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CHAPTER ONE
Fundamentals of Color Theory

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Colour is the sensation of light or physical
stimulus.
 Modern theory of colour: Colour is a
physiological sensation associated with the
wavelength of light striking the retina of the
eye. The sensation of colour is produced
when light having a wavelength within the
visible region of electromagnetic spectrum
strikes the retina of the eye.

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 Technically speaking, colors are the way our
brain, by use of our eyes, interprets
electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength
within the visible spectrum. Visible light lies
between 400 and 700 nanometers

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 Light is a form of energy. Specifically, it is that
part of the spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation that our eyes are sensitive to.
 Wavelength, is an important characteristics of EMW it
varies from fraction of nanometre (nm) ( 1nm= 10 -7cms
) to kilometers.
 The characteristics of EMW changes with
wavelengths, due to this reason they are identified by
different names:
Gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible rays,
microwave rays, and radio-wave rays as shown in
Figure1.1 and 1.2.
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 X rays capable of passing through our bodies
 ultraviolet radiation that can tan or burn our
skin
 Visible light that we employ to gain visual
information about the world around us
 infrared radiation that we experience on our
skin as warmth or heat
 information transmission waves for radio and
television

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 Visible light is only a very small portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Note: Frequency (υ) and Energy (E) are directly proportional

whereas Frequency (υ) and Wavelength (λ) are inversely proportional.
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A triangular prism dispersing a beam of white light. The longer
wavelengths (red) and the shorter wavelengths (blue) get separated.
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Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its
wavelength, , Frequency,  and energy, E:
E = h= hc /  c=
Where h = Planck’s constant & c = speed of light in a vacuum.

(a) longer wavelength, lower energy;

(b) shorter wavelength, higher energy.

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 Source of light is characterized by the relative
power distribution at diffirent wavelengths.
 Light sources may be :
 Incandescent lamp;
 Arc lamp;
 Fluorescent lamp.

 Spectral power distribution(SPD) of

sources are shown in Figure 1.3.

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 Daylight D65 TL 84 Fluorescent

Illuminant A (Incandescent)
Cool White Fluorescent 2017 12
Light Source - Variation

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 What influences the
perception of
color?

1. light source
2. object being viewed
3. observer (person)

Observer Situation

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 The perceptual description of color depends
on:
 Spectral power distribution of the source;
 Energy reflected by the object at different
wavelengths and;
 Spectral sensitivity of the eye.

 Therefore, the change of spectral power distribution of

illuminating beam will also change the perceptual description
of the color of the object.

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 The illuminating radiations of the source are
modified by the object through physical processes
such as:
 Transmission;
 Reflection;
 Absorbency and;
 Scattering.
 The relative proportion of these processes depend on the
characteristics of the material.
 Transmission- emerging light is in the same direction as
incident light.
 The type of reflection from object depends on the nature of
the surfaces mainly classified as polished and matte
surfaces.
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 Consider a beam of white light incident on
the surface of colored paint film. As soon as
the light meets the paint surface the beam
undergoes refraction and some of the light is
reflected.
 The refracted beam entering the paint layer
then undergoes absorption and scattering,
and it is the combination of these two
process which gives rise to underlying color
of the paint layer

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 Objects are characterized
by the amount of light Incident
they emit and reflect or Light
transmit at each
Light
wavelength of interest scatering

 The object may also emit

Reflected
light Light Absorbed
 All these characteristics Light
contribute to the observed Transmitted
Light
color

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 Specular (regular)
reflectance = mirror like Specular

reflectance
 Diffuse reflectance =
reflectance in all Diffuse
directions
 Gloss = combination of
specular and diffuse Glossy
reflectance

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 The reflection from polished(Mirror like) is called as specular
reflection- it depends on angle of incident and refractive index
of the material of the object with respective to its
surroundings.

 The specularly reflected radiations do not carry information

about the color of the object.
 E.g. Ceramic black tile seen by specularly reflected radiations will
appear white and bright.
 In case of matte or non-glossy surfaces the reflected
radiations originate due to scattering and absorption of
incident light by the colorants in the object- gives rise to
diffuse radiations.

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 The diffuse radiations carry the information about the
color of the object.

 The object we deal in textile, leather and paper

industries diffusely reflect the incident light as shown
in Figure 1.7

 Therefore, for true assessment of the specular

components of reflected light ,which gives rise to
glossy should be excluded.

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 The locations peak in spectral reflectance curve
determines the hue of the object.

 The spectral reflection of curves of achromatic (white, black &

gray colors) and chromatic objects are shown in Figure 1.8.

 The object exhibits absorption peak at definite wavelength

depending upon its color.

 The spectral reflectance curves of achromatic objects do

not exhibit any peak.

 The reflectance of curves of the red color objects with

increase in concentration from S1, S2 to S3 shown in
Figure 1.9.
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 In scattering process light travels in many directions
other than incident directions.

 When sufficient scattering occurs -it is said to

diffuse reflection, such objects are said to be
translucent.
e.g. plastics

 The amount of light scattered depends on relative

refractive index and particle size of colorants- see
Figure 1.10.
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The Eye
 The function of the eye is to impart to an observer information
about surrounding world.

 The sensation of color and vision is a function of physical

quality of light, physiological process in retina, brain and
psychological interpretation of physiological process by the
brain.

 All these operations are carried out at lightening speed and

sensation of vision is experienced almost instantly.
 The main features of the human eye are shown in fig1.12

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 Rods
◦ Scotopic (gray scale) vision, interpret brightness
◦ Interpret brightness, not color
◦ Highest concentration on
peripheral retina

 Cones
◦ Photopic (color) vision
◦ Interpret color
◦ More active under high light
◦ Highest concentration on central retina (macula), most color
perceptive area of eye

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 The fovea subtends an angle of 10o in the visual field.

 The cones are situated in fovea region only.

 There are 7 millions of cones in the eye, mostly tightly packed in

fovea.

 There are three types of cones characterised by their

spectral sensitivity curves, known as blue, green and red
sensitive cones- often they are referred as short,
medium and long wavelength cones.

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 Over the retina surface, there are nerve endings called
as rods and cones from their shape - contain
photosensitive materials.

 The rods detect the light but have no ability to specify

the color. Color is detected by cones.
 There on average 130 millions of rods in retina.
 There is a small pit at the centre of retina called as
fovea located on the visual axis of the eye and has a
diameter of 1mm.

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The short wavelength cones record from violet to blue,
medium wavelength cones record from green to yellow and
long wavelength cones record from yellow to red colors.

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 The sensation of color depends on the degree of stimulation
of the cones by light.

 If either of cones are absent or defective ,it results into defective

color vision.

 The eye is not equally sensitive over entire visible spectrum- for
eye the brightest part of the spectrum is at wavelength of 550
nm i.e. Yellow-green regions.

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 Cones require higher level of illumination as compared to rods.
 At low light , the shape of the object can be distinguished - it is
said to be scotopic vision.

 When the color can be just detected (and rods have yet not
flooded) -it is said to be mesopic vision.

 At high light level when rods & cones are sufficiently stimulated
- it is said to be photopic vision.
 Scotopic or low light level (under twilight condition, for
instance) is zero above 630 nm, where many red objects appear
black.

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The rods and cones are connected to fibres
of the optic nerve by which the signal is
transmitted to brain.

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 The rods are distributed over the entire surface of retina
and cones are concentrated in a region of fovea.
 When the rods and cones are exposed to light ; the
photochemical r/n is initiated and electrical impulse is
generated.
 The photosensitive material in light sensitive cells decomposes
and regenerate continuously and almost instantly.

 Often the exposure to intense light produces fatigue and it

takes appreciable time to generate- this is the reason why a
person become momentary blind when he looks at dazing
light.

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 The color perceived by a person depends on degree of
stimulation of the three types of cones.
 If red, green and blue cones are equally stimulated the
sensation of gray to white created.

 If blue and red cones are simultaneously excited the sensation

of purple is created.

 The impression of yellow is created if red and green cones

are stimulated at the same time.

 Thus the resulting sensation of color is determined by laws of

additive color mixing and degree of stimulation of the
cones.
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  The retina in the back
of the eye contains
photoreceptors.
 These receptors
release chemical
signals.
 Chemical signals
travel to the brain
along the optic nerve.

optic nerve
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 The message from rods convey about light(i.e. Shape,
movement of object, etc.), while the message from the cones
tell about the color of the object under observation.
 The message are decoded and coupled with memories stored in
the brain and the final consciousness of color and vision is
experienced.
 This process of interpretation of signal and retrieving
information from the nerve impulse in brain is a psychological
process.
 Thus process of color and color vision initiated by physical
stimulus process through physiological process and finally ends
with psychological process.

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 Since different human perceive color and
appearance in different ways, subjectively,
attempts have been made to “standardize”
the human observer as a numerical
representation of what the “average person”
sees.
 This standard observer could then be used
lieu(instead) of human observer when
assessments are made instrumentally.

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 In 1931 Wright and Guild publish the 20 CIE
standard observer function based on their
research . This is because their experiments
involved looking through a hole that allowed
them a 20 field of view

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 By the 1960, it was realized that cones were
present in larger area of the eye than
previously believed and so in 1960, the 10º
standard observer was developed.
 The 10º standard observer is currently
believed to best represent the average
spectral response of human observer.

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 The standard observers, in the form of
mathematical functions of the human
response to each wavelength of light, are
used in color calculations. The observers can
be graphed as shown in the next slide

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 Normal color vision is trichromatic - color vision using three
types of cones.
 An observer with normal color vision is said to have
trichromatic color vision or simply trichromat- in such
observer the three cones are functioning properly in complete
harmony.

 There are other observers who poorly or can not identify the
color discrimination- they are said to have defective color
vision or color blind.
 The brightest part of equal energy spectrum for normal color
vision observer is b/n 540 & 570 nm ( i.e. Yellowish-green) -
this gives average wavelength of 555 nm.
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 The defective color vision or color blindness refers to abnormal
physiological conditions in the eye.
 There are three main forms of abnormal color vision system:

1. Monochromatism- total color blindness

 observer who can not identify any color called monochromatic or only
identify light and dark.
 The monochromat tends to have phophobia ( fear to light) & they would
like to remain in dark.
 Luminous efficiency of eye for monochromat has maximum at 520nm.
2. Dichromatism - observes in this category can make
distinction of only yellow- blue or red-green color sets.
3. Anomalous trichromatism - are intermediate b/n dichromate
& normal trichromats

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 Tri chromatic: human being can sense red,
green and blue, hence said to be trichromatic.
 Di chromatic
Bee can only sense green and blue and their
combinations. Red cone is missing(can not see red)
Dog can only sense red and blue and their
combination. But green cone is missing or can
not sense green color.
There fore the color of objects by Human being,
dog and bee are quit different.
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 The person who can not distinguish the colors like red-green
or yellow -blue is said to be color blind or having defective
color vision.
 Color blindness occurs if one type of cones is defective or
missing.
 Some other disorders in the eye or in nerves path ways b/n eye
& brain cause defects in color vision.
 About 8% of males and 0.5 % women are found to have
defective color vision.
 The most widely used method to test color vision is the charts-
containing mathematical numbers or figures printed with dots
of different colors and also surrounded by dots of other colors.
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 The person with normal color vision can become color blind
due to deficiency of vitamins or after certain diseases.
 The toxic and poisonous fumes of certain chemicals like
carbon dioxide also depresses the sensitivity of cones
resulting in to color vision defects.
 Others like :
o lead poisoning
o spinal anesthesia
o excess use of tobacco and alcohol
o severe head injury in accident - develops color vision
defects.
o Color deficiency is also hereditary and can be passed by
mother to son.
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 There are two types of color mixing laws:
 additive color mixing law and
 subtractive color mixing law
 Additive color mixing was first carried out by Newton, 1730
using collared light.
 Subtractive color was first recognized by Htlmholtz 1852.
 In industrial applications like, textiles, paint, paper and plastic
the desired color are produced by mixing two or more
colorants.
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 Additive color mixing occurs when two or more
lights are added by focusing them on a white screen.
 Red, Blue and Green are used as primaries to
produce various colors by additive mixing.
 The primary colors are independent- that the
mixture of the two colors will not produce the third
primary color.
 Red + Green = yellow
 Green + Blue = cyan( blue-green)
 Blue + Red = purple (magenta)
 Red + Green + Blue = White

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 There are about 17 million colours produced by mixing.
 These are the color obtained by emitted light

Associated with television and computer displays

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 Subtractive mixing of colors occurs when one or more
spectral components are removed from the incident light.
 The removal of part of incident energy can occur by the
process of absorption and scattering .
 When the subtraction is made by absorption only ,it is called
simple subtractive mixing.
 When the light is removed by scattering and absorption , it
is called complex subtractive mixing.

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 The color of transparent materials like solutions and glass occur due to simple
subtraction of light energy by absorption.
 Yellow, Purple and Cyan are the most commonly used primaries in subtractive
color mixing.
 The subtractive primaries are obtained by removing Blue, Green and Red lights
from white light.
 White - Blue = Yellow
 White _ Green = Purple

 White - Red = Cyan

 This can be achieved by using broad band filters known as

substractive primary filters as shown in Figure15

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 A colored filter subtracts colors
by absorption.

Incident white light Cyan Yellow Only green

filter subtracts filter subtracts gets
red blue through

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A colored filter subtracts certain colors
by absorption and transmits the rest

Incident white light Magenta Cyan Only blue

filter subtracts filter subtracts gets
green red through

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 A colored filter subtracts colors
by absorption.

Incident white light Magenta Yellow Only red

filter subtracts filter subtracts gets
green blue through

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 When two subtractive filters are combined ,the primaries for
additive color mixing results as shown in Figure 1.16.
 The addition of subtractive primaries will produce the
additive color mixing primaries of Red, Green and Blue.
 Yellow + Cyan = Green
 Cyan + magenta = Blue
 Magenta + yellow = Red
 Yellow + Magenta + Cyan = Black

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Figure 1.16
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 The production of resultant colors in subtractive color mixing can
be made using Beer's law.
 According to this law the absorption of light by specimen is
resulted by equation:

log 1/T = abc =A

Where; A= absorption
T= transmission
a = absorptivity of the material
b = path length
c = concentration
Note : the law applied at single wavelength only

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 For a given material the absorbance, A proportional to
concentration.

 For mixture of colorants the total absorbance is equal to the

absorbance of individual component:
A = A1 +A2 + A3 + ....

 The color of the dye is mainly determined by a wave

length of maximum absorption and the intensity of a
color mainly depend on the value of maximum absorption.

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 There are
No Photons
R
of These
Colors Spectral
Colors
M Y

Red
B G Yellow
Green
Cyan
C
Blue
Magenta

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 When light energy is removed by absorption and scattering- it
is called complex subtractive color mixing (Billmeyer &
Saltzman, 1981).

 Complex subtractive color mixing involves the simultaneous

absorption and scattering of light.

 For technological application the most widely used

approximate equation for complex subtractive color mixing
is given by Kubelica and Munk ,1931.

F(R) = K/S = (1-R)2 /2R

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 K and S are ; Kubelica and Munk absorption and scattering
coefficients
 The function forms the basis for color matching for industrial
products.
 The colors seen of various industrial products like paint, plastic,
textiles ,paper and many other are due to complex subtractive
color mixing.
 For opaque objects, the complex subtractive color mixing give
rise to diffuse reflectance

 The diffuse reflectance arising because of complex subtractive

color mixing is not proportional to concentration of colorants ,
but some function of reflectance factor (R) is proportional to
concentration.
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 Mixing Dyes and pigments is fundamentally
different from mixing colored light.
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 Color perception may be described in terms
of just three properties.
 The three properties or psychological
attribute of color are
◦ hue
◦ Chroma (saturation) and
◦ Value (lightness).

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