance that is the
sum of those two luminances.

In the definitions of color spaces, luminance is not discussed in absolute

terms of the quantitative scientific unit but rather on a relative scale, perhaps
considered to range from 0 to 1.

COLOR SPACE FAMILIES

Most color spaces with which we will be concerned fall into one of three
families. We will discuss the basic concepts of these families in a generic
way. Later, when we encounter specific spaces, this background will help us
to grasp their principles.

Luminance-chromaticity color spaces

The luminance-hue-saturation space
One kind of color space that is well related to the intuitive human perception
of color uses these three properties (color coordinates):
Color Spaces Page 4

Luminance is the property that describes the “brightness” of the light2.

(Many people are startled to learn that luminance is a part of color, but it is
in the formal sense we are considering here.)

Hue is the property that distinguishes red from orange from blue from
blue-green, and so forth.

Saturation is the property that distinguishes red from pink. It is sometimes

said to describe the “purity” of the color.

The properties hue and saturation are said to jointly describe the chromaticity
of the color of interest. Chromaticity is in fact the property that the average
person thinks of as the “color” of light (not realizing that luminance is one
aspect). Since chromaticity actually embraces two of our “color
coordinates”, it is a two-dimensional property (in the mathematical sense.

Because of this situation the luminance-hue-saturation space is said to be in

the luminance-chromaticity family. In other members of that family,
chrominance is characterized by pairs of coordinates other than hue and
saturation. Sometimes luminance is described as indicating the quality of the
light and luminance the quantity.

There are various scales by which hue and saturation may be quantified
(given numerical values). An important scheme depends on a graphic
presentation of chromaticity called the CIE chromaticity diagram. It is
actually part of a different color space within the luminance-chromaticity
family.

The CIE xyY color space and the CIE chromaticity diagram
Another important luminance-chrominance color space which is very useful
in technical work is known as the CIE xyY color space (CIE are the initials of
the French name of the International Commission on Illumination). It plots
any chromaticity as a point on a graph (the CIE chromaticity diagram3) whose
two axes correspond to two arbitrary variables called x and y.4 These are
defined so that the “mapping” of different chromaticities to points on this
graph results in certain desirable properties. This description of chromaticity

2
Rigorously, as we mentioned just previously, luminance only relates to the strength of light
emerging from an area of finite size, such as a spot on a scene being photographed. Other
metrics apply to other situations. We need not be concerned here with the distinction. So far
as the description of color is concerned, the concept is the same in each case.

3
Actually, the “1931 CIE chromaticity diagram”; two later chromaticity diagrams have been
adopted by the CIE, one in 1960 (with variables u and v) and one in 1976 (with variables u’
and v’, generally called today just u and v). The 1931 version is still the one most widely
used for general discussions of chromaticity, and when we speak in this paper of the “CIE
chromaticity diagram” without specifying the version, it is the 1931 version which is meant.

4
See Appendix B for a description of the concepts of this coordinate system.
Color Spaces Page 5

is accompanied by a description of luminance in the variable Y, giving of

course the expected three “coordinates”.

This space, and the CIE chromaticity diagram itself, are discussed in detail in
Appendixes A and B.

Tristimulus spaces
Tristimulus spaces describe the color on interest in terms of the amounts of
light of three specified primary chromaticities that may be combined to
produce that color. One important example of this class, the “RGB” space, is
based on the use of the primaries which are the red, green, and blue
emissions from a color cathode ray tube display system. Thus, color
descriptions in this space can be readily used to drive such a display. The
RGB space also relates well to the capture of color images by the typical
television camera or digital still camera.

Other tristimulus spaces are used in the description of color in other

contexts, such as theoretical scientific work. They involve the use of other
primaries, some of them not having any physical realizations. One example is
the CIE tristimulus space.5 It describes a color in terms of the amounts of
three such non-real primaries, called X, Y, and Z. This space is discussed in
Appendix B (and is in fact the underlying basis for the CIE xyY color space).

Luminance-chrominance spaces
There is another family of color spaces, of interest to the representation of
color in television signals and digital images, that describe color in terms of
luminance (as before) and a two-dimensional property called chrominance.
(One must be careful not to confuse chrominance and chromaticity—we’ll
emphasize the distinction in a little bit.)

The concept is this. Suppose we first generate white light6 whose luminance
is the luminance of the color of interest. Now imagine that we add to that
white light the amount and “flavor” of non-white light required to produce
the color of interest. This “colorant dose” (as we would say when mixing
paint) is described by the property chrominance. As we would expect,

5
Also discussed in Appendix B. In fact, the term ”tristimulus space”, while applicable to a
range of color spaces, is usually reserved for use in connection with this space.

6
“White” does not automatically describe a specific chromaticity, but only an arbitrary
conceptual range. Various chromaticities have been defined to be considered as white in
different situations. Most color spaces involve a certain definition of white. This matter is
discussed further in Appendix A.
Color Spaces Page 6

chrominance is a two-dimensional property: its description requires the

values of two coordinates.7

The reader may note an apparent paradox in this concept. If the white light
component alone has the luminance which is the luminance of the color of
interest, and we add further light (the “colorant” described by the
chrominance property), won’t the resulting light (the color of interest) have a
greater luminance, a luminance greater than we have already stated for that
very color?

The secret is that the “colorant” has zero luminance! Then how can it have
any effect on the composite light? How can it even exist?

It doesn’t exist physically; it is a mathematical fiction. That’s all right, since

we do not actually generate the described color by physically adding together
white light and “colorant” light. The addition is done mathematically, with
the white light and the colorant both typically described by their R, G, and B
coordinates (under the RGB tristimulus space). The resulting RGB description
is then typically fed to an RGB-based display system to render the color of
interest.

Since the colorant component must have zero luminance, its own RGB
description will involve negative values of the amount at least one of the
RGB primaries (again, not physically possible, but fine for a mathematical
fiction). However, for any color that can be represented by the RGB space,
when this description is added to the RGB description of the white light
component, R, G, and B will all have positive values.

We will discuss specific luminance-chrominance spaces later in the article,

under “Color Spaces for Television Images” and “Modern CIE Color Spaces”.
(They are complicated, and I don’t want to lose momentum here!)

Chromaticity vs. chrominance

The distinction between chromaticity and chrominance often eludes the
reader at first. Here we will point out the fundamental distinction.

Imagine that we have described, under a luminance-chromaticity space, the

color of the light emerging from a certain spot on a test object illuminated by
two identical floodlights. If we turn one of the floodlights out, the luminance
is reduced, but there is no change in chromaticity.

7
Different “luminance-chrominance” color spaces use different pairs of coordinates for the
purpose. We will see the details of several of these when we later discuss specific color
spaces.
Color Spaces Page 7

Now let us again consider our example of the color of a spot on an object
illuminated by two floodlights. This time we describe the color in a
luminance-chrominance space. When we turn off one floodlight, the
luminance of the light is reduced. The magnitude (“potency”) of the
chrominance also drops correspondingly.

The following analogy may help to understand that latter situation.

Remember, we can think of chrominance as describing a “colorant dose”.
Imagine that we first mix a gallon of paint of a certain custom color. The
“recipe” defines a certain colorant dose to be added to a certain amount of
“base” paint.

If we instead need to mix only a quart of paint, to produce the same color
we must cut down the size of the colorant dose proportionately. Thus, to
mix up a “batch of light” of a reduced luminance, we must decrease both the
amount of the “base white” (the luminance) and the amount of “colorant”
(the chrominance).

GAMMA
Before we can discuss specific color spaces used for the encoding of color
for computer graphics and television images, we must discuss the concept of
gamma.

In conventional photography, the density created on a negative (itself a

logarithmic measure)8 would ideally vary directly with the logarithm of
exposure, the slope of the plot of density vs. the logarithm of exposure (the
“D log E” curve) being 1.0. In reality the slope is usually less. The value of
the slope is often designated by the lower-case Greek letter gamma (γ).

In a cathode-ray tube (CRT) visual display, the luminance of the spot on the
screen generated by the electron beam from a beam gun is typically not
proportional to the control voltage to the gun, but rather to some power of
the voltage (often about 2.2).9 This exponent is often designated gamma by
parallel with the related concept for film.

In earlier eras, in one-to-many systems such as television broadcast we

typically went to great extent to move as much complexity as possible from
the “many” units (the TV receivers) to the “one” units (the TV studio-
transmitter complex). In that vein, in analog TV transmission, to eliminate the

8
Density for a point in a photographic negative is numerically defined as the common
logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of the light falling on the point to the intensity of the
light passing through the point. Thus, a point having a density of 2.0 allows only 1/100 of
the light intensity to pass through.

9
This should not really be a surprise; luminance has a dimensionality akin to electrical
power, and power varies as the square (second power) of voltage or current. Thus from this
alone we might well expect an exponent of 2.
Color Spaces Page 8

need to put non-linear circuitry in the TV receiver to overcome the

voltage-luminance nonlinearity of the display gun, the signal transmitted is
precompensated for that nonlinearity (“gamma precompensated”). Thus
typically the transmitted signal voltage goes as about the 0.45 power (1/2.2)
of the luminance observed by the camera.

Actually, the human eye does not respond linearly to luminance. The
response, as with many other areas of human perception (such as sound
loudness), is more nearly logarithmic. The gamma-precompensated luminance
signal involved in TV transmission is in fact a crude but still useful
approximation to a logarithmic representation: the human eye responds
nearly linearly to gamma-precompensated luminance. This affords many
advantages in image manipulation.

There is a third motivation. The nonlinear nature of the transmitted signal is

desirable in terms of the subjective impact to the viewer of noise introduced
in transmission. The rationale for this is beyond the scope of this article.

In any case, as well will see shortly, in most color spaces of the RGB family
(to be discussed next), the variables indicating the amounts of the three
primaries needed to “make up” the color of interest are expressed as a
nonlinear transform of the original values. The nonlinear function used is
often a power function similar to (in fact, often identical to) that used for
gamma precompensation in television systems (often with the same
exponent, or “gamma”), and in fact its initial purpose was identical. Thus,
even in RGB-family color spaces other than those use in television, the
nonlinear transformation is often referred to as “gamma precompensation”.

In connection with color spaces using a substantially different nonlinear

function (as we will see in connection with the CIE L*a*b* color space), the
term “gamma precompensation” is perhaps less justifiable, and is less
frequently used.

COLOR SPACES FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS

The onset of color graphic display capability for computers required the
development of schemes for coding the colors of image elements. Here we
will describe some of the most-widely used spaces encountered in defining
the colors to be used for display elements, and also for defining the colors in
images being composed or edited in image composition or editing software.

The RGB space

The RGB color space describes a color in terms of the potency of three light
ingredients of different specified chromaticities which if added together will
produce that color. These three “primaries” are described as red, green, and
blue, and the variables R, G, and B describe the amounts of each in the
“mix”. This space is an example of the tristimulus color space family.
Color Spaces Page 9

Figure 1 shows the chromaticity of the three primaries in a typical RGB color
space on the CIE chromaticity diagram. (See Appendix A for a discussion of
this diagram.)

In the actual representation of the color in terms of the variables R, G, and B,

the values of these three variables are precompensated for the assumed
gamma of the display mechanism. The scaling of r, g, and b is such that if
R=G=B, the color represented has the chromaticity of the “reference white”
for the color space.

Figure 1. RGB primaries on the CIE chromaticity diagram

In formal mathematical work, the symbols R, G, and B are used for the
“linear” (non-gamma-precompensated) form of the variables, and R’, G’, and
B’ for the gamma-precompensated form. However, in connection with the
RGB color space in practical use, the symbols R, G, and B always refer to the
gamma-precompensated form of the variables. Thus, to avoid confusion, in
mathematical work in this paper, we will use the symbols r, g, and b for the
non-gamma-precompensated variables, and R, G, and B for the
gamma-precompensated ones.10

Using a form of that notation, the nonlinear transformation used in many (but
not all) the standardized RGB color spaces takes on this form:

10
Note also that, while in equations we will follow the usual mathematical convention of
showing the symbols for variables in italics, we do not do so in the text proper, since in
many cases those variables identify the “coordinates” of a color where, by convention, they
are not shown in italics.
Color Spaces Page 10

C = c1/ γ

where C represents any of R, G, or B, c represents any of r, g, or b, and γ

(lower case Greek gamma) is the exponent defining the nonlinear transform.

This space followed directly from the color display mechanism of most
computers, which used a tricolor cathode-ray tube with guns controlling the
emission of light of three primary chromaticities, “red”, “green”, and “blue”
(just as was used for classical color television).

In the use of the RGB space in computer memory or in file, it is common to

use an 8-bit number to represent each of these three intensities. Thus, at the
human interface (where the operator or artist might choose a color, or where
the color of a point on the image would be displayed to the artist), it is
common to represent the range of values for each component as being
0-255. In other cases, a range of 0-100% is used at the human interface.

The luminance of the color rendered does not follow an absolute scale, but
rather depends on the display mechanism and the setting of its “brightness”
control.

We often plot the “chromaticity gamut”—the range of chromaticities that the

color space can represent—of an RGB color space on the CIE chromaticity
diagram. It turns out that it comprises all chromaticities that are enclosed by
the triangle joining the points giving the chromaticity of the three primaries,
R, G, and B. (See figure 1.)

But this can be misleading. Not all those chromaticities can be achieved for
every luminance that can be represented by the RGB model.

For example, we can only have the a color with the chromaticity of the G
primary itself by using “G” light alone; that is, the values R and B must be
zero. With a “100%” dose of G (that is, for R,G,B=0,1,0), we will have a
certain luminance—less than that we would have if R, G, and B were all 1,
the maximum luminance of the color gamut of the RGB space.

If we wish to have a greater luminance than we get for R,G,B=0,1,0, we

can only do it by adding “R” or “B” light. As soon as we do that, the point
representing the resulting chromaticity on the chart moves toward the R
and/or B primary point—the saturation declines. To reach maximum
luminance, we have no choice but to use R,G,B=1,1,1, in which case by
definition the saturation is zero.

The HSV (HSB) space

Although the RGB space relates well to the actual color display mechanism,
it is not intuitive for the computer graphic artist wishing to indicate a desired
Color Spaces Page 11

color.11 Thus, at the human interface, another space came into play, with its
coordinates being hue, saturation, and value (a synonym for luminance): H,
S, and V. It is sometimes called the HSB space (for hue, saturation, and
brightness).

How is hue described in this system? In “theoretical” work, hue (for spectral
hues) is often described in terms of the wavelength of the spectral
(monochromatic) color having that hue. For the non-spectral purple colors,
the hue is usually described as a fractional distance along the locus of non-
spectral purples on the CIE chromaticity diagram.

Of course this means of describing hue would not be practical for a working
artist (or even for a computer user setting the color of his Windows
desktop!). Instead, in the HSV color space, hue is described in terms of a
“color wheel”, reminiscent of those we used in elementary school art
classes.

The hues of the three primaries of the assumed display system are arbitrarily
placed at equidistant azimuths around this circle, at 0° (red), 120° (green),
and 240° (blue). Well-known names of three intermediate hues, yellow,
cyan, and magenta, are placed at intermediate azimuths. The “non-spectral
purples” fall in the azimuth range between magenta and red.

In effect, the circle is a transformation of the periphery of the CIE

chromaticity diagram, embracing both the locus of spectral hues and the
locus of non-spectral purple hues.

Then, in the HSV representation of a color, the hue parameter (H) would be
given as the azimuth (in degrees) of the corresponding hue on the wheel,
with 0° representing the hue of the red primary.

In HSV systems, brightness (V) is often defined as just (R+G+B)/3.12 This

primitive definition ignores the differing sensitivity of the eye to the different
primaries, and the differing maximum available intensities of the three CRT
primaries. In other cases, V is defined as the maximum value among R, G,
and B.

Here we have the same dilemma as with the RGB space: we cannot achieve
as much saturation for higher brightness as we can for lower brightness.

11
We should perhaps note here that none of the spaces we will discuss here are really
satisfying for the sophisticated graphic artist, who will likely wish to choose colors under
systems developed years ago for use with pigments, such as the Munsell or Pantone
systems. Most serious graphic art software packages afford the opportunity to choose
colors based on one or more of these systems. The colors chosen are then usually converted
by the software to an RGB representation for storage.

12
Again, brightness is not defined on an absolute scale, but rather on a relative scale, the
absolute value depending on the display mechanism and the setting of its brightness control.
Color Spaces Page 12

Thus, a color such as H=60°, S=100%, and B=95% cannot be achieved.

The HSB system, however, vainly allows such a color to be described.

The details of the HSB space definition—in fact, of any of the several
different definitions encountered in practice—are beyond the scope of this
article.

The HSL space

The HSL space (sometimes designated HLS) is an attempt to get around (or
perhaps hide) the brightness-saturation conflict we just mentioned. In that
space, hue (H) is defined in terms of the color circle just as in the HSB
system. Lightness (L) is conceptually the same as brightness in the other
space. It also runs from 0-100%, but is usually defined in an even more
peculiar way with respect to its value for any RGB combination: the average
of the highest and lowest value among R, G, and B.

The third parameter is again called saturation, and again has the symbol S,
but is also defined in a rather peculiar way. Its value runs from 0-100%. It
indicates not the actual saturation of the color of interest but rather the
fraction that saturation is of the maximum saturation available at the
particular lightness called for (considering the brightness-saturation conflict
mentioned above).

For example, to achieve a color of hue 0° (red) with a lightness of 80%

requires that we use not only a large value of R but substantial values of G
and B as well. Because of the presence of G and B, the resulting color
cannot achieve 100% saturation (to do so would require that R appear
alone).

In particular, to get the highest available saturation for red for an L of 80%,
we would need to use R=100%, G=60%, and B=60%. The actual
saturation we would get would be about 25%. Nevertheless, under the HSB
system, that saturation would be called 100%, since it is the greatest
attainable at that lightness for the stated hue.

The details of the HSL space definition—in fact, of any of its several
different definitions encountered in practice—are beyond the scope of this
article.

COLOR SPACES FOR TELEVISION IMAGES

Introduction
Several color spaces are in use for the encoding of moving images for analog
television transmission purposes and for further encoding using such digital
transmission schemes as MPEG.
Color Spaces Page 13

In each case, we assume that the original image representation, from the
camera or equivalent, is in RGB form, with the values R, G, and B
precompensated for the assumed gamma of the ultimate display device.

Although the scope of this article is not intended to embrace modulation

schemes and similar matters related to the application of color spaces to
television transmission, we must venture a little into those electrical
engineering topics in order to grasp the rationale behind the color spaces in
this area.

The YUV color space

The color space identified as YUV is the basis for encoding a television signal
in analog form for broadcast in the European PAL TV system and in the
current version of the American NTSC TV system. 13

The space is based on a description of a color in terms of R, G, and B, the

amounts of three primaries whose chromaticities are intended to match those
of the three primaries of a classical color CRT display. These are
precompensated for an assumed display device gamma of 2.2 in this fashion:

R=r0.45 (0.45=1/2.2)

G=g0.45

B=b0.45

The value Y is then determined as a weighted sum of R, G, and B:

Y=0.299R+0.587G+0.114B

The object is to approach the situation in which we would have the same
value of Y for colors of different chromaticities which nevertheless appear to
the human viewer to be “equally bright”.14 However, this is only
approximately achieved, since Y is derived from a linear combination of
gamma-precompensated RGB values, whereas true luminance is best
reckoned as a linear combination of the non-gamma-precompensated (linear)
rgb values. Y is thus not a true indication of luminance (not even a gamma-
precompensated one). As we will see later, this value is often given the
name luma.

U and V represent blue and red “color differences”, as follows:

U=0.492(B-Y)

13
The YUV color space should not be confused with the CIE L*uv color space, a different
creature altogether.

14
A “black-and-white” TV receiver operates only from the signal carrying Y.
Color Spaces Page 14

V=0.877(R-Y)

The combination of U and V are said to define the “chrominance” of the

color15.

In PAL and modern NTSC television transmission, the portion of the overall
signal which conveys U and V is called the chrominance (or often chroma)
signal, sometimes designated C. The portion which conveys Y is called the
luminance (or luma) signal, designated Y. In addition to being shorter, the
terms chroma and luma by convention remind us that these are
gamma-precompensated values (and in the case of luma, reminds us that it
really isn’t a luminance value at all—not even a gamma-precompensated
one). These two short terms are borrowed for use in connection with other
color spaces of a similar nature.

Note that this color space should not be confused with the CIE uv
chromaticity diagram (part of the uvY color space) color space nor the CIE
L*uv color space. In fact, the chrominance axes of the YUV space do not
even approximately match the chromaticity axes of the uv chromaticity
diagram nor the chrominance axes of the L*uv space. If anything, they are
almost interchanged (u vs. v).

The YIQ color space

The color space identified as “YIQ” was until recently utilized in the encoding
of television images for analog broadcast in the North American system
(NTSC). It can today perhaps best be understood as a variant of the YUV
space (although, interestingly enough, the YUV space had not been defined
when the YIQ space came into use), and has essentially been replaced by the
YUV space in modern analog television transmission.

Consider the chrominance plane defined by U and V (that is, by Y’-B’ and
R’-B’ with the appropriate scaling). We define a new set of coordinate axes,
Q and I16, with the same origin but lying at an angle of 33° counterclockwise
from the U and V axes, respectively. The Q and I values then describe the
chrominance of the color. In television transmission, the portion of the
overall signal which conveys Q and I is called the chrominance (or often
chroma) signal, sometimes designated C. The portion which conveys Y is
called the luminance (or luma) signal, designated Y. As in the case of the
YUV space, the terms chroma and luma by convention remind us that these

15
Recall that chrominance differs from chromaticity in that if a color of a given chromaticity
is increased in its luminance, the “magnitude” of its chrominance also increases.

16
The designations Q and I are mnemonic for quadrature and in-phase, an allusion to the
way in which these are transmitted in television transmission by quadrature amplitude
modulation of a “chrominance subcarrier”. They are generally mentioned in the opposite
order: “I and Q”; the order “Q and I” we used here is intended to reflect the parallelism with
U and V, respectively.
Color Spaces Page 15

are gamma-precompensated values (and that Y is not really a luminance

value at all).

Why the new set of axes? The eye’s chrominance acuity—its ability to
discern fine detail carried by chrominance change—is highest for
chrominance changes along a certain direction of the chrominance plane17,
and substantially lower for the direction at right angles to that. The Q axis is
aligned with the “lowest acuity” direction. This allows, in television
transmission, allocation of substantially less bandwidth to the Q component
(transmitting it with reduced “resolution”), reducing the overall bandwidth
required for the transmission of the image chrominance.

Curiously enough, the allocation of different signal bandwidth to the Q and I

components of chrominance, an objective of the original design of the NTSC
system and the YIQ space, is not exploited in most modern TV encoding
schemes, such as YUV.

The actual development of Y is given by:

Y=0.299R+0.587G+0.114B

The development of I and Q are given by:

I=0.736(R-Y)-0.268(B-Y)

Q=0.478(R-Y)+0.413(B-Y)

(The more complex expressions for I and Q, compared to those for U and V
in the YUV space, are a result of the rotated axes of the YIQ space.)

The YPbPr space

The scales for U and V (in the YUV space) and of Q and I (in the YIQ space)
were chosen to produce, in television transmission, an appropriate amplitude
(“voltage”) range of the entire composite signal (Y+C) over the full gamut of
colors. This is a requirement for proper performance of the overall modulation
scheme used to convey the composite signal as a radio-frequency signal in
TV broadcast. The range is not the same for U and V (nor for Q and I.)

If we wish to convey a video signal across an analog interface as three

separate “baseband” (unmodulated) electrical signals, one for luminance and
two for chrominance, it is attractive for the three signals to have the same
voltage ranges. The use of voltages based on Y, U, and V would not meet
that criterion.

The YPbPr space is conceptually identical to the YUV space, with Pb derived
from the blue color difference value, B-Y (like U), and Pr derived from the red

17
As seen on the CIE chromaticity diagram.
Color Spaces Page 16

color difference value, R-Y (like V). The coefficients of Pb and Pr, however,
are chosen so that both have the same range over the full gamut of colors
that can be represented by the space.

The ranges of the variables, in abstract terms, are: for Y, 0-1 “unit” (by
definition); for Pb and Pr, ±0.5 “unit”. The actual electrical signal at an
interface is ordinarily scaled such that the range for Y is 0-0.7 V and for Pb
and Pb, ±0.35 V (that is, one “unit” is 0.7 V).

Again, as in the case of the YUV and YIQ spaces, note that Y isn’t rigorously
an indicator of luminance (not even gamma-precompensated luminance).

Unfortunately, “three-channel” electrical interfaces of this type are often (but

incorrectly) labeled “YUV”.

The YCbCr space

The YCbCr space is encountered in one form in connection with the
encoding of television images for digital representation or transmission.
Another form is used for the digital encoding of still images in the JPEG
encoding system. It is equivalent to the YPbPr space, except that its three
variables are defined as being in 8-bit digital form.

In both forms, the value Y is derived from a weighted sum of R, G, and B

(where these values are gamma-precompensated). The standard weighting is:

Y = 0.299R + 0.587G + 0.114B

where the range of R, G, and B is assumed to be 0-1.

The range of Y will then also be 0-1.

Note that Y does not represent the luminance of the color; luminance is
reckoned as a weighted sum of the non-gamma-precompensated R, G, and B
values. Y is not even gamma-precompensated luminance. Y here is
sometimes spoken of as “pseudo-luminance”. It is also often called luma, a
term drawn from television signal practice.

Two “color difference” values are then derived:

Cb = 0.564(B − Y )

Cr = 0.713(R − Y )

The coefficients in those expressions ensure that (if R, G, and B are within
the range of 0-1) Cb and Cr will lie in the range -0.5 to +0.5.

(We can see that the YCbCr space is essentially a rescaled form of the YUV
space.)
Color Spaces Page 17

Cb and Cr collectively are said to express the chrominance of the color; this
is often called chroma (again, a term drawn from television practice).

In the digital television version, Y is expressed in 8-bit form, with a range

from 16 to 235 (decimal). Cb and Cr are expressed in 8-bit form, both with a
range of 16-240, thought of as being ±112 about a center value of 128.

The restricted range of Y accommodates two aspects of television

production and transmission practice. For one, at both the “light” and “dark”
extremes, there is additional numeric range18 available to accommodate
outputs from the camera accidentally lying outside the nominal full range.
Thus we avoid “clipping” in such circumstances. The additional range
available at the “dark” end also accommodates the concept of a
“blacker-than-black” representation used for “blanking” the inactive parts of
the picture. This assures reliable rendering of these as black at the receiver.
It also accommodates the concepts of a “really-blacker-than-black”
representation through which synchronizing pulses (to synchronize the
horizontal and vertical scanning of the image) are conveyed in transmission.

However, in the forms of this color space used in such applications as the
JPEG representation of photographic images, Y, Cb, and Cr are all scaled so
that they occupy the range 0-25519. For Cb and Cr the center point in this
case (representing a “zero” value) is again 128.

Note that since this is a luminance-chrominance (not luminance-chromaticity)

space, if we begin with some color and “attenuate” it (such that its
chromaticity does not change). Y, Cb, and Cr all decrease.

Often (through editorial carelessness) this space is referred to as “YCrCb”

(presumably through the assumption that Cr and Cb would be in the same
order as “R” and “B” in “RGB”).

We will encounter the YCbCr color space again (in its “sYCC” form) in the
section on Color Spaces for Photographic Images.

COLOR SPACES RELATED TO COLOR PRINTING

The color spaces we have discussed so far are directly related to an assumed
technique for displaying the image based on the emission of light of three
primary chromaticities. There is another family of spaces used in a computer
context and related to another technique of image production: color printing
with pigmented inks.

18
Called “headroom” and “footroom”.

19
At one time the coefficients of the conversion to 8-bit form were such that for the
maximum should be 256, but of course that is not possible with an 8-bit representation.
This little “oops” has been gently squeezed out of the current version of the controlling
specification, and the coefficients are now scaled to suit a range of 255 units.
Color Spaces Page 18

This is a very complex field, involving sophisticated science, art, and craft.
We will here take a very simplified view of the area.

Three-color printing
In the basic technique of “three-color” printing, three different inks are used
to print an image. They are said to be of three different “colors”. Rigorously,
however, an ink does not have a color. Rather, it has a reflectance spectrum,
a curve of the fraction of the light falling on the ink that is reflected as a
function of the wavelength of the light. If we take the spectrum of the
incident light and multiply it by the reflectance spectrum of the ink, we will
get the spectrum of the reflected light. That light, to a human observer, will
exhibit a particular color—it will have a certain brightness (luminance) and a
certain chromaticity.

To the user, that color is thought of as “the color of the ink”. However, if we
change the spectrum of the incident light, the spectrum of the reflected light
will also change, and thus its apparent color. Thus, to have a sample of a
certain ink exhibit a consistent color, it must be viewed under light of a
consistent spectrum.

Note that that this is not as simple as just calling for a consistent color of
incident light. We can have incident light of two different spectra which
nevertheless exhibit the same color to an observer. But the light reflected by
a certain ink illuminated by those two kinds of light may not exhibit the same
color to an observer.20

All that having been said, from here on we will nevertheless, for
conciseness, refer to the “color” of ink and to the “color” achieved by the
use of the ink on paper.

Traditionally, the “three-color” printing process has used three kinds of ink
whose reflectance spectra have been fairly well standardized. We describe
these qualitatively, in terms of the hue which they exhibit when illuminated
by light of some fairly-standard spectrum (such as “sunlight”), as cyan,
magenta, and yellow. Formerly (and to some extent yet today), they were
described as “process blue”, “process red”, and “process yellow”, the word
“process” of course being an allusion to the “three-color printing process”.

In “emissive” color-generating techniques (such as that of the CRT-based

systems used in computer and television displays), the spectra of the three

20
This is of course a large problem in the design of not only printing inks but also of paints
for products. The manufacturer would like for a refrigerator in “sea blue” to look the same
whether it is illuminated by incandescent or fluorescent light. The problem is complicated by
the fact that the human perception of chrominance is actually relative, and the person
viewing the refrigerator is also seeing surrounding objects whose apparent chrominances
also depend on the type of illumination.
Color Spaces Page 19

primaries (weighted by the relative brightness of each) add to produce the

spectrum of the emitted light, which determines its visible color.

In an ink printing process, each ink acts as a filter, reflecting the various
wavelengths of the incident light in accordance with the ink’s reflectance
spectrum. Conversely, we can think of the ink as absorbing various
wavelengths of the incident light in inverse accordance with the ink’s
reflectance spectrum.

When two or three kinds of ink are applied, it is as though we have filters in
cascade: each ink absorbs the various wavelengths of the incident light as
appropriate. A certain wavelength may have a certain fraction of its energy
absorbed by the blue ink at a certain spot, and then another fraction of its
energy is absorbed by the yellow ink at that spot.

For that reason, the ink “primaries” (such as cyan, magenta, and yellow) are
often said to be subtractive primaries, in contrast to the emissive primaries
(such as red, green, and blue), said in this context to be additive primaries.
Color spaces related to the ink printing process are often distinguished as
“reflective spaces”.

To achieve the gamut of image colors needed in printing, we must be able to

control the “density”21 of each of the colors of ink. In the most common ink
printing process, we cannot do this directly—at a given spot on the paper,
the ink is either deposited or not. We however achieve the effect of different
“densities” of an ink by the use of the halftone process. In that process, the
ink is actually applied in a grid of tiny dots, usually on a fixed grid. The
diameters of the dots are varied, thus changing the fraction of the paper area
affected by that ink.

There are some resulting subtleties in the way the absorption of the different
inks interact. Thus the phenomenon of the production of a “color” of the
printed image is not as simple as we make it appear in this article. Our intent
here is merely to give an understanding of the context in which print-related
color spaces operate.

The CMY space

The simplest color space related to the three-color printing process is, not
surprisingly, the “CMY” (cyan-magenta-yellow) space. Its three variables
represent the relative density of the cyan, magenta, and yellow ink that
would be needed to produce the color of interest (and remember, that all
assumes that the ink image is illuminated by “white” light not just of a
certain chromaticity but in fact of a particular spectral distribution).

21
We do not use “density” in this section to mean the logarithmic density used in
photographic technology, nor to any specific quantitative definition.
Color Spaces Page 20

In the simplest application of this space, the C, M, and Y variables for a

particular color are related to the RGB representation of the color in this
simple way (all variables being stated with a range from 0 to 1):

C=1-R

M=1-G

Y=1-B

The CMY space is also relevant to color photography, where the image on a
color print or positive transparency is produced by three dyes operating in a
“subtractive” mechanism.

Four-color printing
The three-color printing process suffers from a number of practical
shortcomings. For one, even if the greatest practical “density” of all three
inks is applied to an area, not all the incident light is absorbed, and the area
will not appear black to the observer (but rather a muddy brown). Other low-
reflectance colors are similarly unsatisfactory. In addition, the use of three
“dense” layers of ink can make the printed paper wetter than is desirable.

The solution is the introduction of a fourth ink, black. Obviously, to make a

black portion of the image, we can use only the black ink. But for other low-
reflectance (dark) colors, we also use some density of black in connection
with a reduced density of the other three inks. In effect, we “factor out” the
common absorption of all three “colored inks” and replace it with absorption
by the black ink. This is often called “gray component removal” (GCR) or
“undercolor removal” (UCR)22.

It is not, however, necessarily most effective to “factor out” all of the

common absorption of the three colored inks. There are many empirical
formulas used by printers (or mechanized “pre-press” processing software) to
determine how much black to use (and how to correspondingly reduce the
density of the other inks) to best achieve a certain “color” of the image.

The CMYK color space

The widespread use of the “four-color” process in printing has led to the use
of a computer-oriented color space directly related to it. The CMYK space
adds a fourth variable, K, to reflect the amount of black used in the eventual
recipe for a color. (Evidently “K” was chosen for “black” since “B” was
already in use for “blue”.)

By representing colors in this form in a computer system, the actual printing

process can be given explicit instructions by the computer as to how the

22
The two terms refer to slightly different aspects of the process as practiced.
Color Spaces Page 21

undercolor removal should be done for each area of the image. Thus, a
sophisticated artist or photo editor, familiar with the practical subtleties of
the four-color printing process, can “tune” the undercolor removal process
for best final printed result.

Most graphic arts and photo editing software packages allow the operator to
adjust the parameters of the default algorithm for the automatic application
of undercolor removal. One parameter of the algorithm in effect tells the
system how aggressive to be in “factoring out” the common absorption of
the three additive primaries for any given color, the range being from “don’t
do it” to “take it all out”. In many cases, the algorithm varies for different
ranges of overall “brightness”.

MODERN CIE COLOR SPACES

We earlier spoke of the CIE Yxy color space and the related CIE chromaticity
diagram. (These are described in detail on Appendixes B and A.)

An important practical issue in commercial color work is that of matching the

color of light (or the “color” of a reflective surface) to some established
specification. A measure of “color difference”, as perceived by a human
observer, is needed to quantify this concept. The matter of chrominance
difference is especially important. Unfortunately, the distance between two
chrominances on the original CIE chromaticity diagram (the “1931” diagram)
does not consistently correspond with perceived chromaticity difference.

The CIE thus subsequently defined other color spaces in which distance on
the chromaticity plane more nearly corresponds to perceived chromaticity
difference. A number of these figure in the description of color in modern
image coding systems.

The new “gamma”

The basic intent of the non-linear representation of R, G, and B, and thus of
values derived from them, such as Y, is to accommodate the expected
nonlinear transfer function of the assumed display device. In the original YIQ
space, for example, this assumed device is a 1948-vintage cathode ray tube
(CRT).

As a result of changes in the design of CRT’s, many of them today exhibit

substantially different gamma values. And of course other display
mechanisms, such as color LCD panels, have entirely different transfer
characteristics.

As a result, a TV receiver may well contain circuitry to mediate between the

gamma assumed by the signal and the characteristics of the actual display
mechanism.

There are two other advantages of the nonlinear representation of luminance

and chrominance values. Firstly, when these are to be transmitted as signals
Color Spaces Page 22

(as in the case of television), the nonlinear representation produces a

superior perceived image quality for any given signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in
the transmission channel.

Secondly, the nonlinear representations follow somewhat crudely the non-

linear response of the human eye. As a consequence, various image
manipulation tasks, such as the superimposition of images, can be preformed
in a more straightforward way. Unfortunately, the exponent used for gamma
precompensation, typically 0.45, is not ideal from the standpoint of
correspondence with the response of the eye.

In the color space we are about to review, the CIE L*a*b* space, there is no
concern with display device characteristics—the space is totally “device
independent”. However, correspondence with the nonlinear response of the
eye (not accommodated by earlier CIE spaces) is an objective, and thus again
the color parameters of this space are expressed in nonlinear form. The
exponent is optimized for correspondence with human response, a value of
1/3 being specified. Although not apt, some workers speak of inverse of this
value (3.0) as the “gamma” of the L*a*b* space.

The CIE L*a*b* (“CIELAB”) space

A field of large practical concern is that of specifying and measuring the
“color” of a reflective surface, such as an area in color printing or an object
which is painted or made of colored plastic. The CIE color spaces we have
discussed so far are intended to relate to emissive light sources. In 1976, the
CIE published a color space specifically intended to relate to reflective
“color”.

It also introduced some concepts that had emerged from ongoing research
into human perception of color. It recognized that human response to
luminance was not linear with the “power-like” definition of luminance which
was the basis for earlier CIE spaces (as we discussed in the previous topic).

Additionally, research had indicated that, although the eye as a “camera”

sensed color on an RGB basis, at a higher level of image processing in the
brain the human perception of chromaticity appeared to follow a space in
which the two axes were “redness-vs.-greenness” and “yellowness-vs.-
blueness”.23 The chrominance plane of the new space followed this concept.

Although this new color space was intended to deal with reflective “color”, it
was soon adapted for use in describing “luminous” (light) colors as well. It
has come into widespread use in various graphics software packages and for
other “color management” purposes. It is a member of the “luminance-
chrominance” family. The traditional designation of the space is “L*a*b*,

23
This had been mentioned previously in connection with the Y-I-Q color space.
Color Spaces Page 23

where the asterisks remind us of the nonlinear nature of its three variables.
We will omit the asterisks from here on.

The luminance-like aspect of the reflective color is actually described by the

variable lightness, indicated as L. It is nonlinearly related to the reflectance of
the surface so as to more closely follow the human eye’s perception; the
asterisk in its designation reminds us of its nonlinear nature. L is defined
thus:

L=116 Yn1/3 - 16 range: 0-100

where Yn is in effect the reflectance of the color of interest, defined by:

Yn=Y/Y0

where Y the traditional CIE luminance value of the light reflected by the
surface of interest and Y0 is the CIE luminance of the Illumination. (Note
that, curiously enough, the same value Y is both the luminance and the value
of one of the three CIE tristimulus values, Z, Y, and Z! 24) The exponent 1/3
provides the nonlinearity mentioned above.

Chrominance is described by two variables a and b, representing the

red-vs.-green and yellow-vs.-blue axes respectively. They are defined as:
a=500(Xn1/3-Yn1/3) range: -500 through +500 *
b=200(Yn1/3-Zn1/3) range: -200 through +200 *

* but only the range from -128 through +127 is usually used

where Xn, Yn, and Zn are the reflective CIE tristimulus values, defined as:
Xn=X/X0
Yn=Y/Y0 (yes, this is the same as the reflectance!)
Zn=Z/Z0

where X, Y, and Z are the CIE tristimulus values (amounts of the “fictional
primaries” X, Y, and Z) for the light reflected by the surface and X0, Y0, and
Z0 are the tristimulus values for the illumination.25 A positive value of a
represents the red direction on the red-green axis, while a positive value of b
represents the yellow direction on the yellow-blue axis.

In common practice, the full range of L* (0-100 units) is encoded in the

digital representation, usually mapped unto 0-255 in an 8-bit context,

24
How this comes about is described in Appendix B.

25
When used for luminous rather than reflective color, X0, Y0, and Z0 the tristimulus values
of the illuminance, are replaced by Xr, Yr, and Zr, the tristimulus values of the reference
white for the system.
Color Spaces Page 24

0-65280 (256 X 255) in a 16-bit context. But usually for a and b, only the
range -128 through +127 units is actually retained (mapped onto 0-255 in
an 8-bit context, 0-65280 in a 16-bit context 26).

For all the above expressions, if any of the ratios X/X0, Y/Y0, and Z/Z0 is less
than or equal to 0.008856, then that ratio is replaced by:

903.3F + 16
116

where F represents the affected ratio. 27

The purpose of the linear piece of the nonlinear function is that with the
traditional function (stated just above), when the inverse function is used (to
convert from Lab to XYZ) the slope of the function becomes infinite at the
origin, thus leading to implementation difficulties. The linear piece avoids this
complication.

When this space is applied to light as such (not to the “reflective color” of a
surface), the parameters X0, Y0, and Z0 become the description of the
“reference white” to be used.

The coordinates a and b together describe the chrominance of the color.

Note that since this is a luminance-chrominance (not luminance-chromaticity)

space, if we begin with some color and “attenuate” it (such that its
chromaticity does not change). L, a, and b all decrease.

With regard to the designation “CIELAB” for this space, many people
mistakenly believe that “LAB” is short for the word “laboratory”, and we
often read fanciful “translations” of this space’s designation based on that
fallacy.28

26
With the “CIELAB” encoding, this is done on a “signed integer” (twos-complement) basis,
where (in an 8-bit context) 0 means 0, 1 means 1, and 255 means “-1”; with the “ICCLAB”
encoding, this is done on an “offset” basis, where 128 means 0, 127 means -1, and 129
means +1.

27
The constants 903.3 and 0.008856 are given here in decimal form, as has been the case
so far in the formal CIE standard. However, decimal values of these constants, no matter to
how many significant figures they are expressed, produce a discontinuity in the function at
the “joint” between the two parts of the curve, leading to some problems in execution. As a
result of a campaign by noted color space maven Bruce Lindbloom, the latest version of the
CIE standard will express these constants as the ratios of integers, which produces a precise
“joint”.

28
But adding to the confusion is the color space, very similar to CIELAB, established by
Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc., and called the “Hunter Lab color scale”.
Color Spaces Page 25

The CIE L*uv (“CIELUV”) space

The CIE L*uv color space was developed to approach the situation in which
differences in the distance between the points representing two colors was
generally proportional to the perceived difference between the colors. Like
the CIE L*a*b* space, It is a luminance-chrominance space. Unlike the
L*a*b* space, the chrominance values here (u and v) are linear (not gamma-
precompensated).

The traditional CIE variable Y*, representing luminance, is replaced by the

variable L (lightness) in this space, and the chrominance is given by two
variables u and v. As before, the asterisk in L* remind us of the non-linear
nature of the three variables. We will omit it from here on.

In the equations that follow, we will also use the symbols U and V (rather
than u and v) for the chrominance variables to avoid confusion with the
variables u and v of the CIE 1960 chromaticity diagram and the variables u’
and v’ of the CIE 1976 chromaticity diagram, upon the latter of which in fact
the definition of U and V are defined (as we will see shortly).29

The variables of this new space are defined as follows:

L = 116y1r / 3 − 16 for yr>0.008856 range: 0-100

L = 903.3y r for yr≤0.008856
U = 13L(u'−u'r )
V = 13L(v'−v'r )
where yr is the luminance of the color of interest, normalized to the
luminance of the reference white for the color space, u’ and v’ are the
coordinates of the chromaticity of the color of interest in the CIE 1976
chromaticity diagram system, and u’r and v’r are the coordinates in that
system of the reference white chromaticity for the color space.

The variables are further defined as follows:

Y
yr =
Yr
4X
u' =
X + 15Y + 3Z
9Y
v' =
X + 15Y + 3Z
4Xr
u'r =
X r + 15Yr + 3Z r

29
But note that this U and V are not the U and V of the YUV color space1
Color Spaces Page 26

9Yr
v'r =
X r + 15Yr + 3Z r
where X, Y, and Z are the CIE tristimulus values of the color of interest and
Xr, Yr, and Zr are the tristimulus values of the reference white for the system.

Note that the chrominance axes of this space essentially correspond in their
orientation to the chromaticity axes of the CIE uvY color space.

The CIE L*CH space

As we noted at the outset, a coordinate system which most intuitively
relates to the human perception of color defines a color in terms of
luminance, hue, and saturation. In the a-b plane of the CIE L*a*b* color
space, the angular position of the chrominance point (with respect to the set
of axes) in fact corresponds to hue, and the radius from the origin to the
point, divided by L*, is indicative of saturation.30

To produce a more intuitive set of coordinates, we can recast the a-b

chrominance plane from Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates to polar
coordinates, using the variable C to represent the radius to the chrominance
point and the variable H to represent the angle in degrees to the point,
measured counterclockwise from the positive a axis. C essentially indicates
the product of saturation and luminance31, and H essentially indicates hue.
The resulting space is called the CIE LCH space.

Note that H in this space essentially defines a position on a “hue wheel”, but
it is quite different from the hue wheel of the HSB and HSL spaces.

As we said at the outset, just as in the case of the Lab space, this is a
luminance-chrominance (not luminance-chromaticity) space. The coordinates
H and C collectively describe the chrominance. If we begin with some color
and “attenuate” it (such that its chromaticity does not change). L and C both
decrease. (H, being essentially an angle, does not change.)

This particular space is today sometimes called the LCH(ab) space, a

reminder that the reference axis for definition of the hue angle, H, is the
positive a axis of the a-b plane of the parent Lab space.

There is a variant, called the LCH(uv) space in which the reference axis for
definition of the hue angle, H, is the positive u axis of the u-v plane of the
Luv space.

30
Remember than in “luminance-chrominance” spaces, for a given chromaticity (hue and
saturation), the chrominance variables scale with luminance.

31
This quantity is called ”chroma”, thus the choice of the symbol. However, in some
contexts the whole vector on this plane (described by both H and C) is called “chroma”,
consistent with the terminology used in color spaces applicable to television signals. Under
that viewpoint, C is the magnitude of the chroma.
Color Spaces Page 27

COLOR SPACES FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES

The sRGB color space
A color space that is widely used for the interchange of digital images is
identified as the “sRGB” (standard RGB) color space. As its name suggests,
it is an RGB type of space. It is defined by international standard
IEC 61966-2-1.

Today, many scanners, digital cameras, display systems, and printers

inherently operate on the basis of the sRGB color space (or can be set to do
so).

An advantage of the sRGB color space its that its gamut is a good match to
the gamut of a typical computer CRT display.

There are disadvantages of the use of the sRGB color space as this
“standard of interchange”. One is that its gamut (the range of colors that it
can directly represent) is relatively limited compared to the gamut that can
actually be achieved on many modern output devices (such as certain types
of printer.32 Accordingly, in some situations, various alternative color spaces
are utilized in representing a digital camera image or the like. We will look
into that presently.

The defining properties of the sRGB space are:

• A specific set of the primary chromaticities, R, G, and B, defined in terms

of their CIE x and y coordinates. These essentially correspond to a
common set of the “phosphor” chromaticities of a typical computer CRT
display.

• A particular “white point”, which is the chromaticity of any color whose

coordinates follow R=G=B. This is the daylight chromaticity known as
“D65”. Its correlated color temperature is 6500 K.

• A particular gamma-precompensation curve, slightly more complicated

that the simple power curve described earlier in connection with the
generalized RGB space.

The gamma precompensation curve used in the sRGB color space is defined
by the following expressions. Here, c represents any of the “linear” variables,
r, g, or b, while C represents the corresponding gamma-precompensated
variable, R, G or B.
C = 12.92c for 0<c≤0.0031308
C = 1.055c1/ 2.4 + 0.055 for 0.0031308<c

32
The gamut of the sRGB color space is essentially that of the type of display device
contemplated by the original RGB space.
Color Spaces Page 28

This two-piece curve can be broadly approximated by:

C = c1/ 2.2

which as we said earlier is the typical curve used for generalized RGB
spaces.

The purpose of the linear piece of the sRGB gamma precompensation

function is that with the traditional function (stated just above), when the
inverse function is used (to convert from R, G, and B to r, g, and b) the slope
of the function becomes infinite at the origin, thus leading to implementation
difficulties. The linear piece avoids this complication.

The Adobe RGB color space

Adobe Systems introduces an alternate to the sRGB color space, generally
called “Adobe RGB (1998)”. It differs from sRGB in these ways:

• Its green primary is different from the green primary in the sRGB color
space. being located farther from the white point. This provides a larger
chromaticity gamut.

• The gamma precompensation function is the traditional one: C = c1/ 2.2 .

The Adobe RGB color space is widely used as an alternative to sRGB in

digital camera outputs and as a “working space” for the processing of digital
camera images. The attraction is its larger chromaticity gamut. A
disadvantage (given that the same “bit depth” is used for the variables) is
worse “granularity” of the color representation (the same number of distinct
code representations is spread over a larger gamut).

The sYCC color space

Perhaps the most commonly used output image file format for digital
cameras is the Exif (Exchangeable Image File Format) file, in particular, its
JPEG version. (JPEG refers to a system of “compressing” the information in
an image file to take represent the image in fewer bits than originally.) It is
defined by international standard IEC 61966-2-1, Annex G.

The JPEG coding system actually operates upon image data in YCbCr form,
and in the form of JPEG prescribed for use in the Exif format, that YCbCr
form is specified to be based on an underlying sRGB color space.

The resulting color space is often described as the “sYCC” color space (YCC
being a shorthand for YCbCr), but that designation has an implication beyond
the use of the YCbCr representation.

We encountered the YCbCr color space before in the section on Color

Spaces for Television Images, and its detailed definition is given there. It is
the “still images” version that is relevant here.
Color Spaces Page 29

The “code space” of a YCbCr representation has the following ranges:

Y: 0 to1
Cb, Cr: -0.5 to +0.5
This is a larger code space than is required to accommodate the possible
range of RGB values that are legitimate under the basic definition of the
sRGB space (in which R, G, and B can only take on values in the range 0-1).
Said another way, the YCbCr color space supports a gamut considerably
larger than that supported by the basic sRGB space. In fact, for parts of the
luminance range, the gamut implied by the YCbCr code space embraces
chromaticities outside the CIE chromaticity diagram, that is, “impossible” (or
“invisible”) chromaticities.

The sYCC colors lying outside the sRGB gamut have RGB representations in
which at least one of the variables R, G, and B have values lying lie outside
the range normal range of 0 to 1—values greater than 1, or negative values.
Negative values, in particular, are at first hard to visualize. Nevertheless,
such values can readily be treated mathematically.

Thus, if we fully utilize the sYCC color space (allowing the variables to take
on any values in their prescribed range) we can represent with valid YCbCr
coordinates some realizable colors lying outside the sRGB gamut, while still
operating within the basic sRGB encoding concept.

Only a small change in the sRGB color space definition is required for it to
participate as the underlying layer in the sYCC color space: the gamma
precompensation curve must be extended to accommodate negative values
of R, G, and B. This is done in the obvious way, with the added third
quadrant of the curve being symmetrical with the original first quadrant. This
symmetrical curve is defined by the following expressions:

C' = −1.055(−C)1/ 2.4 + 0.055 for C < 0.0031308

C' = 12.92C for - 0.0031308 ≤ C ≤ 0.0031308
C' = 1.055C1/ 2.4 − 0.055 for 0.0031308 < C
While sYCC images containing “out-of-sRGB-gamut” colors can be processed
by various image processing software applications that are “sYCC aware”,
and can be passed on over various interfaces to the drivers for suitable
rendering devises, a problem arises if these applications need to deliver an
output in orthodox sRGB form.

In that case, the application must “map” such out-of-gamut colors to valid
sRGB colors. This can be done in several ways. One is to just force them
barely inside the sRGB chromaticity gamut, leaving the “in-gamut” colors
alone. However, this approach can result in a range of different colors in the
sYCC image ending up with the same sRGB color, leading to unpleasant
results in the affected areas of the final image—“flattening” of the colors
Color Spaces Page 30

(much as we see in the “clipping” of colors falling outside the dynamic range
of the camera).

Another approach is to uniformly “squeeze” the entire gamut of the image to

fit within the sRGB chromaticity gamut. This avoids the visible anomalies of
the other approach, but does not preserve the accuracy of any of the colors.

These different strategies of “accommodation” are spoken of as different

“rendering intents”, the term supposedly reflecting that the choice among
them is typically determined by the type of image and the use to which the
final output is to be put.

The details of these processes and of their implications on image results are
beyond the scope of this article.

The e-sRGB color space

The International Imaging Industry Association (“I3A”) has standardized a
variant of the sRGB color space having a substantially expanded gamut
compared to that of sRGB. The basic principle is to recognize and allow
values of r, g, or b (the non-gamma-precompensated form) that lie in the
range -0.53 to +1.68. The result is that the gamma-precompensated forms
(R, G, and B) then can have values in the range -0.75 to +1.25 (a range of
2.0 “units” altogether). (The symmetrical gamma-precompensation function
already described in connection with the sYCC color space is used.)

Before these values are placed in digital form, they are divided by 2 and then
0.375 is added, bringing their range to 0 to 1.

That adjusted value is then converted to digital form, normally with a

precision of either 10, 12, or 16 bits. Thus the range (expressed in decimal
form) becomes 0-1023, 0-4095, or 0-65535.

There is of course a YCbCr representation of this color space (called

e-sYCC). It is derived in exactly the same was as the sYCC representation of
sRGB, but with a further wrinkle.

Following the usual equations defining Cb and Cr, those variables can also
attain the range -0.75 to +1.25 (a range of 2.0 “units” altogether). As with
the variables R, G, and B in the e-sRGB color space, these variables are
divided by two and 0.375 is added (making their range 0-1) before they are
converted to digital form (again, in either 10, 12, or 16 bits).

Again following the usual equation, Y it can also take on the range -0.75 to
+1.25. Here, however, that is fit into a final range of 0-1 before conversion
to digital form by merely clipping values below 0 and above 1 (forcing them
to 0 and 1, respectively).

This clipping of course effectively discards some of the potential expanded

gamut attained by this overall color space, but the loss does not turn out to
Color Spaces Page 31

be significant—the areas lost have restricted chromaticity gamuts (much of

their theoretical gamuts lies outside the range of visible colors). The plus side
of the clipping approach is that the resolution of Y is improved (for any given
bit depth), since the available number of distinct code values is stretched
over a smaller range of Y).

Essentially these same two color spaces are also defined by IEC 61966-2-1,
Annex G, where they are spoken of as “bg-sRGB” and “bg-sYCC”.33

The PCS color space

In modern times, a sophisticated scheme of transforming color
representations from one color space to another has been defined by the
International Color Consortium. Thus scheme depends on “color management
profiles”, definitions of the transformation of color representation between
the color space of some input or output device and a certain standard
reference color space. That color space, called the Profile Color Space (PCS).
It is based on either the CIE XYZ or CIE L*a*b space. Although that would
seem to be the definition of the space almost trivial, in fact the matter is
complicated by issues of accommodation of the white and black points of
the source and destination media, “chromatic adaptation” of the viewer, and
other arcane colorimetric matters.

In any event, the PCS color space is ordinarily never used for an “external”
description of an image—only as the intermediate language between two
links of a transformation chain.

Thus, if in some image management software application aware of the ICC

color management scheme, we cite the files carrying the profiles for the
source device (say, a particular digital camera) and the destination device
(say, a particular printer), the application, in effect, first transforms the color
descriptions in the image source file from the source color space to the PCS
color space, and then transforms the descriptions from the PCS color space
to the destination color space.

Of course, this is not necessarily done in two steps. The application may, in
effect, first “multiply” the two space transforms to get a “net transform”,
which it then uses to convert the color descriptions directly from the source
color space to the destination color space.

This is a highly complex field, with many ramifications, and its details are
beyond the scope of this article.

33
Perhaps “bg” is intended to be evocative of “big gamut”.
Color Spaces Page 32

APPENDIX A

The CIE Chromaticity Diagram

An important color space which is very useful in technical work is known as

the CIE xyY color space, a member of the luminance-chromaticity family.
(CIE are the initials of the French name of the International Commission on
Illumination). It plots any chromaticity as a point on a graph (the CIE
chromaticity diagram34) whose two axes correspond to arbitrary variables
called just x and y.35 These are defined so that the “mapping” of different
chromaticities to points on this graph results in certain desirable properties
which we will hear about later. We will see this diagram shortly.

The CIE xyY color space is derived from the CIE XYZ color space, a
tristimulus space. It is described in Appendix B.

The underlying principles behind the CIE XYZ and xyY spaces and the CIE
chromaticity diagram are described in Appendix B. Here, though, appendix
we will deal with the practical significance of the CIE chromaticity diagram.

Before we discuss the CIE chromaticity diagram, we need to do a little

review of some other underlying technical concepts.

Wavelength
Light is electromagnetic radiation, identical in physical nature to radio waves,
except that the frequency of light is immensely greater than the frequency of
even the highest-frequency radio waves in use today. When the science of
optics was first developed, there was no radio, no electrical engineering, and
no understanding of the wave nature of light. Even if there had been, there
were certainly no instruments for directly measuring the frequency of light
directly (there still aren’t). Thus, the frequency of a light source was
described in terms of the corresponding inverse property wavelength. Visible
light comprises light whose wavelengths range from approximately 400 to
700 nanometers. (A nanometer is a millionth of a millimeter.)

34
Actually, the “1931 CIE chromaticity diagram”; two later chromaticity diagrams have
been adopted by the CIE, one in 1960 (with variables u and v) and one in 1976 (with
variables u’ and v’). The 1931 version is still the one most widely used for general
discussions of chromaticity, and when we speak in this paper of the “CIE chromaticity
diagram” without specifying the version, it is the 1931 version which is meant.

35
See Appendix B for a description of the concepts of this coordinate system.
Color Spaces Page 33

The Spectrum
If we send a stream of sunlight through a triangular glass prism and direct
the emerging beam onto a screen, we see the familiar “rainbow” band of
continuously-changing hue. This is known as a light spectrum.

In a more technical sense, a spectrum is a plot of the distribution of the

power content in a signal (such as an electromagnetic wave, of which light is
an example) as a function of frequency (or wavelength).

If we take an opaque plate with a very narrow slit and put it between the
prism and the screen, it will only pass the light of a particular part of the
spectrum. As the width of the slit approaches zero, we find that we
approach the situation in which the light passing through contains only one
frequency (wavelength), Such a light source is called monochromatic
(meaning “one color”, not really a technically-correct definition). These
chromaticities are called the spectral colors (again, not really technically
correct).

Back to the CIE

If we plot the range of visible spectral chromaticities on the CIE chromaticity
diagram, we get the horseshoe-shaped curve shown with a solid line on the
figure below.

y
1.0

520

530
green
510 540 wavelength (nm)
550

locus of spectral
560
(monochromatic)
"colors"
570
500

cyan 580

yellow 590

600

blue 610

490
C 620
650
red 780

480
magenta

470 violet locus of non-spectral purples

380
x
0 1.0

This is sometimes called the locus of spectral colors, or locus of

monochromatic colors. (“Locus of spectral chromaticities” would be more
Color Spaces Page 34

accurate.) Any point on the locus corresponds to the chromaticity of

monochromatic light of a particular wavelength. A scale of wavelength in
that connection is shown on the curve.

The curve is also labeled with the familiar names of various hues. However,
such a name (such as “red”) does not actually imply a specific wavelength
nor even a specific hue—it is a broad, qualitative designation.

We have not yet talked about the actual measures used to define hue and
saturation. For the moment, note that spectral (monochromatic)
chromaticities have the highest possible saturation (usually described as
100%); they are sometimes said to be the “pure colors” 36.

Chromaticities which lie along the straight line joining the open ends of the
locus of spectral chromaticities (they are various “purple” hues) do not
appear in the light spectrum, and accordingly are not monochromatic. They
are called the non-spectral purples, and are arbitrarily considered to have
100% saturation.

In the next part of our discussion, we will have to utilize the concept of
white light. In fact, the chromaticity we call “white” is not defined by a
unique set of physical or subjective properties; the choice of a chromaticity
to call white is arbitrary. Various chromaticities (defined in terms of their
position on the CIE diagram) have been standardized for different uses. One
often referenced is called “illuminant C”37. Its location is shown on the figure
(as “C”).

Any point in the interior of the region bounded by the locus of spectral
chromaticities and the locus of non-spectral purples represents a
chromaticity which is not 100% saturated.

As we move closer to illuminant C, the chromaticities become more

“pastel”: their saturation becomes less. When we reach “C”, we see a
“colorless” light. Rigorously, this is a chromaticity whose saturation is said to
be 0% (and thus whose hue is undefined).

In fact, the quantitative definition of any chromaticity, as seen on the CIE x-y
diagram, in terms of hue and saturation can be done this way.

36
Note that in many of phrases used in this field, the term “color” is used where
“chromaticity” is actually the property of interest. In this paper, we will be tediously
rigorous, and always use the term “chromaticity” where that is what is meant.

37
It is intended to correspond to a certain type of daylight. Another reference white, “D65”,
is also often utilized today. Its chromaticity is that of a “black body” radiator at a
temperature of about 6500 K.
Color Spaces Page 35

y
1.0

wavelength that defines hue

1.0
saturation line of constant hue

0
C

x
0 1.0

On the diagram, draw a line from point “C” through the point representing
the chromaticity of interest (P) and prolong it until it intersects the locus of
spectral chromaticities (or the locus of non-spectral purples). If it hits the
locus of spectral chromaticities, the hue is defined by the wavelength at the
point of intersection (said to be the dominant wavelength of the light). If the
line hits the locus of non-spectral purples, we have no tidy numerical way to
state the hue.

In either event, the saturation of a color is defined as the ratio of (a) the
distance from point “C” to the point representing the chromaticity of the
color to (b) the total distance from point “C” to the locus. Thus the point
halfway along a line from point “C” to the locus represents a chromaticity
with 50% saturation.38

Imagine that we have light that is made by combining two light streams,
each having a monochromatic (spectral) chromaticity and both of equal
luminance. The chromaticity which the observer will perceive can be located
on the CIE diagram merely by drawing a line between the points representing
the two spectral chromaticities and locating its midpoint. This is a useful
property of the CIE diagram39.

38
Note that this quantitative definition of saturation is dependent on the choice of a
particular chromaticity for “white”.

39
This property also obtains for the 1960 and 1976 CIE chromaticity diagrams.
Color Spaces Page 36

If the two components do not have equal luminances, we can still use this
technique. Suppose one spectral component has twice the luminance of the
other. Then we still draw the line between the two components’ points, but
we mark a point on the line which is one-third the distance from the
“stronger” point to the “weaker” one.

Does that mean that any point in the interior of the diagram represents a
chromaticity which can only be made by one combination of spectral
chromaticities (that is, by combining monochromatic light of only two
specific wavelengths)? No, as one can readily visualize, we could make a
particular “point” by many combinations of two or more spectral
components, or by many combinations of two or more non-spectral
chromaticities (ones inside the locus).

One conceptual way to make light of any desired chromaticity is to take

spectral light (or non-spectral purple light) of the appropriate hue and “dilute
it down” with some amount of “white light” (often meaning illuminant “C”)
to the desired saturation.

In a “tristimulus” color space, we define the color of light in terms of three

“primaries”: light sources of specified chromaticities. Appropriate amounts of
these three primaries are added together to produce the desired color. The
absolute amounts of the three primaries determine the luminance of the
resulting color. Their relative amounts determine the chromaticity.

Above we see the CIE chromaticity diagram with an illustrative set of

primaries—those of a typical form of the RGB space.
Color Spaces Page 37

If we add together various proportions of, say, B and R, we can construct

any chromaticity lying along the line B-R. If we then take that mix and add
some amount of G, we will get a new result which lies in the interior of
triangle R-G-B. In fact, by adding the proper proportions of R, G, and B, we
can construct light whose chromaticity lies anyplace within triangle R-G-B,
but never outside it.

Thus the triangle R-G-B bounds the set of chromaticities that can be defined
in an orthodox manner by an RGB space based on that particular set of
primaries. This is said to be the “chromaticity gamut” of that particular
space. Any chromaticity lying outside that triangle would imply a negative
value of the quantity or one or more of the primaries. This is of course not
possible if we actually think of manufacturing the color with physical sources
of the three primaries.

Note however that in an abstract frame of reference we could define

chromaticities outside the triangle by accepting such negative values.

#
Color Spaces Page 38

APPENDIX B

The CIE XYZ and xyY color spaces

(and why the symbol for luminance is “Y”)

After extensive study of human color perception, various researchers

(including the renowned James Clerk Maxwell) concluded that the human
eye contained three separate sets of light detectors, each of which had a
different curve of response to the different wavelengths over the visible
spectrum. The peaks of these three curves lie in the red, green, and blue
portions of the spectrum.

A we saw earlier in our discussion of the 1931 CIE chromaticity diagram,

from a set of three “primaries” we can make up any color within a certain
gamut of chromaticities. Conversely, any color within that gamut can be
described by the amounts of these three primaries that would need to be
added to produce that color. A particular set of three monochromatic
(spectral) primaries in the red, blue, and green regions (falling generally at the
peaks of the three color receptor response curves) were adopted as a
standard for this purpose. The three primary chromaticities are called R. G,
and B, and these letters also serve as the names of the variables describing
the amount of each primary used to make up a particular color. However, for
consistency with the convention used elsewhere in this article, we will use
the lower-case letters (r, g, and b) for these variables, reserving the
upper-case letters for “gamma-precompensated” forms of the variables.

It turns out that, for any color which is so composed, the perceived
luminance of the color follows a certain weighted summation of the values r,
g, and b. The chromaticity of the color is determined by the ratios among r,
g, and b. (Note that only two values are needed to describe the ratios among
three values.) The set of these three values are the coordinates of one
particular three-dimensional “color space”.

Again, as we saw from out earlier study of the CIE diagram, with three
monochromatic primaries we cannot produce all possible visible
chromaticities, only those lying within the triangle formed by the primaries.
We could describe a chromaticity which lies outside that triangle by utilizing
negative values of at least one of the variables r, g, or b. That concept,
however, is intellectually untidy (but is in fact embraced by certain
“expanded gamut” color spaces in the RGB family).

To avoid this difficulty, the CIE decided to define a linear transform of the set
of three variables r, g, and b into another set of three arbitrary variables, X,
Y, and Z, such that for any visible chromaticity none of the variables would
need to have negative values.
Color Spaces Page 39

Remember that the variables r, g, and b represent amounts of three primary

chromaticities of light (R, G, and B) to be added to make the color of
interest. Similarly, the new variables X, Y, and Z also represent the amounts
of three new primary chromaticities (also called X, Y, and Z) to be added
together. The wrinkle here is that these are not physically-realizable, visible
chromaticities; they are fictional creatures of mathematical convenience.

There would of course be an infinite number of linear transformations

between the r, g, b coordinate system and an alternative system (X, Y, Z)
which would meet our objectives. The CIE cleverly chose to make the
transform function for the variable Y the very same weighted combination of
r, g, and b that yields the luminance of a color. Thus the new variable Y was
in fact the luminance of the light described in the XYZ space.40 But Y also
still represented an amount of a specific (although fictional) chromaticity of
light (primary chromaticity “Y”)!41

Now the CIE chromaticity diagram is not intended to show all three variables
(it would have to be a three-dimensional “solid” diagram to do that), but to
show chromaticity only (in two dimensions). Its two coordinates are derived
from X, Y, and Z this way:

X
x=
X +Y + Z

Y
y =
X +Y + Z

Note that in any color space, if we start with a particular color, with certain
values of three primaries, and increase its luminance (without changing its
chromaticity), the proportions of its three primary components remain
unchanged. Thus, in the CIE system, for an unchanging chromaticity, X and
Y increase by the same ratio that (X+Y+Z) does, and so x and y remain
unchanged. Therefore, the point x,y in fact represents the chromaticity of a
color.

Keeping in mind that the variable Y indicates the luminance of the color of
interest, the entire 1931 color space is often designated the “xyY” (or
sometimes “Yxy”) space.

The primaries X, Y, and Z, though fictional and non-visible, have

chromaticities which can be plotted on the CIE x-y plane. From the equations

40
For this reason, in fact, “Y” is the symbol for luminance in most color spaces (also the
symbol for luma, a property that is something like luminance).

41
Most written descriptions fail to alert the reader to the fact that “Y” is both the name of a
(fictional) primary chromaticity and the name of a variable (the amount of light of that
chromaticity), two different concepts.
Color Spaces Page 40

above, we can determine that the chromaticity of X lies at (1,0), of Y at

(0,1), and of Z at (0,0), as we see in this figure.

y
1.0 Y

Z X
x
0 1.0

We can see that the gamut triangle of X-Y-Z embraces the entire visible
chromaticity gamut, which as we recall was an objective of the choice of
those three primaries.