Lecture Note on

GENERATION
TRANSMISSION
&
DISTRIBUTION

Department of Electrical Engineering,ITT Choudwar

 INDEX
SL. TOPICS
NO.
1 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

2 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER

3 OVER HEAD LINE

4 PERFORMANCE OF SHORT & MEDIUM LINES

5 EHV TRANSMISSION

6 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

7 UNDERGROUND CABLE

8 ECONOMICS ASPECTS

9 TYPES OF TARIFF

10 SUBSTATION
CHAPTER-1

GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Hydro Electric Power – The power obtained from Energy of Falling water is Known as hydro
Electric Power. Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the
cleanest methods of producing electric power. In 2012, hydroelectric power plants contributed about
16% of total electricity generation of the world. Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of
renewable energy. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity generation is
relatively low.
STORAGE:

Generally water flows excess during one seasons & less during another.So it is made to

provide water constantly.

PONDAGE:

The water storage if present at far away from power plant then a small pond is required

near the power plant to provide hourly changes in power demand.

HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER STATION

ELEMENTS OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT:

a. Storage reservoir
It stores water during excess flow periods (Rainy Seasons) & supplied the same
during least flow of periods i.e. (dry seasons)
It can be either natural i.e. lake or artificial made by construction dam across the
river.
b. Dam :– It is the most expensive & important part which is built up concrete or stone
masonry earth or rock fill. It is not only raise the water surface by creating artificial head
but provide pondage or storage.
c. Fore bay :- It serves as regulating reservoir storing water temporary during light load
period & providing same during increased load period i.e. it is either a pond behind the
diversion dam or an enlarge section of canal spread out to accommodate required with of
intake.
d. Spillway :- These are constructed to discharge the over flow water to the downstream.
When the reservoir is full. Generally it acts as safety valve during flood situation.

e. Intake :- Generally intake includes head works i.e. structure at the intake the
conduits & tunnel or flumes which are res possible for diverting & preventing entry of debris
& ice into the turbines. These structures includes booms, screams, rocks or sluices.

SURGE TANK:

Surge tank regulates & maintains required pressure in the penstock. Because during light
load pressure in the penstock becomes more even if which can burst the penstock but surge tank
reduces the pressure by raising water level inside it. Similarly during the low pressure additional
water flows provided by it. So search tank stabilize the velocity & pressure in the penstock.

VALVE & GATES:

Generally these are fitted at Entrance to the turbine during in section & repairing these
are shut off.
TAIL RACE :

The water from turbine is discharged to the tail race generally tail race may be same
stream or another one but design & size of tail race should be search that water are free exist.

PRIME MOVERS / WATER TURBINES:

In hydro power plant water turbines are used as prime movers which convert kinetic
Energy of water into mechanical energy which is further utilized to drive the alternators
generating electric at energy.
Merits :-
1. No fuel is required by such plant because water is the source of energy.
2. It is highly reliable & cheapest & operation & maintenance
3. No. Stand by loss & variable load demand can meet easily
4. Good longer life & robust.
5. Efficiency does not fall with age & it has neat & clean environment due to absence of
smoke & ask.
6. In addition to generation of provides irrigation flood control on navigation.

Demerits :-
1. It covers large area.
2. Constructional cost is very high along with it requires long transmission line as it far
away from load centre.
3. Its O/P is uncertain
STEAM POWER PLANT OR THERMAL POWER PLANT :

The power plant which generates electrical energy from the combustion of coal called
steam power plant
 ELEMENTS OF THERMAL POWER PLANT :

1. STEAM GENERATING EQUIPMENT:

a. Boiler:- It is a major part of thermal power plant which convert water into steam. It is of
two types fire tube boilers & water tube boilers in fire tube boilers the tubes containing
hot gasses of combustion surrounded with water while in water tubes water inside the
tube while hot gasses outside.
b. Boiler furnace:- Boiler furnace is a chamber in which fuel is burnt to liberate the heat
energy it also provides support & enclosures for combustion equipment i.e. burner.
c. Super heater & re-heater :- A superheated is a device which removes the last traces of
moisture from saturated steam leaving a boiler tubes & also increase its temp. above the
saturation temp.
Re-heater :-
It re-super heat the partly expanded steam from the turbine resulting dryness of
steam up to last stage of turbine
d. Economizer & Airpre–heater :-

Those are such devices which recover the heat from the flue gases on their way to
chimney & raise the temp. of feed water. & air supplied for combustion.

2. CONDENSER:

Steam after explanation through prime movers goes through condenser which
condenses the exhaust steam & also removes air & other unwanted gases from steam
while passing through them.

It is up two types.

1. Jet or contact condenser

& surface condenser
3. EVAPORATOR :-
These are employed for feeding pure water to steam power plant by evaporating
raw water.
 4. FEED WATER HEATER :-

These heat the feed water by means of bled steam before supply to the boiler
which dissolves improve efficiency.

5. PRIME MOVER:-

It converts the stored energy in steam into rotational mechanical energy. It is

either reciprocating or turbines. Now raises only steam turbine are use as prime movers.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM POWER PLANT :-

The working of thermal power plant can be summarized as be follows.

FUEL & ASH CKT :-

Generally heavy amount of fuel i.e. coal is stored in coal storage his again transfer to
boiler furnace through coal handling plant. Where gates pulverization. After combustion the
resulting ash get transfer to ash storage to ash handling plant.

AIR & FLUE GAS CKT :-

Here, atmospheric air is drawn by forced draught fan or induced draught fan through air
preheated in which air is heated by heat of flue gases passing to chimney & finally air is passed
to furnace. Similarly, flue gas after passing through boiler & super heater drawn by induced
draught fan via dost collector (Precipitator). Economizer & Airpre heater) Finally Exhausted to
the atmosphere to the chimney.

FEEDWATER & STEAM CKT:-

Generally steam coming from boiler is wet & having high pressure, which again dried &
further super heated by super heater & supply to steam turbine through main valve where it gives
heat energy & passes through condenser.

Now, the condensate steam is extracted from the condenser to the low pressure feed
water by condensate extraction pump.
 Where is gets heats up at low pressure & pump to high pressure water heater through
deaerator & finally to boiler through economizer where it get again heat of by heats of flue gas
passing it on the way of chimney.

Here the function deaerator reduces dissolved oxygen in the condensate steam.

Generally a small part of steam & water is passing through different components are
lossed. So water is added to feed water as make up water by makeup water treatment.

COOLING WATER CKT :-

The cooling water is supply from the natural source of supply i.e. river, lake canal etc
through screens to remove the matter that might choke condenser tube. The circulation of
cooling water maintenance low pressure in condenser.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR THERMAL POWER PLANT :-

There are different factors which govern the site selection.

1. Near to the load center :-

It locates near the load center resulting low transmissions cost & loss.
2. Supply of water :-
Large quantity of water is required
1. To raise steam in boilers.
2. For cooling
3. For carrying disposal of Ash.
4. For drinking
3. Availability of coal :-
It required huge amount of coal so plants are located near the coal mines to avoide the
transport of coal & ash.
4. Load requirement :-
Land is requires not only for setting of plant but also other purposes for staff colony, coal
storage ash disposal etc.
TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES:-

These facilities most be available for trans potation of heavy equipment & fuels i.e. near
railway station.

Merits :-

1. The fuel (i.e. coal) used is quite cheap.

2. Cheaper in initial cost in comparison to the other plant.
3. Less space is required in comparison to hydropower plant.
4. Such plant con be installed at any place where as hydro electric plants can only be
developed at source of water.
5. A portion of steam raised can be used as process steam in various industries like paper
mill, sugar mill, chemical o re etc.

Demerits :-

1. High maintenance & operating cost.

2. Pollution of atmosphere due to fumes & residues
3. Consumption of huge amount of water.
4. Handling of coal & disposal of ash in quite difficult
5. Troubles from smoke & heat from the plant.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:-

The power plant which generates electricity by utilizing the vast energy released from
nuclear fission reaction is known as nuclear power.
NUCLEAR FISSION :-

The nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus is splited in to small nucleus is splited in
to small nuclei with liberation of vast energy by bombardment of neutron is known as Nuclear
Fission Reaction.

Eg- chemical reaction

92U
235
+ 0n1 56Ba139 +36Kr94+30n1 + Energy

235
92U + 0n1  92MO106+50Sn128 + 20n1 + Energy.

Note :-

1 kg of natural uranium give energy equivalent to combustion of 10.500 kg of coal i.e.

0.7/100 x 3 x 106 x 0.5 Joule

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION :-

It may be defined as a fission reaction where the neutrons from a previous step continuity
propagate & repeat the reaction i.e.

Components of the nuclear power plant :-

a. Nuclear Reactor :-
It is the main part of nuclear power plant which is very similar to boiler of thermal power
plant it has following component.
1. Reactor core :-
It contains a number of fuel rods made of U235, U 234
, U233 etc. as uranium gets oxidised
rapidly so fuel rods clad with aluminum stainless steel or zirconium.
2. Moderator :
The moderator moderate or reduces the neurons speed to a value that increase the
probability or fission reactor. The elements which are used as moderator in nuclear
reactor are hydrogen deuterium He , Li, oxygen ,carbon heavy water etc.
3. Control Rods:
The control rods which are made of Boron-10 cadium or Hafnium are inserted in to
nuclear reactor from the top of reactor vessels. The control rods control rate of the
nuclear fission reaction by absorbing neutrons. It can be inserted or taken out as
according to requirement i.e. if we need increased rate of reaction we have to taken out &
vice verse.
4. Coolant :-
It is the medium through which heat generated in the reactor is transferred to the heat
exchanger & it also keeps the reactor at desired temp.
 a. The material like air He, H & CO2 amongst the gases light or heavy water amongst the
liquid or molten sodium or lithium amongst the metal used as coolant.
b. Heat Exchanger :-In heat Exchanger the gas is heated or steam is generated by utilizing
heat from nuclear reactor, here heat is connected by heat exchanger tube by circulation.
c. Steam turbine :- The Steam produce in heat exchanger is transferred to steam turbines
through steam valve where heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy.
d. Condenser : The exhausted steam from steam turbine is condensed by condenser &
again feed to heat exchanger by feed water pump.
e. Alternator :- It is coupled to steam turbine & it generate electricity by converting
mechanical energy to convert in to electrical energy.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT :

The factor to be considered while selecting a site for nuclear power plant for economical
deficient generation.

Availability of water supply :-

1. It requires more water i.e. two times of thermal power plant of same rating. So it located
near the river, sea side or lake.
2. Distance from populated area:-
Generally these are located for away from populated area due to danger of radio activity.
3. Nearness to load center :-
Those plants can be located near the load center because of absence of transportation.
4. Availability of space for disposal of water :-
Their should have adequate space & arrangement for the disposal of radio activity waste.
5. Types of land :
The land should be strong enough to support the heavy reactor i.e. 10,000 tones weight
with imposed boarding pressure around 50 tones /m2

Merits :-

1. It requires very small fuel.

2. It requires less area as compared to in other plant
 3. In addition to generating power it powder variable Fissel material.
4. It can be located at load center resulting reduction in primary distribution cost.
5. It has most economical & flexible O/P.
6. The operating cost quite low after installation.

Disadvantages:

1. The initial cost is very high as compared to any other plant.

2. It required greater technical known – how forits irrection & commissioning of the plant.
3. It bi-product is also radio activity causing dangerous pollution.
4. The fuel is used is very expensive & difficult to recover.
5. High maintenance charges
6. Heavy amount of water is needed.

Solar Energy:
Introduction: Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap and abundantly available
renewable energy. It is received on Earth in cyclic, intermittent and dilute form with very low
power density 0 to 1 kW/m2.Solar energy received on the ground level is affected by atmospheric
clarity, degree of latitude, etc. For design purpose, the variation of available solar power, the
optimum tilt angle of solar flat plate collectors, the location and orientation of the heliostats
should be calculated. Units of solar power and solar energy: In SI units, energy is expressed in
Joule. Other units are angley and Calorie where 1 angley = 1 Cal/cm2.day 1 Cal = 4.186 J For solar
energy calculations, the energy is measured as an hourly or monthly or yearly average and is
expressed in terms of kJ/m2/day or kJ/m2/hour. Solar power is expressed in terms of W/m2 or
kW/m2.
Essential subsystems in a solar energy plant:
1. Solar collector or concentrator: It receives solar rays and collects the energy. It may be of
following types: a) Flat plate type without focusing b) Parabolic trough type with line focusing c)
Paraboloid dish with central focusing d) Fresnel lens with centre focusing e) Heliostats with
centre receiver focusing.
2. Energy transport medium: Substances such as water/ steam, liquid metal or gas are used
to transport the thermal energy from the collector to the heat exchanger or thermal storage. In
solar PV systems energy transport occurs in electrical form.
 3. Energy storage: Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an energy storage
medium for maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy periods. There are three major
types of energy storage: a) Thermal energy storage; b) Battery storage; c) Pumped storage hydro-
electric plant.
4. Energy conversion plant: Thermal energy collected by solar collectors is used for
producing steam, hot water, etc. Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to steam power
plant.
CHAPTER-2

TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER

Draw layout of transmission and distribution scheme.

Generally generating stations are situated for away from load centre hence a power supply
network connects the generating stations to load centre. As followed

Here power system generally composed of transmission system and distribution system, which
again divided in to primary and secondary (or sub) Generally voltage is generated in 33kv ( in
advanced countries) 11 kv ( in India) which if transmitted results heaving current and power
loss
 Which if transmitted results heavy current and power losses. So there are stepped up to a
higher value i.e. 66kv 132kv 220/230kv and 400kv step up transformer present near generating station
and transfer to primary transmission system. Where it step down and transmitted to secondary
transmission. Again voltage is step down to 33kv or 11kv and transmitted to primary distribution
system from where medium large consumers connected and finally voltage step down to 400v at
secondary distribution system and fed to small consumers.

Voltage regulation :

It is defined as the difference of supply end voltage and relieving end voltage to the receiving end
voltage in other word.

The voltage drop i.e. difference of secondary end voltage and receiving end voltage expressed as a
percentage of receiving end voltage called regulation.

Mathematically

% voltage regulation = VS - VR/VR

X 100 VS = Supply end voltage

VR= Receiving end voltage

EFFICIENCY :

It is defined as the ratio of power delivered at the receiving end to the power sent from the sending end.

Mathematically NT= PR/PS X 100

= PR/PR + PL X 100

Where PR= VR.IR Costr = Receiving end

power PS = VS.IS CusФs = Sending end

power

An overhead 3-d Transmission line delivers 5000kw at 22kv at 0.8 p.f lagging with
resistance and reactance of 4-2 and 6-2 respectively. Calculate (1) percentage regulation (2) efficiency.
Solution:

VR = 22KV

VPH = 22/√3 = 12700V

ZPH = 4+6J

Here sending voltage / phase VS = Vph + Izph

Here I = 500x103/√3x22x103x0.8 = 164A

I = 164 -36.86

So VS = 12700 + 164 – 3686 X 7.2 56.31

= 12700 + 1180.8 19.45

= 12700 + 1113.41 + j 393.6

= 13813.4 + J 393.6

= 13819 1.6

Voltage regulation = VS-VR/VRx100

= 13819-12700/12700x100 = 8.825%

Efficiency = PR/PR+3I2R = 5000 x100/5000 + (3x1642x4) = 93.94%

Pl = Line wesses

Kelvin’s Law :
The law states that the most economical area of conductor is that for which the total
annual cost of transmission is minimum
Generally annual cost splited into two part
a. Annual charge on capital out lay i.e. P1 + P2 a
b. Annual cost of energy wasted i.e. P3/a
Where P1, P2 and P3 are constants and „A‟ area of X- section of the conductor.
So, total annual cost (C) = P1+P2a+P3/a

For minimum

DC/DA = O i.e. D/DA (P2a + P1 +P3/A)= 0

=P2-P3/a2 = 0

P2.a = P3/a

i.e. variable part of annual charge = Annual cost of energy wasted.

In other word it can be stated that the most economical area of conductor is that for which the
variable part of annual charge is equal to the cost of energy losses per year.

Graphically :

Limitation :

(i) Difficult to estimate the energy loss in the line without load curve, which is not
available at the time of estimation.
 (ii) Annual charge on capital out day i.e. P1+P2 a not true Eg.- neither the cost of cable
dielectric and heath in underground cables the cost of laying vary in this manner.
(iii) Current density, mechanical strength, corona loss are not considered.
(iv) By this low conductor size may be too small to carry the necessary current safely.
(v) Interest and depreciation not determined accurately.

CORONA :

The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of zone gas in an overhead
transmission line is known as corona.

The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound and production of ozone

gas due to corona also increases.

In case of polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform throughout the length of
the conductor, otherwise the rough points will appear brighter.

In case of D.C. Supply the TVC wire has uniformly glow. While the -ve conductor has spotty
glow.

Formation of corona :

Under normal condition, the air around the conductors contain some ionized particles like free
electrons and +ve ions and neutral molecules. Due to altra-violet ray and radioactivity applied,
the potential gradient is setup in the air. When the potential gradient at the conductor surface
reaches abut 30 kv per cm the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a
neutral molecule with enough force to dislodge one or more electrons from it. This produce
another ion and one or more free electrons. Those electrons again collides with the other neutral
molecules and produces other dons. This process of ionization is cumulative. As a result corona
is formed.

Factors affecting corona :

1. Atmosphere : In stormy weather corona occurs more than in normal weather due to more
ions than the normal weather.
2. Conductor size :
 The rough and irregular surface will produce more corona.
3. Spacing between conductors:
If the spacing between the conductor is made very large as compare to their diameter,
there may not be any corona effect
4. Line voltage : In low voltage no corona is formed

Critical disruptive voltage :

It is the minimum phase to neutral voltage at which corona occurs.

Visual critical voltage :

It is the minimum phase neutral voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line
conductors.

Power loss due to corona:

Due to corona electric energy is lost. Which is dissipated in the form of light, heat, sound and
chemical action. Power loss due to corona is

P= 242.2 (F+25/6) √R/D (V-VX)2 x 10-5 KW/KM/PH

VC = disruptive voltage /Phase.

a. Advantages :
i. Reduces electro static stress between the conductors
ii. Reduces transient due to surges.
b. Disadvantages :
i. It reduces transmission efficiency
ii. Corrosion of conductor occurs due to ozone
iii. Inductive interference due to non- sinusoidal voltage
c. Methods reducing corona :
1. Large dia conductor
2. Hollow conductors
3. Bundled conductor
CHAPTER-3

LINE SUPPORTS

The line supports should have the following properties.

1. High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductor and wind loads.
2. Light in weight
3. Long life
4. Cheap in cost
5. Easy accessibility of conductors maintenance.

The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power are made in ether wood
,steel, R.C.C. or lattice steel.

WOODEN POLE : Wooden poles are made of woods. this type of poles are used for shorter
spans up to 50 meters. These are mainly used in rural areas.
 2. SHACKLE INSULATORS:

For low voltage line less than 11KV shackle insulators are used as strain inhalators. this is also
known as spool insulators. it is used in low voltage distribution limes. Such insulators can be
used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole
with a bolt or cross arm. The conductor in the groove is fixed with soft binding wire.

Coesote oil are impregnated in the ground level of the wooden pole for better foundation. these
wooden poles has smaller life 20 to 25 years. Also it has less mechanical strength. it can‟t be
used for voltage higher than 20kv.

Steel poles :

The steel poles are used generally for the distribution purpose in the city areas it has high
mechanical purpose in the city areas. It has high mechanical strength with longer life poles. The
outer surface of the pole is painted for longer life.

These poles are three types.

1. Rail poles
2. Tabular poles
3. Rolled steel joints
R.C.C. POLES :

These poles are very popular in recent days. They provide

longer span than steel and wood poles. They have greater
mechanical strength with conger life.

These type of pole require law maintenance it has good

insulating properties.

These poles are heave weights. So the cast of transportation

is high.

STEEL TOWERS:-

For long distance transmission at higher voltage steel towers

are used. These steel towers have longer life, great
mechanical strength. It is suitable for severe climate condition
these type of steel towers are used for conger spans. Tower
footings are grounded by driving rods in to the earth. This
minimizes the lightning troubles as each tower acts as a
lightning conductors it can also used as double circuit tower which allow continuity of supply in
case of one circuit break down.

TYPES OF INSULATOR

INSULATORS :-

An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely.

In overhead transmission or distribution lines insulators are used to insulate the current flowing
in the conductor to earth through the poles or towers.

The most commonly used materials for insulator of over head line is porcelain.

Types of insulator in over head lines :-

There are mainly three types of insulator used overhead lines for high voltage.
 1. Pen type insulator
2. Suspension type insulator
3. Strain type insulator

There are two other type insulators are used for low voltage over head lines. These are.

1. Stay type insulators

2. Shackle type insulators

1. Pen type insulators : This type of insulator is popularly used in power network up to
33kv system. The pen type insulator is secured to the cross arm on the pole. The live
conductor attached to the top of the pen insulator the shortest distance between conductor
and earth, surrounding the insulator body along which electrical discharge may take place
through air is known as flash over distance.

When the insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes almost conducting. Hence the
flesh over distance of insulator is decreased. So the design of the electrical insulator (pin
type) is umbrella type on the upper part, so that it can protect the rest lower part of the
insulator from rain.

2. Suspension type insulator :-

This type of insulator is used beyond the voltage 33kv. The pin type insulator is not
economical for beyond the voltage 33kv. In this type of insulator number of insulators are
connected in series to form
a string and the line
conductor is carried by the
bottom most insulator.
Each insulator of a
suspension string is called
disc insulator because of
their disc shape. Each disc
is desig n for 11kv the
number of disc in series
 would depend upon the working voltage. It any of the disc is damage, then that disc can
be replaced. There is no need to change the whole string. If the line voltage will increase,
then that can be insulated by adding more disc in string. This type of insulators are
mainly used with steel towers. As the conductor run bellow the earthed cross arm of the
tower, therefore this arrangement provides partial protection from lighting the spacing
between the conductor is more when suspension type insulator is used in overhead lines.

3. Strain insulator :
When there is a dead end of the line or
there is a sharp carve the line is subjected
to greater tension.
In order to relive the line of excessive
tension, strain insulators are used. Strain
insulator consists of an assembly of
suspension insulators. It has considerable
mechanical strength.

LOW VOLTAGE APPLICATION INSULATORS :

1. Stay insulator :
For low voltage range lines, the stays are to be insalated from ground at a height.

Stay Insulator

This insulator used in the stay

wire is called as the stay
insulator.

Calculation of sag :

The sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductor is within safe limits.

The tension is governed by conductor weight, effects of wind, ice loading and temperature
variations.
 1. When supports are at equal levels :

The above figure shows a conductor is placed between two equilevel supports A and B. The
point O is the lowest point.

If L= Length of span

W = Weight per unit length of conductor

T= Tension in the conductor

Consider point „P‟ on the conductor let the distance between poin „O‟ and p in horizontal
projection is X.

There are two forces acting on the conductor portion „OP‟

1. The weight Wx of the conductor acting at a distance X/2 from „O‟

2. Tension T acting at „O‟
If we equate the two forces on the conductor at Point „O‟.

We get Ty = Wx (x/2)

Y = WX2/2T

If the sag is represented by the value of „Y‟

At support „A‟ X= L/2 and Y=S

Then sag S = W (L/2)2/2T

S= WL2/8T

CALCULATION OF SAG

When supports are at unequal levels :-

Unequal level supports are normally

found in hilly areas. The above figure
shows a conductor suspended between
two supports A and B at different
levels. Consider the lowest point is „O‟

Let L = Span Length

H= Difference in levels
between two supports

X1 = Distance of support at lower level from „O‟

X2 = Distance of support at higher level from „O‟

T = Tension in the conductor.

If “W” is the weight per unit length of the conductor, then

Say S1 = WX12 /2T (Y= WX2/2T)

Sag S2 = WX22/2T

From the figure X1+X2 = L

By subtracting S2 from S1

S2-S1 = W/2T (X22-X12)

S2-S1 = W/2T (X2+X1) X (X2-X1)

We know X2+X1 =L
Then S2-S1 = WL/2T (X2-X1)

From the figure S2-S1 = H

Equation-3 becomes

S2-S1 = H = WL/2T (X2-X1)

X1-X2 = 2TH/WL

By salving eqn.-3 & 5, we will get

X1 –L/2 – TH/WL and X2 = L/2 + TH/WL

Patting the values of X1 and X2 in Eqn. 1&2

We can calculate sag S1 and S2

THE EFFECT OF WIND AND ICE LOADING

ON THE CALCULATION OF SAG:

In some cases the conductor may have ice coating and simultaneously subjected to wind pressure
– At this time the weight of the ice acts vertically down word as the same direction as the weight
of conductor the force due to the wind is assumed to act horizontally as shown in fig. „b‟
The total force on the conductor due to wind and ice coating is the vector sum of horizontal and
vertical forces as shown in fig „C‟

If W= Weight of the conductor for unit length

= Conductor material density x

Volume per unit length.

Wi= Weight of ice per unit length

= density of ice x volume office per unit length.

Density of ice x at (d+t)

Ww = wind force per unit length

= wind pressure per unit area x projected area per unit length.

= wind pressure x [ (l+2t)x1]

Then Wt = (w+wi)2 + (WW)2

If the conductor sets it self in a plane at an angle @ to the vertical then

Tan = Ww/W+We

Then the sag of in the conductor is given

By S = Wt L2/2T

The vertical say = S cosQ

CHAPTER-4

Performance of Short & Medium Lines

CHAPTER-5
EHV TRANSMISSION
EXPLAIN EHV AC TRANSMISSION :
Generally the voltages of 300kv to 765kv are considered as extra high voltage (EHV)
transmission line. Generally EHV AC lines are selected for long distances 250km and above and
high power 500mw and above. Electrical 3-ⱷ EHV – AC line as follows.

In EHV-AC line series inductance (L) and shunt capacitance C influence the performance of line
(Voltage regulation power flow, stability etc.) Significantly and they can‟t be neglected. Here the

surge impedance of the line is as follows Zs = √(L/C) Ω

Eg. 400kv- EHV-AC line has been installed in India in 1974 but recently 765 EHV AC line
installed i.e. in 1992
EXPLAIN REASONS FOR ADOPTION OF EHV AC TRANSMISSION :
There are different reasons for adaption of EHV-AC transmission line as follows.

a. Increase in size of generating units : In order to reduce the investment cost per kw, The
size of generating units has been constantly increased, thus this increased large amount of
power over long distances can be transmitted technically and economically in EHV
transmission.
b. Pithead steam plants and remote hydro plants :-
Generally steam and hydro-power plants are located accordingly their favourable
characteristics like availability of coal, water, land ,labour, transportation etc. Generally
these are very far away from load centre. Hence transmission of large amount of power
over long distances can only be technically and economically possible by EHV –
Transmission.
c. Surge impedance loading :- Surge impedance loading is the power that line carries
when each phase terminated by a load equal to surge impedance of the line
i.e.ZC=√(L/C)
where L= Series inductance per unit length
C= shunt capacitance per unit length. Hence,
SIL = 3V2/ZC
Therefore voltage at higher value makes large power transmission at economic.
d. Transmission : - The number of circuits and the land requirement for transmission
decreases with adoption of EHV AC transmission. E.g. for transmitting 600MW over
250km at 480 line using two conductor per phase and requiring a right of way of about
40m giving 600/40 = 15mw per meter right of way but if it transmitted by two double
circuit lines at 200kv then it requires a right of 60m giving 600/60 = 10 mw per meter
right of way. So double circuit 400kv line gives this ratio as about 30mw per meter right
of way. Hence EHV line reduces right of way requirement quite substantially.
e. Line cost : The line installation cost per MW per km decreases with increase in voltage
level. Moreover the impact of the cost of losses on the overall transmission costs can be
substantially different at different voltage levels. The total line cost including the cost of
losses per mw per km decreases considerably by use of EHV AC transmission.

PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN EHV TRANSMISSION : There are different major

problems associated with EHV transmission line as follows:

a. Corona loss and Radio Interference : Generally corona appears in High voltage
transmission line which not only a source of power loss but it is also a source of
interference with radio and television.
b. Heavy supporting structure and erection difficulties :-
Generally EHV –AC transmission uses bundle conductor, Which results large mechanical
loading on tower. Similarly large air and ground clearances, dynamic forces due to
broken conducts etc makes large mechanical load. Hence strength of tower should be
heavy.
c. Insulation requirement:- Generally EHV – AC transmission requires high insulation to
withstand the voltage surges due to internal sources i.e. switching operation or due to
external sources i.e lightning etc. which produces very high voltage generally 2-3 times
of normal voltage. Hence insulation level depends upon switching over- voltages,
temporary over- voltages and atmospheric over voltages.

HVDC TRANSMISSION : Generally high voltage DC transmission requires converter

station at both sending end and receiving end. The converter station are transformers and
thyristor valves. At sending end thyristor valves act as rectifier to convert ac in to dc
which is transmitted over the line, whereas at the receiving end thyristor valves act as
inverter to convert dc into ac which is utilized at receiving end. Each converter can
function as rectifier or inverter. Thus power can be transmitted in either direction. It has
following line diagram.
The different HVDC links are as follow:-

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM :

ADVANTAGES : HVDC transmission has many technical and Economics advantages over ac
transmission as follows.

1. Cheaper in cost : Bipolar HVDC Transmission lines require two pole conductors which
is very cheap.
2. No skin effect : As there is uniform current distribution in dc so no skin effect in HVDC.
3. Lower transmission losses : HVDC Transmission system needs only two conductors
and therefore the power losses in a dc line is less.
4. Voltage regulation : Due to absence of inductance it has better voltage regulation.
5. Line loading : Generally loading on AC line limited by transient stability limit and line
reactance but no such limit in HVDC lines. It also has no SIL with greater reliability.
6. Low short circuit current : It has no short circuit.
7. Lesser corona loss and radio interference : It has lesser corona loss due to zero
frequency.
8. Higher operating voltages and no reactive power compensation : Generally HVDC
system has high operating voltage with absence of reactive power compensation.
9. No stability limit : There is no stability limit in HVDC transmission system.
LIMITATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION : HVDC Transmission system has following
limitations as follows:

1. Costly terminal equipment : The converters are used in HVDC are very costly along
with the converters produce lot of harmonics both on dc and ac sides, which requires
filtering and smoothing equipment resulting extra additional expense. It also require
complex cooling system and circuit breaker, which again adds cost.
2. More maintenance of line insulators : It requires more maintenance for in insulation
3. Circuit breaking in multi terminal dc system is difficult and costlier.
4. Voltage Transformer: Voltage transformation is not easier in case of dc and hence it has
to be accomplished on the ac side of the system. DC System can‟t be employed for
distribution sub transmission and back bone transmission.
CHAPTER-6

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM :

An electric power distribution system is the final stage in the delivery of electric power. It carries
electricity from transmission system to individual consumer. Distribution lines mainly sub
divided in to two types.

a. Primary distribution lines

b. Secondary distribution lines
a. Primary distribution lines : Carry the medicine voltage power to distribution trans
formers located near the customer‟s premises.
b. Secondary distribution lines : carry the step down voltage from the transformer located
near the customer‟s premises to the customers.

The figure shows the line diagram of a distribution system with the connection of feeders,
distributor and service mains.
 1. Feeders : It is a conductor which conduct electricity from substation to the area where
the power is to be distributed. The feeders carries same current because no tapping are
taken from the feeder. The feeder is designed according to the current carrying capacity.
2. Distributor : Consumers take supply from the distributor by tapping. In the above figure
PQ, QR, RS, and PS are the distributor. The voltage drop along its length is considered
before designing a distributor.
3. Service mains : It is a cable which connects the distributor to the consumer‟s energy
meter.

Radial Electrical Power Distribution System

In early days of electrical power distribution system, different feeders were radially come
out from the substation and connected to the primary of distribution transformer directly.

Radial Distribution System

But radial electrical power distribution system has one major drawback that in case of any
feeder failure, the associated consumers would not get any power as there was no alternative path
to feed the transformer. In case of transformer failure also, the power supply is interrupted. In
other words the consumer in the radial electrical distribution system would be in darkness until
the feeder or transformer was rectified.
RING MAIN ELECTRICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The drawback of radial electrical power distribution system can be overcome by introducing a
ring main electrical power distribution system. Here one ring network of distributors is fed by
more than one feeder. In this case if one feeder is under fault or maintenance, the ring distributor
is still energized by other feeders connected to it. In this way the supply to the consumers is not
affected even when any feeder becomes out of service .

In this way, supply to the consumers connected to the healthy zone of the ring, can easily be
maintained even when one section of the ring is shutdown. The number of feeders connected to
the ring main electrical power distribution system depends upon the following factors.

1. Maximum demand of the system : If it is more, then more numbers of feeders feed the
ring.
2. Total length of the ring main distributors : If it length is more, to compensate the
voltage drop in the line, more feeders to be connected to the ring system.
3. Required voltage regulation : The number of feeders connected to the ring also depends
upon the permissible allowable, voltage drop of the line.
The sub distributors and service mains are taken off may be via distribution transformer at
different suitable points on the ring depending upon the location of the consumers. Sometimes,
instead of connecting service main directly to the ring, sub distributors are also used to feed a
group of service mains where direct access of ring distributor is not possible.

INTER CONNECTED SYSTEM:

In this type of system two to more than

two generating station or substation are
energizing the feeder ring. In this system
any area from one generating station
during peak load hours can be fed from
other generating station which increase
the efficiency of the system. Now a days
electrical energy is generated, transmitted
and distributed in the form of a.c. But for
certain applications D.C. Supply is
necessary. The D.C. Supply from the substations fed to the load through distributors.

TYPES OF D.C. DISTRIBUTORS – IN SHORT

The most general method of classifying d.c. distributors is the way they are fed by the feeders.
On this basis, d.c. distributors are classified as :

 Distributor fed at one end

 Distributor fed at both ends
 Distributor fed at the centre
 Ring distributor

DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END:

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply at one end and loads are taken at
different points along the length of the distributor.
The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding point goes on decreasing.
Thus current in section AC is more than the current in section CD and current in section CD is
more than the current in section DE.

The voltage
across the loads away from the feeding point goes on decreasing. In case a fault occurs on any
section of the distributor the whole distributor will have to be disconnected from the supply
mains. Therefore, continuity of supply is interrupted.

DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS.

 In this type of feeding, the

distributor is connected to the
supply mains at both ends and
loads are tapped off at
different points along the
length of the distributor.
 Here, the load voltage goes on
decreasing as we move away
from one feeding point say A,
reaches minimum value and then again starts rising and reaches maximum value when
we reach the other feeding point B. The minimum voltage occurs at some load point and
is never fixed. It is shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the
distributor.
 If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
  In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of supply is maintained
from the other feeding point.
 The area of X-section required for a doubly fed distributor is much less than that of a
singly fed distributor.

DISTRIBUTOR FED AT THE CENTRE.

In this type of feeding, the centre of the

distributor is connected to the supply
mains. It is equivalent to two singly fed
distributors, each distributor having a
common feeding point and length equal
to half of the total length.

RING MAINS:

In this type, the distributor is in the form of a closed ring. It is

equivalent to a straight distributor fed at bot h ends with equal
voltages, the two ends being brought together to form a closed
ring. The distributor ring may be fed at one or more than one
point.

USE OF DC DISTRIBUTION

supply is required for the operation of variable speed machinery (e.g. d.c. motors),
electrochemical work and electric traction. For this purpose, a.c. power is converted into
d.c. power at the sub-station by using converting machinery e.g. mercury arc rectifiers,
rotary converters and motor–generator sets. The d.c. supply from the sub-station is
conveyed to the required places for distribution.
METHODS OF SOLVING A.C. DISTRIBUTION PROBLEMS :-

The current in different sections of the distributor will be the vector sum of load currents and not
the arithmetic sum in a.c. distribution. Hence the power factor of various load currents have to be
considered when solving A.C. distribution problems.

1. Power factor referred to receiving and voltage :

AB is an AC distributor where I1
and I2 are the loads taken from the
point „C‟ and „B‟ as shown in fig-I.
VB is the receiving end voltage.
The lagging power factor at Point
„C‟ is cos ⱷ1 and the lagging power
factor at Point B is cos ⱷ2 w.r.t.
VB. The section AC has impedance = R1+jx1 and the section CB has the impedance = R2
+ jx2 . The load current at point „C‟ = I1=I1(cos ⱷ1 – j sin ⱷ1).The load current at point „B‟
is equal to current in section CB is equal to ICB = I2 =I2 (cos ⱷ2-j sin ⱷ2)
The current in section AC = I1
+I2
= I1
(cos ⱷ1 – j sin ⱷ1)+ I2 (cos ⱷ2-j
sin ⱷ2)
The current in section AC = I1
+I2

= I1 (cos ⱷ1 – j sin ⱷ1)+ I2 (cos ⱷ2-j sin ⱷ2)

The load current at point „B‟ is equal to current in section CB is equal to ICB = I2=I2
(CosQ2 – JSINQ2)
The current in sectio n AC = I1+I2
= I1 (Cos Q1 – Jsin Q1) + I2 (CosQ2-JsinQ2)
The voltage drop in section CB = VCB = ICB ZCB
= I2 (as Q2-JsinQ2) (R2+Jx2)
 Voltage drop in section AC, VAC = IAC ZAC
= (I1+I2) ZAC
= [(I1cosQ1-JsinQ1) + (i2CosQ2-JsinQ2)] x (R1+Jx1)
The sending end voltage VA= VB +VCB +VAC
Sending end current = IA =I1+I2
The vector diagram of a.c. distribution when power factor referred to receiving end
voltage is shoun in figure -2
VC = VB+ (I2R2) 2 +(I2x2)2
VA= VB + (Iac R1)2 + (iACx1)

Power factor referred to respective load voltage :

If power factors of loads are referred to their

respective load voltages.

Then Q1is the phase angle between VC and

I1and Q2 is the phase angle between VB and
I2 the vector diagram under this condition is
shown in figure -2

The voltage drop in section CB = I2ZCB

=I2 (asQ2-jsinQ2) (R2+jx2)

Voltage at point „C‟ – VB + Drop in

section CB

= VC LR

I1 = I1LQ1 w.r.t. voltage VC

I1 = I1 L- (Q1-R) w.r.t. voltage VB

I1 =I1 as (Q1-R) – Jsin (Q1-L)

IAC = I1+I2
= I1 as (Q-L_)-I sin (Q1-L)

+I2 [ as Q2-JsinQ2]

Volt drop in section AC = IAC ZAC

Voltage at point A = VB+ Vol+dropin CB

+ Vol + dropin AC

3- PHASE, 4-WAIR STAR CONNECTED SYSTEM:-

In this system 4- wires are connected in a

circuit. There are three phase wire and a
neutral wire. The phases are electrically
120degree apart from each other. All the 3-
Phases meeting at a point known as neutral
point. The wire connected to the neutral point
is known as neutral wire. The voltage between
any one phase and neutral line is known as
phase voltage (Vph). The voltage between the two line is known as line voltage (V L) in a star
connection the line voltage is √3 times greater than phase voltage. But the line current is same as
the phase current. Most of the A.C. machines are star connected.
CHAPTER-7

UNDER GROUND CABLES

INTRODUCTION

Since the loads having the trends towards growing density. This requires the better
appearance, rugged construction, greater service reliability and increased safety. An underground
cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and
surrounded by a protecting cover. The interference from external disturbances like storms,
lightening, ice, trees etc. should be reduced to achieve trouble free service. The cables may be
buried directly in the ground, or may be installed in ducts buried in the ground.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

 Better general appearance

 Less liable to damage through storms or lighting
 Low maintenance cost
 Less chances of faults
 Small voltage drops

Disadvantages :

 The major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce insulation
problems at high voltages compared with equivalent overhead system.

Properties of insulation materials for cables :-

The properties are

1. High resistivity
2. High mechanical strength
3. High dielectric strength
4. Not affected by acid or alkalis
 5. Non- inflammable
6. High tensile strength
7. Low cost

INSULATING MATERIALS USED IN UNDER GROUND CABLES :-

The insulating materials used in underground cables are.

1. Rubber
2. VIR
3. Impregnated paper
4. PVC
5. Varnished cambric
1. Rubber :
It is the most commonly used insulating material. Natural rubber is produced from the
latex of the rubber tree. Synthetic rubber is produced from alcohol or oil products. It
absorbs moisture slightly and is soft. Therefore pure rubber cannot be used as an
insulating material.

VULCANIZED INDIA RUBBER (VIR):

It is used for low voltage power distribution systems only. It is prepaired by mixing pure rubber
with mineral matter such as sulphur, zink oxide, red lead etc. it has greater mechanical strength
than pure rubber. The advantages of using this type of rubber for cable is that, the cable becomes
strong and more curable before using VIR as insulation, the copper conductor must be tunnel
well because it attacks copper. (Reacts copper) its use is limited because of its low melting point
and short span of life.

IMPREGNATED PAPER :

It has low capacitance, high dielectric strength and economical. The paper is manufactured with
wood pulp, rags or plant fiber by a suitable chemical process. It has high resistance due to high
resistivity center dry condition. It absorbs a small amount of moisture only, which reduced the
insulation resistance. For this drawback it requires some sort of protective covering. It is
impregnated in insulating oil before used.
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC):

It is a synthetic compound material. It is obtained from the polymerization of acetylene and is in

the form of white power. It is combined chemically with a plastic compound and is used over the
conductor as an insulation cover. It has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength.PVC
insulated cables are usually employed for medium and low voltage domestic insulation.

VARNISHED CAMBRIC :-

It is the cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish. The cambric is lapped on the
conductor in the form of a tape and its surface are coated with petroleum jelly compound to
allow for the sliding of one turn over another as the cable is bent.

CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES :

Mainly underground cables are classified in two ways.

1. According to the type of insulating materials used in their manufacture

2. The voltage for which they are manufacture
3. No of conductors used in cable
4. Power to be handled in cable.

CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES

Things may be classified on many aspects and similar is the case with cables. There are several
ways of classifying cables. These includes classification of cables on the basis of

• No. of Conductors in Cable

• Voltage Rating of Cable

• Insulation Used in Cable

• Power To Be handled in Cable

No. of Conductors in Cable

On the basis of number of conductors in the cable, cables are of two types viz Single core cables
and 3 core cables. Single core cable have only one conductors and the diagram is shown in
Underground Cable Basics while three core cable has three conductors and they have bedding
and filler too.

so on the basis of number of conductors cables are of two types

• Single Core Cable

• 3 Core Cable

Voltage Rating of Cable

Cables may be classified on the basis of voltage rating also

• LT Cables : Cables up to 1000 Volts or l kV are called LT (Low Tension) or LV (Low

Voltage) cables

• HT Cables : Cables from 1001 volts to 11000 Volts or 11kV are called HT (High
Tension) or HV (High Voltage) cables.

• ST Cables : Cables from 11001 volts to 33000 Volts or 33kV are called ST (Super
Tension) cables.

• EHV Cables : Cables from 33001 volts to 66000 Volts or 66kV are called EHT (Extra
High Tension) or EHV

• Oil & Gas Filled Cables : From 66 kV to 132 kv Oil and Gas Filled cables are used.

• EST Cables : Cables used above 132 W are called EST (Extra Super Tension) cables.

Insulation Used in Cable

Cables are also classified on the basis of insulation provided in the cable. Following are the type
of cables on the basis of insulation used in the cable -

 PIC or PILC : Paper Insulated Cable - Paper is used as insulation to the conductor.
 PVC : Poly Vinyle Chloride Cable - PVC is used as insulation to the conductor.
  PE : Poly Ethylene - Poly Ethylene is used as insulation to the conductor
 PTFE : Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene - PTFE is used as insulation to the conductor
 XLPE : Cross Linked Poly Ethylene - Cross Linked Poly Ethylene is used as insulation.
This is most commonly used cable in Industry.

Power to Be handled in Cable

On the basis of amount of power to be transferred through the cable. cables are classified into
two categories. These are

• Power Cables : If large amount of power is to be transferred then these are called power
cables. These are further classified on the basis of voltage at which power is to be
delivered.

1. Low Voltage Power Cable : If the voltage in the cable is less then 1000 Volts or I kV
then the cable is called Low Voltage Power Cable.

2. High Voltage Power Cable : If the voltage in the cable is above 1000 Volts or l kV then
the cable is called High Voltage Power Cable.

• Control Cables: If the cable is used to carry very low power signal generally for
controlling equipments then the cables are called control cables.

1. Low tension cables (L.T. cables) :

These are used for the voltage levels up
to 6.6kv. The electrostatic stresses in
L.T. cables are not severe hence no
special construction is used for L.T.
cables. The paper is used as an
insulation in these cables. Sometimes
resin is also used which increases the
viscosity and helps to prevent drainage.
 The Fig. 5.2 shows the cross-section of a single core L.T. cable. It
consists of a circular core of stranded copper or aluminum. The conductor is
insulated by impregnated paper. Over the paper insulation, the lead sheath is
provided. Then a layer of compounded fibrous material is provided. Then
armoring is provided and finally covered again with a layer of fibrous
compounded material. Many a times. L.T. cabbies are not provided with
armoring, to avoid excessive sheath losses. The simple construction and the
availability of more copper section are the advantages of L.T. single core cable.

H.T. Cable :-

H.T. cables are the cables which are used for voltage levels up to 11kv.

Construction :-

The cores are not circular in shape. The

cores are insulated from each other by layers
of impregnated papers. It has 3 – cores. The
three cores are grouped together and belted
with the help of a paper belt. The gaps are
filled with fibrous materials like jute. This
gives circular cross sectional shape to the
cable. The belt is covered with lead sheath
which protect cable from moisture and also
give mechanical strength. The
belted type construction is suitable only for low and medium voltages. Under high
voltage cases, the cumulative effect of tangential electrical stress is to form spaces
inside the cable due to leakage currents. Such air spaces formed inside the insulation is
called void formation. Under high voltage, spaces are ionized which deteriorate the
insulation which may lead to the breakdown of the insulation. Hence belt cables are not
used for the high voltage levels.
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
Construction of underground cables:

Cores or Conductors- A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending
upon the type of service for which it is intended. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and
are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
Insulation- Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the
thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly used materials for
insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral compound.
Metallic sheath- In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids
(acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminium is provided over the
insulation.
Bedding- Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a fibrous
material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion
and from mechanical injury due to armouring.
Armouring- Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of
galvanized steel wire or steel tape to protect the cable from mechanical injury. Armouring may not be done
in the case of some cables.
Serving- In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous material
(like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as serving.
METHODS OF CABLE LYING :

There are three main methods used for laying underground cables.

1. Direct laying.
2. Draw-in system
3. Solid system
2. Direct laying :
The above figure shows how the cable is laying in this method. A trench of about 1.5
meter deep and 45cm wide is dug. Then the trench is covered with a layer of fine sand,
about 10cm thick the cable is laid over the sand. The sand does not allow the entry of
moisture from the ground. Then the cable is covered with another layer of sand of about
10cm thickness.

After that the trench is covered with bricks and other materials to protect the cables from
mechanical injury. When more than one cable is to be laid in the same trench, a
horizontal or vertical inter axial spacing of at least 30cm is provided in order to reduce
the effect of mutual heating. This method of laying under ground cables is simple and
cheap.

3. Draw- in system :
This method of cable laying suitable for congested areas where excavation is
inconvenient. In this method a line of conduits, ducts or tubes made of either iron, glazed
stoneware clay or cement concrete are laid in ground with manholesat suitable positions
along the cable rotate. The cables are then pulled in to position. Separate pipes and ducts
are provided for each cable laid in the same duct. Care must be taken that where the duct
line changes direction, depths, dine so that a large cable may be pulled easily between the
manholes. The distance between the manholes should not be too long so as to simplify
the pulling in the cables.
SOLID SYSTEM :

In this method the cable is laid in open pipes or troughs dug out in earth along the cable route.
The toughing is of cast iron, stoneware, asphalt or treated wood. After laying the cable in
position, the toughing is filled with a bituminous and covered over.

METHODS OF LOCATION OF CABLE FAULTS:

Several methods are used for locating the faults in underground cables. The most popular
methods for locating faults in underground cables known as loop tests. These are as follows.

1. Murray loop test

2. Varley loop test
1. Murray loop test :
This test is the common and accurate method of locating earth fault or short – circuit fault
in underground cables.
a. Earth fault :
The figure shows the circuit diagram of
locating the earth fault by Murray loop
test. Fault by Murray loop test. Here AB is
the sound cable and CD is the faulty cable
and the earth fault occurring at the point F.
The end of fault cable at point „D‟ is
connected with the point „B‟ of the sound cable with a low resistance. Two variable
resistances P and Q are connected to ends A and C

Let R= Resistance of the conductor loop from the test end to the point „F‟ where the fault occur

X = Resistance from fault point „F‟ to the rest of the faulty cable„C‟

The resistance P and Q are varied till the galvanometer indicates zero.

The balanced position of the Wheatstone bridge where P,Q,R & X are the four arms is P/Q =
R/X

Or P/Q +1 = R/X +1
Or P+Q/Q = R+X/X

If „R‟ is the resistance of each cable

Then R+X = 2r

So P+Q/Q = 2r/X

X= Q/P+Q x 2r

If „L‟ is the length of each cable in meter

Then resistance per meter length of cable =r/L

Distance of fault point from test end is

D= x/(r/l)

Putting the values of x in the above equation

D = Q/P+Q x 2r x L/r

= Q/P+Q x 2L

[ D = Q/P+Q x loop length in meter ]

B SHORT – CIRCUIT FAULT :

In the circuit shown P,Q,R & X are the

four arms of the bridge. The fault resistance is in
the battery circuit. the bridge is balanced by
adjusting the resistances „P‟ and „Q‟ in balanced
condition.

P/Q = R/X

P/Q+1 = R/X +1

P+Q/Q = R+X/X
If „R‟ is the resistance of each cable

Then R+X = 2r

So P+Q/Q = 2r/X

X = Q/P+Q X 2r

If „L‟ is the length of each cable in meter

the resistance per meter length of cable = r/L

Distance of short-circuit fault point from test end is

VARLEY LOOP TEST :

It is also used for locating earth fault or short-

circuit fault in underground cables. This test can
be done with the help of Wheatstone bridge
principle.

In this test P and Q are the fixd resistances and the

balance can be done by varring the variable
resistance S.

For earth fault or short circuit fault, the key „K2‟ is

connected to position-I. After that the variable
resistance S is varied till the bridge is balanced for
resistance value S1.

So P/Q = R/X+S1 , P/Q+1 =( R/X+S1 )+1

P+Q/Q =( R+X+S1)/(X+S1)

X=Q (R+X)-PS1/P+Q .................................................. (1)

Then the key K2 is connected to position – 2 and the bridge is balance to a new value of
resistance

P/Q = R+X/S2 , (R+X) Q = PS2 ........................................................................ (2)

From equation 1 & 2 we will get X = P(S2-S1)/P+Q

The loop resistance = R+X = (P/Q)S2

If „r‟ is the resistance of the cable per meter length. The distance of fault from the test end is D =
X/r meters.
CHAPTER-8

CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

The main cause of low Power factor is Inductive Load. As in pure inductive circuit Current lags
900 from Voltage, this large difference of phase angle between current and voltage causes zero
power factor. Basically, all those circuit having Capacitance and inductance (except resonance
circuit (or Tune Circuit) where inductive reactance = capacitive reactance (XL = Xc), so the
circuit becomes a resistive circuit), power factor would be exist over there because Capacitance
and inductance causes in difference of phase angle (ⱷ) between current and voltage.

there are a lot of disadvantages of low Pf and we must improve Pf .

FOLLOWING ARE THE CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR:

1. Single phase and three phase induction Motors (Usually, Induction motor works at
poor power factor i.e. at:

Full load, Pf= 0.8 - 0.9

Small load, Pf = 0.2 - 0.3

No Load, Pf may come to Zero (0).

2. Varying Load in Power System (As we know that load on power system is varying.
During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing
current which cause the decreased power factor)

3. Industrial heating furnaces

4. Electrical discharge lamps (High intensity discharge lighting) Arc lamps (operate a very
low power factor)

5. Transformers

6. Harmonic Currents
You may also read about:

• Power Factor

• Active, Reactive, Apparent and Complex Power. Simple explanation with formulas.

• Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

• Power Factor improvement Methods with Their advantages & Disadvantages

• Advantages of Power factor improvement and Correction

• How to Calculate the Suitable Capacitor Size in Farads & kVAR for Power factor
improvement (Easiest way ever)

• How to Convert Capacitor Farads into kVAR and Vice Versa (For Power factor
improvement)

DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR:

Power factor play an important role in AC circuits and power dissipation depends on this factor.
For instant, we know that;

Power in a Three Phase AC Circuit = P = √3 V x I Cosⱷ

And Current in a Three Phase AC Circuits = I = P / (3 V x Cosⱷ)

1α1 /Cosⱷ …..(1)

Also,

Power in a Single Phase AC Circuits = P = V x I Cosⱷ

And Current in a Three phase AC Circuits = I = P / (V x Cosⱷ)

1α1 /Cosⱷ …..(2)

It is clear from both equations (1) and (2) that Current “I” is inversely proportional to Cosⱷ i.e.
Power Factor.
In other words, When Power Factor increases, Current Decreases, and when Power Factor

decreases, Current Increases.

Now, in case of Low Power Factor, Current will be increased, and this high current will cause to
the following disadvantages.

1.) Large Line Losses (Copper Losses):

We know that Line Losses is directly proportional to the square of Current I2

Power Loss = I2xR i.e., the larger the current, the greater the line losses i.e. I»Line Losses

In other words,

Power Loss = I2xR = 1/Cosⱷ2 …………Refer to Equation "1α1 /Cosⱷ "…….(1)

Thus, if Power factor = 0.8, then losses on this power factor =1/Cos ⱷ2= 1/0.82 = 1.56 times will
be greater than losses on Unity power factor.

2.) Large kVA rating and Size of Electrical Equipments:

As we know that almost all Electrical Machinery (Transformer, Alternator, Switchgears etc)
rated in kVA. But, it is clear from the following formula that Power factor is inversely
proportional to the kVA i.e.

Cos ⱷ = kW / kVA

Therefore, The Lower the Power factor, the larger the kVA rating of Machines also, the larger
the kVA rating of Machines, The larger the Size of Machines and The Larger the size of
Machines, The Larger the Cost of machines.

3.) Greater Conductor Size and Cost:

In case of low power factor, current will be increased, thus, to transmit this high current, we need
the larger size of conductor. Also, the cost of large size of conductor will be increased.
4.) Poor Voltage Regulation and Large Voltage Drop:

Voltage Drop = V = IZ.

Now in case of Low Power factor, Current will be increased. So the Larger the current, the
Larger the Voltage Drop.

Also Voltage Regulation = V.R = (VNo Load – Vfull Load )/ Vfull Load

In case of Low Power Factor (lagging Power factor) there would be large voltage drop which
cause low voltage regulation. Therefore, keeping Voltage drop in the particular limit, we need to
install Extra regulation equipments i.e. Voltage regulators.

5.) Low Efficiency:

In case of low Power Factor, there would be large voltage drop and large line losses and this will
cause the system or equipments efficiency too low. For instant, due to low power factor, there
would be large line losses; therefore, alternator needs high excitation, thus, generation efficiency
would be low.

6.) Penalty from Electric Power Supply Company on Low Power factor

Electrical Power supply Company imposes a penalty of power factor below 0.95 lagging in
Electric power bill. So you must improve Pf above 0.95.

METHODS FOR POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

The following devices and equipments are used for Power Factor Improvement.

1. Static Capacitor

2. Synchronous Condenser

3. Phase Advancer

I. STATIC CAPACITOR

We know that most of the industries and power system loads are inductive that take lagging
current which decrease the system power factor (See Disadvantages of Low Power factor) . For
Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in parallel with those devices
which work on low power factor. These static capacitors provides leading current which
neutralize (totally or approximately) the lagging inductive component of load current (i.e.
leading component neutralize or eliminate the lagging component of load current) thus power
factor of the load circuit is improved. These capacitors are installed in Vicinity of large inductive
load e.g Induction motors and transformers etc, and improve the load circuit power factor to
improve the system or devises efficiency.

Suppose,here is a single phase induction load which is taking lagging current (I) and the load
power factor is cosⱷ as shown in fig-1.

In fig-2, a Capacitor (C) has been connected in parallel with load. Now a current (Ic) is flowing
through Capacitor which lead 90° from the supply voltage ( Note that Capacitor provides leading
Current i.e., In a pure capacitive circuit, Current leading 900 from the supply Voltage, in other
words, Voltage are 90° lagging from Current). The load current is (I). The Vectors combination
of (I) and (Ic) is (I') which is lagging from voltage at ⱷ2, as shown in fig 3.

It can be seen from fig 3 that angle of ⱷ2 < ⱷ1 i.e. angle of ⱷ2is less than from angle of ⱷ2 .
Therefore Cosⱷ2, is less than from Cosⱷ1 (Cos ⱷ2> Cos ⱷ1). Hence the load power factor is
improved by capacitor.

Also note that after the power factor improvement, the circuit current would be less than from
the low power factor circuit current. Also. before and after the power factor improvement, the
active component of current would be same in that circuit because capacitor eliminates only the
re-active component of current. Also, the Active power (in Watts) would be same after and
before power factor improvement.

Advantages:

 Capacitor bank offers several advantages over other methods of power factor
improvement.
 Losses are low in static capacitors
 There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance
 It can work in normal connotations (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions)
 Do not require a foundation for installation
 They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed

Disadvantages:

 The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 - 10 years)

 With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes switching
surges on the system
 If the rated voltage increases, then it causes damage it
 Once the capacitors spoiled, then repairing is costly

2. SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER

When a Synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over-excited then it's called a synchronous
Condenser. Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides leading current and
works like a capacitor. When a synchronous condenser is connected across supply voltage (in
parallel) then it draws leading current and partially eliminates the re-active component and this
way, power factor is improved. Generally, synchronous condenser is used to improve the power
factor in large industries.

Advantages

 Long life (almost 25 years)

 High Reliability
 Step-less adjustment of power factor.
 No generation of harmonics of maintenance
 The faults can be removed easily
 It's not affected by harmonics.

Require Low maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary)

Disadvantages

 It is expensive (maintenance cost is also high) and therefore mostly used by large power
users.
 An auxiliary device has to be used for this operation because synchronous motor has no
self starting torque
 It produces noise

3. PHASE ADVANCER

Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor
and operates with the motor's rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is used
to improve the power factor of induction motor in industries. As the stator windings of induction
motor takes lagging current 90° out of phase with Voltage, therefore the power factor of
induction motor is low. If the exciting ampere-turns are excited by external AC source, then
there would be no effect of exciting current on stator windings. Therefore the power factor of
induction motor will be improved. This process is done by Phase advancer.
Advantages

 Lagging kVAR (Reactive component of Power or reactive power) drawn by the motor is
sufficiently reduced because the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip frequency (fs).
 The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is
Unacceptable

STABILITY VARIATION IN LINE VOLTAGE

1. Over Loading
2. Improve System Stability

LOAD CURVE

Load curve is a graph with time on x-axis & load megawatt on y-axis.

Load curves are drawn for a generating station are group of generating station connected to each
other to feed a group of load.

Note :- Here time can be taken as hour, Day, week, month or year.

Power :- Power is always taken in megawatt

Types of load curve :-

1. Daily load curves :-

Daily load variation in load from time to time is plotted on a graph taking load on y-axis
or time on x-axis
2. Weekly load curve
In this curve seven days of week on x-axis & load on y-axis
3. Monthly load curve :-
The curve in which weeks of a month is taken on x-axis & load on y-axis (optional load
curve)
4. Yearly load curve :
The curves in which months are taken into x-axis & average load of a month are taken on
y-axis.
 The load curves for Sunday other week days of summer & winter seasons for a typical
metro Politian area as shown in above.

Explanation of Load Curve

Here during early morning hours demand low & around 5 am. The load starts increasing
because of increasing industrial & traction load around 9 am the load reaches at high value &
remain almost constant till evening except lunch hours & load again starts increasing due to
residential & traction load 7 to 9 pm peak occurs load starts decreasing but Sunday load demand
less as compared any other week days.

The information obtained from daily load curve if we plot the load against hour in a day
for a power station we will gate following below.
The following information can be obtained from daily load curve.

1. The variation of load during different hours of the day.

2. The area under daily load curve represents the total no of units generate in a day.
3. The peak of the curve represents. The maximum demand on the power station in a
particular day.
4. The area under load curves divided by the total no. of hours represents the average load
in a day for a power station.
5. The ratio of area under the load curve to the total area of the rectangle in which it is
contained gives load factor.
Mathematically, load factor = mwh generate / mwhr which could have been generate

DEMAND FACTOR :

The ratio of the actual maximum demand on the system to the total rated load connected
to the system called demand factor.

It is always less than unity.

Mathematically
Demand factor = maximum demand / connected loads

NOTES :

Generally maximum demand of a group of devices will be always less than the some of
KW & KVA .

The minimum capacity of a generating plant must be such that it meets the maximum demand so,
demand factor determines the capacity & the cost of power requirement to serve gain load.

MAXIMUM DEMAND :

The greatest of all short time interval averaged i.e. 15 minute, 30 min or 60min during a given
period. (A day, a month, OR a year) on the power stations called maximum demand it is called
system peak.

Note :

The maximum demand is not the greatest instantaneous maximum demand but it is the greatest
short time average demand occurring during along period of time under consideration.

It determine size & cost of installation.

LOAD FACTOR :

The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a certain period of time such as a day,
or a month or a year.

Mathematically,

Load factor = average load / maximum demand

As, average load < Maximum demand so, load factor is always less than one. In other word load
factor may be also defined as the ratio of no. of units actually generated in a given period to the
no of units which could have been generated had the load or demand remain the maximum valve
throughout this period.

Mathematically,

Load factor = units generated in a given period / maximum demand x No. of hrs operation in that
given period.

DIVERSITY FACTOR :-
As the maximum demands of all the consumers supplied from an installations don‟t occur the
same time. So the maximum demand is always less than some of individual maximum demands
of all consumers connected to it. So the ratio of the individual maximum demand of all the
consumer connected to it so, the ratio of the individual maximum demand of the power station.

Mathematically.

Diversity factor = sum of individual maxm demand / maximum demand on the power station.
[ DIVERSITY FACTOR > 1 ]

CAPACITY FACTOR / PLANT FACTOR :

Every plant has to have a reserve capacity for the future explanation an increase in load.
Therefore the total install capacity of the plant is usually greater than actually required
(Maximum demand) so the capacity of the plant factor is defined as the average load to the rated
capacity of the power plant i.e.

Capacity / plant factor = Average load / rated capacity of the power plant

In other word capacity factor may also be defined as the actual energy generated / maximum
possible energy that the plant might have generated during a given period i.e.

Plant factor = units are generated in given period/( rated capacity of power plant X no. Of hrs in
the given period)

= (units generated in a given period x maximum demand) / (max demand x rated capacity of
power plant x no. of hrs in the given period)

= load factor x (max. demand /capacity factor)

Capacity of the plant daily energy produced maximum energy that could be produced daily. if
the plant while running as per schedule were fully loaded.

BASE LOAD & PEAK LOAD ON POWER STATION

1. Base load :-
The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the stations is known as base
load.
2. Peak load :-
The various peak demands of load & above the base load of the station is known as peak
load.
CHAPTER-9

TARIFF

Tariff means schedule of rates or charges. Tariff in case of Electricity supply is the
schedule/rates frames or supply electrical energy to various classes of consumers.

Objective of tariff: The main objective is to distribute equitably the cost of supplying energy
amount various classification of used. hence tariff consider the following items.

1. Recovery of cost of capital investment in generating transmitting & distributing

equipment.
2. Recovery of cost of capital investment in generating transmitting & distributing
equipment
3. Recovery cost of metering equipment billing, collection cost & miscellaneous services.
4. The satisfactory return on total capital investment.

Types of Tariff:

1. Flat rate tariff

2. Block rate tariff
3. Two – part tariff

Flat rate tariff: Generally this tariff is schedule by taking in to account load factor & diversity
factor of each category of consumers. So in this tariff the different consumers are charged at
different rate i.e. flat rate for light & fan load are slightly higher than that of power load. This
method is most popular & easily under stood & simple calculation i.e. if energy consumed
during billing period = x unit.

Flat rate = Rs. a/unit

Then charge = Rs. ax

Disadvantages

1. Separate meters are needed for different type of the supply.

2. Difficult to derive load factor & diversity factor for various types of load.
 3. The consumers are charged for the total quantity of energy consumed at the same rate.
Irrespective of magnitude of energy consumed. While increased generation or
consumption spread the fixed charges for a greater number of units & so, the overall cost
for unit decreases as the consumption increased.

BLOCK RATE TARIFF: The tariff in which block of energy is charged at higher rate &
succeeding block of energy are charged at progressively reduce rate called block rate tariff.

Eg – 1st 25 units = Rs. 4.00 per unit

The next 40 units = Rs. 3.50 per unit

The consumption exceeding 65 unit = Rs. 3.00 per unit.

Advantages :

1. In this tariff consumer gets incentive for consuming more electrical energy which
increases the load factor resulting reduction in generating cost.

Two part tariff / Hopkison demand :

In this tariff the total charges are splited into two component i.e. fixed charge & running charges.

Fixed charge : It is independent of energy consumed & proportional to the maximum demand
i.e. it is made at a certain amount per kw of maximum demand & on the basis of the ratioable
values. Of the premises or no. of room excluding bathroom or the connected load or the total
combine kw capacity of all devices of consumers.

Running charge : It is made at a certain amount per kw for the total energy consumed.

Mathematically:

Total charges = Rs (a x kw+b x kwh)

Where a = Fixed charge per kw of the maximum demand

b= running charges per kwh of energy consumed.

The tariff is applicable in medium industry. Here, Fixed charge recover interest & depreciation
on the capital cost building equipment taxes, insurance & operating cost which are independent
of energy supplied varies with maximum demand while running charges recovers operating cost
which varies with variation in energy consumption.

Disadvantage :

1. Unnecessary a consumer has to pay fixed charge without consumption.

Eg.- If company remains closed for a month but company Owner has to pay fixed charge
mandatory.

Problem-1

Compute the cost of electrical energy for consuming 375 kw under block rated tariff quoted as
follows.

1st 50kw at 4.00 per kwh

50kw at 3.60 per kwh

Next 50kw at 3.00 per kwh

Next 50 kw at 2.50 per kwh

Excess over 200 kwh at Rs. 2.10 per kwh.

a. Energy charge for 1st 50 kwh = Rs. 4.00x50 = Rs. 200.00

Energy charge for next 50 kwh = Rs. 3.60x50 = Rs.180.00
Energy charge for next 50 kwh = Rs. 3.00x50 = Rs. 150.00
Energy charge for next 50 kwh = Rs. 2.50x50 = Rs. 125.00
Energy charge for next rest 375.200 i.e. 175 kwh=
Rs. 2.10x175 = Rs. 367.50
Total cost of electrical energy for 375 kwh=
Rs. (200+180+150+125+367.50) = 1022.50

Average cost = 1022.50 / 375 = Rs. 2.72/kwh

Problem – 2

Daily load of an industry is 200 kw for 1st hrs, 150kw for next 7 hour, 50 kw for 8 hour & 1kw
for the remaining time. If the tariff is force Rs. 1000 per kw of maximum demand per annum
plus Rs. 2.25 per kwh find the electricity expenditure per year.

a. Daily energy consumption = 200x1+150x7+50x8+1x8 = 1658kwh

Annual energy consumption = 1658x365 = 605170 kwh
Demand charges per annum = Rs 1000x200 = 200,000,000
Energy charges per annum = 2.25x605170 = 1361632.50
Total energy expenditure per annum = 200000+1361632.50
=Rs. 1561632.50
SUB-STATION-10

POLE-MOUNTED SUB-STATION

It is a distribution sub-station placed overhead on a pole. It is the cheapest form of sub-

station as it does not involve any building work. Fig (i) shows the layout of pole-mounted sub-
station whereas Fig. (ii) shows the schematic connections. The transformer and other equipment
W*c mounted on H-type pole (or 4-pole structure).

The 11 kV line is connected to the transformer ( 11kV / 400 V) through gang isolator and
fuses. The lightning arresters are installed on the H.T. side to protect the sub-station from
lightning strokes. The transformer steps down the voltage to 400V, 3-phase, 4-wire supply. The
voltage between any two lines is 400V whereas the voltage between any line and neutral is
230V. The oil circuit breaker (O.C.B.) installed on the L.T. side automatically isolates the
transformer from the consumers in the event of any fault. The pole-mounted
transformers can also be used. The use of 3-phase transformer (instead of 3 single phase bank of
transformers) permits two advantages. Firstly, only one 3-phase load-tap changing mechanism
can he used. Secondly, its installation is much simpler than the three single phase transformers.

The power transformer is generally installed upon lengths of rails fixed on concrete slabs having
foundations I to 1.5 in deep. For ratings upto 10 MVA, naturally cooled oil immersed
transformers are used. For higher ratings, the transformers are generally air blast cooled.

BUS-BAR ARRANGEMENTS IN SUB-STATIONS

Bus-bars are the important components in a sub-station. There are several bus-bar
arrangements that can he used in a sub-station. The choice of a particular arrangement depends
upon various factors such as system voltage, position of sub-station, degree of reliability, cost
etc. The following are the important bus-bar arrangements used in sub-stations

(i) Single bus-bar system. As the name suggests, it consists of a single bus-bar and all
the incoming and outgoing lines are connected to it. The chief advantages of this type
of arrangement are low initial cost, less maintenance and simple operation. However,
the principal disadvantage of single bus-bar system is that if repair is to be done on
the bus-bar or a fault occurs on the bus, there is a complete interruption of the supply.
This arrangement is not used for voltages exceeding 33kV. The indoor 1 I kV sub-
stations often use single bus-bar arrangement.

Fig-1
 Fig-1 shows single bus-bar arrangement in a sub-station. There are two I l kV incoming

lines connected to the bus-bar through circuit breakers and isolators. The two 400V outgoing

lines are connected to the bus bars through transformers (1 1 kV/400 V) and circuit breakers.
 66KV SUB STATION

(i) There are two 66 kV incoming lines marked `incoming 1' and `incoming 2' connected to
the bus-bars. Such an arrangement of two incoming lines is called a double circuit. Each
incoming line is capable of supplying the rated sub-station load. Both these lines can be
loaded simultaneously to share the sub-station load or any one line can be called upon to
meet the entire load. The double circuit arrangement increases the reliability of the
system. In case there is a breakdown of one incoming line, the continuity of supply can
be maintained by the other line.
(ii) The sub-station has duplicate bus-bar system: one 'main bus-bar' and the other spare bus-
bar. The incoming lines can be connected to either bus-bar with the help of a bus-coupler
which consists of a circuit breaker and isolators. The advantage of double bus-bar system
is that if repair is to be carried on one bus-bar, the supply need not be interrupted as the
entire load can be transferred to the other bus.

(iii) There is an arrangement in the sub-station by which the same 66 kV double circuit supply
is going out i.e. 66 kV double circuit supply is passing through the sub-station. The
outgoing 66 kV double circuit line can be made to act as incoming line.

(iv) There is also an arrangement to step down the incoming 66 kV supply to I 1 kV by two
units of 3-phase transformers; each transformer supplying to a separate bus-bar.
Generally, oils transformer supplies the entire sub-station load while the other
transformer acts as a standby unit. If need arises, both the transformers can be called
upon to share the sub-station load. The I 1 kV outgoing lines feed to the distribution sub-
stations located near consumer‟s localities.

(v) Both incoming and outgoing lines are connected through circuit breakers having isolators
on their either end. Whenever repair is to be carried over the line towers, the line is first
switched off and then earthed.

(vi) The potential transformers (P.T.) and current transformers (C.T.) and suitably located for
supply to metering and indicating instruments and relay circuits (not shown in the figure).
The P.T. is connected right on the point where the line is terminated. The CTs are
connected at the terminals of each circuit breaker.

(vii) The lightning arresters are connected near the transformer terminals (on H.T. side) to
protect there from lightning strokes.

viii) There are other auxiliary components in the sub-station such as capacitor bank for power
factor improvement, earth connections, local supply connections, d.c. supply connections
etc. However, these have been omitted in the key diagram for the sake of simplicity.