CHAPTER TWO

COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Objectives:
 What a computer system is and how it works to process data

The computer system refers to the computer itself and all the components interconnected to it.
Basically the computer system is categorized into two components
The hardware-the physical device
The software-the programs or instructions that control the hardware
2.1 Computer Hardware
A computer hardware is the physical equipment of the computer you see, you use to and the parts
you can touch.
What a computer in general does is, that
 It takes input(in various forms)
 Process it (according to a given set of instructions) and
 Produce an output (in required form).

Based on this the hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting
physical parts. The different hardware parts of a computer which are responsible for these
operations are illustrated by the following model.

Computer system Model

The Central Processing

Unit

ALU Control Unit

INPUT
UNIT
OUTPUT
UNIT

Registers
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 Primary Memory ROM

SECONDARY
STORAGE DEVICE

2.1.1 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Is the most costly and main component of the computer system;
 Consists of the Control Unit & the Arithmetic Logic Unit and register;
 The three parts work together to electronically control the function of the computer;
 The different parts are interconnected by a cable like device called BUS, which is used to
facilitate communications between the parts. Buses are used to transfer data, address and
control code (signal).
The Control Unit
 As the name implies, it performs all the control functions of the computer.
 It retrieves the instruction from memory.
 Translates those instructions into computer functions and sends signals to other computer
hardware units to carry out those functions.
 It is also responsible for determining the next instruction to be executed by the computer.
 In general it serves as the computer traffic cope.

The Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

 It is referred as the computers "number crunchier".

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 It performs the arithmetic calculations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
and comparisons and it is used to keep track of and execute instruction.
 All modern digital computers can do is addition; multiplication is merely a continuous
addition; subtraction is the addition of the complements of the number to be subtracted;
division is the addition of complements.
 Registers are paths or conduits that connect the Arithmetic Logical Unit to the main memory.
 When an instruction loaded from main memory, it is placed first in the register to wait
instructions from the control unit.
 Data are also stored in registers prior to execution in the ALU.

Main Memory or Primary Memory or RAM

 Is that the memory which is directly accessible by the control unit and ALU;
 Usually referred as Random Access Memory (RAM), because each memory location can be
accessed without having to work sequentially through hundreds or even thousands of
memory locations called addresses;
 Each memory location can be referred by its memory location (address);
 Holds instructions and data elements which are currently being used by the computer;
 The data in the main memory while be lost when the power is off;
 Parts of the CPU may also contain Read Only Memory (ROM).
 This type of memory is integrated into the circuitry of the computer and cannot be
altered without altering the computer circuitry;
 Used to store programs and data that are used frequently and permanently;
Due to high price of a primary storage memory of a computer system, the need to have other
type of storage to hold large amount of data in a less expensive and yet accessible manner is
evident. Hence secondary storage device were created with this need in mind.

Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory.
To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and
Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called
CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is

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used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the
CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very
expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small.
Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also movement of
data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high
speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part
of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by
the control unit
@ Input Devices
Input Devices are those devices that are required to translate data that is in human readable form,
into a form the computer can process. An input device allows the user to feed information or
data into the computer for analysis, Storage and to give commands to the computer. And these
devices also allow direct interaction between human and machine. E.g. Keyboard, Pointing
devices (mouse), scanner, microphone, digital camera, etc.
 Keyboard Devices: - A keyboard is the most common data entry or input device and it
was the first input device developed for the PC. They allow data entry into a computer
system by pressing a set of keys (labeled buttons), which are neatly mounted on a
keyboard connected to the computer system. A Keyboard converts letters, numbers and
other characters into electrical signals that are machine readable by the computer’s
processor. Keyboard devices can be broadly classified in to two types:
 Special Purpose Keyboard: - contains limited number of keys and they are used for
specific applications. E.g. Billing Machines, ATM in Banks, etc.
 General Purpose Keyboard: - these are standard keyboards used with most computer
systems. They are called general-purpose because they have enough keys to make them
useful for any type of application. That is, they are designed to meet the data entry
requirements of a very wide range of computer users. General-purpose keyboard is
connected to the personal computer and look like a typewriter keyboard to which some
additional keys are added. The most popular General-purpose keyboard used today is the
101-keys QWERTY keyboard. It was introduced and promoted by IBM for use with
IBM PCs and IBM-compatible PCs (Personal Computers). It is so called because it has

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 101 keys out of which the keys for alphanumeric characters follow the commonly used
QWERTY layout. There are different categories of keys available in this keyboard.
 Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (1, 2 … A, B …etc.), which are
generally laid out in the same style that was common for typewriters.
 Numeric keypad: Numeric keys are located on the right hand side of the keyboard. A
separate set of keys, 0 through 9 known as the numeric keypad, is laid out like the keys
on a calculator. The toggle key called NUMLOCK changes the function of some of the
keys on the numeric keypad as a number entering key and cursor movement key
alternately.
 Function keys: the Function keys (F1, … F12) are arranged in a row along the top of the
keyboard and could be assigned specific commands by the current application or the
operating system. For example, most of the Microsoft programs use F1 to display help.
 Cursor movement keys: The Cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol on the
display screen that shows where data may be entered next. The cursor movement keys,
or arrow keys, are used to move the cursor around the text on the screen. These keys
move the cursor left, right, up or down. The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move
the cursor, the equivalent of one page, up or down on the screen.
 Editing Keys: Space bar, Backspace, Delete, Insert are used to change a text.
 Special Purpose Keys: Apart from the above mentioned keys, a keyboard contains some
special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, caps Lock, Tab, Print Screen and so on.
 Pointing Devices: - Pointing devices are used to point objects on the desktop and to
control the position of the cursor on the screen. These devices are used to communicate
with the computer by pointing to locations on the monitor screen. Some of the most
commonly used pointing devices are:
 Mouse: - contains a rolling ball beneath it and on moving the mouse, the cursor moves on
the screen, as the ball rotates. itis a small, handy pointing device containing usually two
buttons:
 Primary button (Left button)
 Secondary button (Right Button) and
 Sometimes a scrolling button in the middle.
The following operations can be performed using the mouse.

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  Selection (Single click)
 Giving Commands (Double click)
 Dragging Objects (By pressing mouse button)
 Dropping Objects (By releasing mouse button)
Examples of other pointing devices: Track Ball, Joystick, Touchpad,Touch Screen.
 Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to
input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input
any graphical matter and display it back.
 Microphones: - are used to enter voice data. They let computers listen to us. Without
microphones, computers would not have sound data in them.
 Digital Cameras: - are photoelectrical devices that enter image data to computers.
@ Output Devices
Output devices are hardware components used to receive the results from the CPU after
processing. These output devices after receiving the results, translate the information processed
by the computer into a form that humans can understand. The outputs which can be easily
understood and used by human beings are:
 Hardcopy output: The physical form of output. Any printed information is called hard
copy output.
 Softcopy output: The electronic version of an output which usually resides in computer
memory and/or on disk. Any information displayed on the screen is called softcopy
output. There are various output devices:
 Monitor or Display Devices: - The Monitors are also called as Display devices or soft
copy output devices. Any information displayed in the screen is called the softcopy
output. These monitors display information in the human readable form.
 Printers: - Printers are also called as Hardcopy output devices. Using printers any
information consisting of text, symbols, pictures (graphics), etc. can be printed in paper
for future reference.
 Other Output Devices
 A Plotter is also a printer that produces hard copy output. Plotters produce high quality
color graphics output by using pens for creating images. It is used to draw high resolution
charts, graphs, maps, and other line based diagrams. Plotters help to draw maps from

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 stored data. Plotters are ideal for Engineering, Drafting and many other applications that
require intricate graphics.
 Speakers are sound producing output devices. They are used in multimedia systems.
They are ideal for virtual classrooms, together with display.
 Projectors: it is an output device which provides a temporary softcopy output. It is used
to project information from a computer on to a large screen. It can be simultaneously
viewed by a large group of people.
@ Storage Devices
Storage devices are hardware that designed to store information or data. There are two types of
storage devices. These are: 1. Primary Storage Devices
2. Secondary Storage Devices.

 Primary Storage Devices: - It is part of the main computer system. Processor directly
stores and retrieves information from it. The processor accesses the primary memory in
random fashion, that is, the processor access any location of this memory either to
reading formation from it or to store information in it.There are two types of Primary
Storage Devices:
a) Random Access Memory (RAM)
b) Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM): - The Memory Unit is known as the main memory or
primary memory or internal memory or Random Access Memory (RAM) of the
computer. Memory can be defined as ‘Descriptive of a device or medium that can accept
data, hold them and deliver them, on demand at a later time. Data recorded in memory
remain there as long as electrical current is available to sustain the memory pattern of
‘+ve’ and ‘-ve’ charges. If power drops information stored in memory is destroyed. That
is, if power is off, information stored in memory will be destroyed. That is why, main
memories are said to be volatile. The main memory is nothing but a sequence of storage
locations or cells for storing huge amount of data.
 Read Only Memory (ROM): - There is also another type of Memory called Read Only
Memory (ROM). Information once stored cannot be modified. Information stored in this
memory can be used only for reading purpose. Hence, the name Read Only Memory.

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 ROM is also called as BIOS (BASIC INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM). All type of ROM are
called FIRMWARE - that is, Software built into the Hardware.
 Secondary Storage Devices: - The Memory which can store data or information
permanently for future use is called secondary storage devices. Normally, these
secondary storage devices are very huge in storage capacity and economical when
compared to the main memory or RAM. Examples of secondary storage devices are:
Hard disks, Magnetic Tapes. CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory), Floppy
Disks, Etc.
 Hard Disks: - are also called as Non-removable disk or Rigid Disk fixed inside the
computer. It can contain more volume of data. Hard disks are available in many sizes
such as: 15GB, 20GB, 40GB, 80GB, 120GB, 160GB [today] onwards. The following
terms are used to denote the capacity of the memory
 Bit – Binary digit – Either 0 or 1 – Smallest unit of measurement.
 Byte – Group of 8 Bits is called a Byte.
The memory capacity is generally expressed in multiples of Byte.
 Kilo Byte (KB) – 1024 Bytes make 1 KB.
 Mega Byte (MB) – 1024 KB make 1 MB – 1 Million Bytes.
 Giga Byte (GB) – 1024 MB make 1 GB – 1 Billion Bytes.
 Tera Byte (TB) – 1024 GB make 1 TB – 1 Trillion Bytes.

Computer Software
The computer hardware is an electronic device which has the potential of performing
the task of solving a problem. However one has to give precise instructions to the
hardware in order to solve problem.
The finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given job is
called a program.
Any program to be executed first it should reside / loaded/ in the memory.
Software:- is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing a
task using a computer. Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures.
Software makes the interface between the user and the electronic components of the computer.

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 USER
Software
Hardware

Computer software is classified into two

1. System software
2. Application software
2.1.2 System software
 Constitutes those programs which facilitates the work of the computer hardware.
 It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the input/output devices.
 It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have to or are unable to
handle.
 System programs make complex hardware more user friendly.
 It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
 It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means of
communication between user and a computer.

The important categories of system software are:

a). Operating system
b). Language software

A). Operating system

Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. An operating
system has three major functions.
i. Controlling operations (control program)
 Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the computer system.
 Decides where programs and data should be stored in the computer memory.
 Handles communications among the computer components, applications software and the user.
 Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and from disks in the disk drive.

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  It performs all its controlling tasks without the involvement or awareness of the user.
ii. Input/output Management
 The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world, flow of data to
the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the key board or other
input devices.
 Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
 Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task of a file.

iii. Command Processing ( command Interpreter)

 It interprets the commands or what you enter using the keyboard or other input devices.
 If you write an internal command it carries out the function of that command if it is external
command or other executable file it searches for the corresponding file in the default (current
disk) or the user specified disk, loads the file into memory and transfers control to that program.
Once this program is terminated, control returns to command.com and the program for that
command or file is discarded from memory.

Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems can be classified by:
 The number of programs they can handle at a time and
 The number of users they serve at once at one or different stations (i.e. terminals or micro-
computers connected to a central computer).

i. Single tasking operating systems

 With single tasking operating systems only one program can be run on a computer at a time.
 In order to run another program, one must remove the first program loaded in the computers
main memory and load the other one(i.e. it can’t handle two or more programs at a time)
 These types of operating systems are single user or can serve only one user at a time.
 Example DOS

ii. Multi user operating system

 It supports a number of work stations connected to a central system.

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  A number of users can use the resources of one high capacity computer by the help of terminals.
 Example Windows 2000

iii. Real Time Operating System

 A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that the results are available
to influence the activity currently taking place.
Example: - Air plane seat reservations and computer controlled plant.
- Its primary characteristics are that it responds to an event within a well-defined
time.

B). Language Software.

- Are software which are used by programmers to develop application software and
translate programs to machine code.
- Language software is a generic name consisting of various programs that serve as
editors & translators to develop programs in a number of programming languages.

2.2.2 Application Software

 Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area or areas. But for use in more
than one installation.
 Are usually called application packages as they may include a number of programs along with
operating instruction, documentation and so forth.
 Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the following.
1. Word Processors/ Word processing
- Is a computerized typewriter which permits the electronic creation, editing,
formatting, filing and printing text.
- Is the most common application of microcomputers.
- Until recently, word processing could be done only dedicated word processors. A
dedicated word processor is a computer that denies its users the opportunity to
execute any other program.

Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word

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2. Spreadsheet
- is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU.
- Until recently, financial analysis and other mathematical calculation were done by
entering numbers on pages of an accountants ruled ledger pad.
- You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels,
numbers & formulas.
- Using the programs built-in function you can perform complicated calculations
such as net percent value, internal rates of return, and monthly payments on a loan.
Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, Quatro-pro

3. Database management system.

- Allow you to store information on a computer, retrieve it when you need it and
update it when necessary.
- You can do this with index cards, but database management programs do them
more quickly and easily.
- Example: You can store large mailing list, inventory record or billing and
collect information in lists stored in files and manipulate this information, one
file at a time with database management program.
- You can record or create a database about employee information as

Name sex Marital status salary Date of Birth

Date of employment Post Department Level of education
Field of study etc.

Example: Dbase IV, FoxPro, Microsoft Access.

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