Introduction to Computers

Basic Concepts

Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmer or, put another
way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program.

Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications. Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number
of bits used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques
for addressing memory. Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the
programmer, such as control signals; interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the
memory technology used.

Organization and Architecture

In describing computers, a distinction is often made between computer architecture and computer
organization. Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmer or,
put another way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program.
Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications.

Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent
various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory.

Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as control
signals; interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the memory technology used. For
example, it is an architectural design issue whether a computer will have a multiple instruction. It is an
organizational issue whether that instruction will be implemented by a special multiple unit or by a
mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of the system.

. Changes in technology not only influence organization but also result in the introduction of more
powerful and more complex architectures. Generally, there is less of a requirement for generation-to-
generation compatibility for these smaller machines. Thus, there is more interplay between
organizational and architectural design decisions.

Structure and Function

A computer is a complex system; contemporary computers contain millions of elementary electronic

components. How, then, can one clearly describe them? The key is to recognize the hierarchical nature
of most complex systems, including the computer.
A hierarchical system is a set of interrelated subsystems, each of the latter, in turn, hierarchical in
structure until we reach some lowest level of elementary subsystem. The hierarchical nature of complex
systems is essential to both their design and their description. The designer need only deal with a
particular level of the system at a time. At each level, the system consists of a set of components and
their interrelationships. The behavior at each level depends only on a simplified, abstracted
characterization of the system at the next lower level. At each level, the designer is concerned with
structure and function:

• Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated.

• Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the structure.

In terms of description, we have two choices: starting at the bottom and building up to a complete
description, or beginning with a top view and decomposing the system into its subparts. Evidence from a
number of fields suggests that the top-down approach is the clearest and most effective.

The computer system will be described from the top down. We begin with the major components of a
computer, describing their structure and function, and proceed to successively lower layers of the
hierarchy.

Both the structure and functioning of a computer are, in essence, simple. Figure 1.1 depicts the basic
functions that a computer can perform. In general terms, there are only four:

• Data processing

• Data storage

• Data movement

• Control
The computer must be able to process data. The data may take a wide variety of forms, and the range of
processing requirements is broad. However there are only a few fundamental methods or types of data
processing. It is also essential that a computer store data. Even if the computer is processing data on the
fly (i.e., data come in and get processed, and the results go out immediately), the computer must
temporarily store at least those pieces of data that are being worked on at any given moment. Thus,
there is at least a short-term data storage function. Equally important, the computer performs a long-
term data storage function. Files of data are stored on the computer for subsequent retrieval and
update. The computer must be able to move data between itself and the outside world. The computer’s
operating environment consists of devices that serve as either sources or destinations of data. When
data are received from or delivered to a device that is directly connected to the computer, the process is
known as input– output (I/O), and the device is referred to as a peripheral. When data are moved over
longer distances, to or from a remote device, the process is known as data communications.

Finally, there must be control of these three functions. Ultimately, this control is exercised by the
individual(s) who provides the computer with instructions. Within the computer, a control unit manages
the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response to those
instructions.

At this general level of discussion, the number of possible operations that can be performed is few.
Figure 1.2 depicts the four possible types of operations. The computer can function as a data movement
device (Figure 1.2a), simply transferring data from one peripheral or communication line to another. It
can also function as a data storage device (Figure 1.2b), with data transferred from the external
environment to computer storage (read) and vice versa (write). The final two diagrams show operations
involving data processing, on data either in storage (Figure 1.2c) or en route between storage and the
external environment (Figure 1.2d).
Structure Figure 1.3 is the simplest possible depiction of a computer. The computer interacts in some
fashion with its external environment. In general all of its linkages to the external environment can be
classified as peripheral devices or communication lines.
There are four main structural components:

• Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data
processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.

• Main memory: Stores data.

• I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.

• System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O. A common example of system interconnection is by means of a system bus,
consisting of a number of conducting wires to which all the other components attach. There may be one
or more of each of the aforementioned components. Traditionally, there has been just a single
processor. In recent years, there has been increasing use of multiple processors in a single computer.
The most complex component is the CPU. Its major structural components are as follows:

• Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.

• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing functions.

• Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU.

• CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit,
ALU, and registers

Figure 1.4 depicts the internal structure of the computer.

Network and System Administration

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There are several approaches to the implementation of the control unit; one common approach is a
microprogrammed implementation. In essence, a microprogrammed control unit operates by executing
microinstructions that define the functionality of the control unit. With this approach, the structure of
the control unit can be depicted, as in Figure 1.4.