energies

Article
Magneto-Thermo-Structural Analysis of Power Transformers
under Inrush and Short Circuit Conditions
Antonio Roniel Marques de Sousa 1, *, Marcus Vinicius Alves Nunes 1 , Wellington da Silva Fonseca 1 ,
Ramon Cristian Fernandes Araujo 1 and Diorge de Souza Lima 2

1 Electrical Engineering Faculty, Institute of Technology, Federal University of Pará,

Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; [email protected] (M.V.A.N.); [email protected] (W.d.S.F.);
[email protected] (R.C.F.A.)
2 Electrical Engineering Faculty, Federal University of South and Southeast of Pará,
Marabá 68507-590, PA, Brazil; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +55-091-9-9816-1709

Abstract: The main equipment responsible for connection and transmission of electric power from
generating centers to consumers are power transformers. This type of equipment is subject to
various types of faults that can affect its components, in some cases also compromising its operation
and, consequently, the electric power supply. Thus, in this paper, electromagnetic, thermal, and
structural analysis of power transformers was carried out with the objective of providing the operator
with information on the ideal moment for performing predictive maintenance, avoiding unplanned
shutdowns. For this, computational simulations were performed using the finite element method





 (FEM) and, from that, the different transformer operation ways, nominal currents, inrush current, and
short-circuit current were analyzed. In this perspective, analyses of the effects that thermal expansion,
Citation: Sousa, A.R.M.d.; Nunes,
axial forces, and radial forces exerted were carried out, contributing to possible defects in this type of
M.V.A.; Fonseca, W.d.S.; Araujo,
equipment. As a study object, simulations were carried out on a 50 MVA single-phase transformer. It
R.C.F.; Lima, D.d.S. Magneto-Thermo-
Structural Analysis of Power
is important to emphasize that the simulations were validated with real data of measurements and
Transformers under Inrush and Short with results presented in the current literature.
Circuit Conditions. Energies 2021, 14,
3266. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: multiphysics analysis; finite elements; transformer; inrush current; fault current
en14113266

Academic Editors: Huseyin Hiziroglu

and Sérgio Cruz 1. Introduction
Considering the great importance of power transformers for energy transmission,
Received: 20 February 2021
several studies have been developed with a focus on the analysis and solution of problems
Accepted: 16 April 2021
that affect this equipment and put the power system reliability at risk. There are several
Published: 3 June 2021
factors that can generate failures in power transformers during their useful life, but this
article will analyze the temperature rise and the deformation of the windings. The increase
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
in the internal temperature in the windings is due to the losses that occur during the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
operation, most commonly caused by the Joule effect. The deformation of the windings is
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
mostly caused by the action of the magnetic forces generated inside the transformer.
A major aggravating factor in transformer failures is the occurrence of transient phe-
nomena. Among the many transient events that cause failures, those caused by inrush
and short-circuit currents are responsible for the majority of operation interruptions in
transformers. The magnitude of inrush current may be as high as 10 times or more of
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
transformer-rated current, which can cause malfunction of protection system [1]. Short-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
circuit currents induce excessive forces in the transformer windings that result in defor-
This article is an open access article
mities in the winding, affecting its mechanical and electrical characteristics [2]. They
distributed under the terms and
also impose several disturbances such as voltage drop, false disconnections of protection
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
devices, and mechanical stresses in the transformer windings [3].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
The correct distinction among the many types of faults is also essential for the correct
4.0/). operation of transformer protection systems. In Yazdani et al. [4], the authors developed

Energies 2021, 14, 3266. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113266 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 3266 2 of 19

an artificial intelligence-based algorithm of protection systems for distinguishing among

the types of transformer faults. Bayesian classifiers and artificial neural networks are used
in conjunction to discriminate the system’s current condition as normal, internal fault,
magnetizing inrush currents, over-excitation, and current transformer saturation.
Power transformers are required to withstand short-circuit currents without suffering
thermal or mechanical damage, and after the fault is eliminated, they must cool down
back to normal temperature at rated load. The design of more fault-tolerant transformers
is essential to meeting these goals. In Yazdani et al. [5], the authors designed, fabricated,
and tested a monophase transformer with fault current limitation, extended withstand
time, and improved recovery capabilities. Those improvements were obtained in part
due to liquid nitrogen subcooling and the use of high-temperature superconducting (HTS)
wires insulated with thermal insulating solid polymer. In Yazdani et al. [6] reports heat
transfer measurements relevant to the design of HTS transformer windings. Among its
findings, one can find that the subcooled liquid nitrogen significantly increased boiling
heat transfer compared to saturated vapor pressure (SVP), and that for HTS windings, solid
insulation presented better thermal properties compared to paper insulation. With the
high and increasing values of capitalized loss in several power transformers, electric utility
companies are continuously re-evaluating the cost/performance characteristics of their
grid system, with special attention to transformer designs. In addition, thermal analysis
plays an important role in these cases since the thermal behavior of the transformer is a
key component in the analysis of life expectancy [7].
An alternative to minimize these costs is computational modeling through the finite
element method (FEM), which can assist transformers manufacturers in their design phase
without requiring the fabrication of prototypes. They can be used by manufacturers to find
faults that can shorten the life of the electromagnetic device [8].
Several works within the scientific society effectively show how the FEM can be
used to indicate points of improvement in transformers such in Zhang et al. [9], which
presents investigations of short-circuit current, electromagnetic force, and transient dy-
namic response of winding deformation, including mechanical stress, deformation, and
displacements for a 220 kV oil-immersed power transformer, considering the nonlinear
elasticity characteristic of the spacers, the results of dynamic mechanical stress, and defor-
mation induced by the combination of short-circuit and pre-force—efforts that are useful
for the design of the transformer and fault diagnosis. In Zhao et al. [10], continuously
transposed conductors (CTC) are analyzed, introducing a local asymmetry in the trans-
former windings, and the failure analysis shows that building an asymmetric structure in
transformers increases the risk of deformation in these windings, with the results indicating
that the transposition structure distorts the distribution of the magnetic field by increasing
the maximum amplitude of the radial magnetic flux density in the transposition structure
and that the initial stage of the elevation segment in height of the CTC is a weak point and
should be strengthened in the process of manufacturing.
The use of FEM simulations is one of the best cost-effective alternatives to solve engi-
neering problems. However, to obtain results increasingly closer to physical reality, simula-
tions must consider the coupling between several physical phenomena (multiphysics), as
demonstrated in Fonseca et al. and Yana et al. [11,12].
The use of numerical simulations via FEM to analyze different phenomena in trans-
formers such as electromagnetic, thermal, structural, fluid, acoustic, and vibration, among
others, is well established. For example, one can accurately estimate the dispersion of the
magnetic field density in the transformer and find the values of the forces in the axial and
radial directions that cause structural deformation in the windings [13]. In Wang et al. [14],
the cumulative stress–strain characteristics of transformer windings were analyzed using
a 3D FEM coupled electromagnetic structural analysis solution in a two-winding 110 kV
transformer. From the results of the analysis, we verified that the characteristics of the
material of the transformer winding and the state of tension can determine the shape of the
winding deformation, as well as the type and the extent of the deformation.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 3 of 19

The application of FEM makes it possible to analyze complex phenomena in an

efficient way, such as in Gołebiowski et al. [15], where the losses due to eddy currents in
laminated magnetic nuclei were analyzed. However, despite the fact that FEM presented
fairly coherent results, it was necessary to couple different physical phenomena in order to
more accurately represent what happened in the equipment, as well as in couplings such
as electromagnetic-structural, electromagnetic-thermal, and thermal-fluid, among others.
Another form of coupling is presented in Zhang et al. [16], where a 500 kV 2D fi-
nite element elec-tromagnetic-mechanical coupling model was developed to analyze the
transient failure process, considering the resistance–temperature relationship and plastic
displacement in thermal systems and mechanical winding characteristics.
Several coupling methodologies are already being studied, such as the one presented
in Wang et al. [17], a magneto-structural coupling for the short-circuit condition using
finite elements, considering the nonlinear characteristics of the spacers in order to assess
the distribution of magnetic forces over the windings and deformations generated using a
110 kV transformer as the object of study.
Another coupling methodology was used in Li et al. and Gong et al. [18,19] in
order to evaluate the temperature distribution of the transformer winding, since local
heating can accelerate the aging of insulating materials. In these works, a magneto-fluid-
thermal coupling model was developed to calculate the temperature rise and predict
the potential critical points of a simplified 2500 kVA dry-type power transformer and a
220 kV transformer.
In Zhang et al. [20], a method was developed to analyze the buckling resistance
of transformer windings on the basis of the electromagnetic thermal structure coupling
method. The influence of plastic deformation and the thermal effect on the final load of
instability is considered in a three-phase dry type transformer, where thermal analysis was
developed in 2D and the others in 3D.
Coupling methodologies also involve the interaction between different numerical
methods in order to consolidate the results even more precisely, such as the coupling
shown in Lima et al. [21], where the trapezoidal method coupled to the FEM was used to
analyze the phenomenon of solidary energization in a three-phase bank formed by three
single-phase transformers.
Most of the works involve only two physical domains, such as electromagnetic-
thermal, electromagnetic-structural, thermal-fluid, and thermal-structural; the few works
that currently combine three physical domains in computer simulations use in at least one
of the stages the simulations in 2D. Unlike previous research, in this work, a coupling was
made between three different physical domains, magnetic-thermal-structural, where in all
stages 3D modeling was used for greater precision and detail of the results.
In this way, using a 50 MVA transformer as a study tool, we developed a 3D magnetic-
thermal-structural analysis via FEM, considering the nominal current, the inrush current,
and the short-circuit current to evaluate the heating and the mechanical deformation of the
windings. All simulation results were compared with measurement data for validation of
the methodology.

2. Materials and Methods

Before presenting the results obtained in this work and the scientific contributions, we
present a synthesis of physical and numerical parameters used to develop this research,
depicting some of the main equations used.

2.1. Finite Element Method

FEM is a numerical method used to solve complex problems by calculating the nodal
energy potential. To apply such methodology, one must divide the complex problem into
simpler subproblems (Figure 1); these simpler subproblems take the form of a geometrical
element defined according to the problem to be studied—in the case of this research, the
tetrahedral element.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 4 of 19

Figure 1. Basic definition of the FEM: (a) complex geometric problem (b) discretization of the problem,
(c) simple geometry (tetrahedric).

One of the main elements used for three-dimensional problems is the tetrahedral
element; this element has four nodes, and the point calculation of the nodal potentials can
be defined by (1).

Vi ( x, y, z) = ai + bi · x + ci · y + di · z i = 1, 2, 3, 4 (1)

From the Cartesian coordinates of the four nodes of each element, one can also
calculate the potential according to (2), where D is the determinant of the matrix formed by
the coordinates of the element [22].
4
1
V ( x, y, z) = ∑ ( a + bi · x + ci · y + di · z)Vi
6D i
(2)
i=1

For the derivation of the shape functions, using the tetrahedral elements, one must use
volumetric coordinates, since to model 3D problems, the volume is a quantity to be taken
into account; in this way, the Cartesian coordinates can be interpolated through the volume
coordinates. To integrate any generic function f(x, y, z) over the entire tetrahedral element,
be it in the electromagnetic, thermal, or structural domain, this integration is performed in
the reference element according to (3) [23].
y Z 1 Z 1− L Z 1− L − L2
1 1
f ( x, y, z) dxdydz = f ( L1 , L2 , L3 )(detJr )dL1 dL2 dL3 (3)
Ωe 0 0 0

where L1 , L2 , L3 are volume coordinates of the element, and Jr is the Jacobian matrix
needed for the transformation from the volumetric coordinate system to the Cartesian
coordinate system.

2.2. Magnetic Modeling

The analysis of electromagnetic devices, as in the case of transformers, requires knowl-
edge of electromagnetic phenomena in interior and in the region around the device [24].
To do this, Maxwell’s equations are used, which describe the relations between electromag-
netic quantities, allowing for temporal and spatial analysis of these types of equipment.
To solve the problem addressed in this work, we applied the magnetic scalar potential
to solve (4).
→ →
rot H = J (4)
Equation (4) describes the Ampere‘s law in its stationary form and is one of the
equations that represent the set of Maxwell equations, where presents the relation of the
→ →
rotational of magnetic field H with current density J . Defining a potential Ψ, derived from
→
the magnetic field H, one can arrive at the following relationship [25]:
→
H = − grad Ψ (5)
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 5 of 19

→ → → →
Substituting the magnetostatic equations div B = 0 and B = µ H, where B is
magnetic flux density and µ is the magnetic permeability of the medium, into formula (5),
we obtain
div µ grad Ψ = 0 (6)
Applying the Galerkin method, we obtain the following relationship [26]:
x
N t [div µ grad Ψ] ds = 0 (7)
S

where
x I x
N t div µ grad Ψ · ds = N t µ grad Ψ · dl − µ grad Ψ grad N t · ds (8)
S L(S) S

The first integral on the right side of (8) corresponds to the boundary conditions of the
problem. Calculating the terms for the discretized domain,
Z 1 Z 1− v
− grad N t · µ grad N Ψ det( Jr )dudv (9)
0 0

This way, the formulation for the problem of the magnetic scalar potential is defined.

2.3. Calculation of Losses in Transformer Windings

The total losses PTot , which results in higher temperatures in transformers, are gen-
erated for two kinds of losses that occur during their operation: losses in iron Pi and in
copper Pc . The total loss that occurs in a transformer can be defined from the sum of these
distinct losses.
PTot = Pi + Pc (10)
However, for the development of this work, only losses of copper Pc , which occurs
due to the joule effect, will be considered.
The heat flow static problems address by FEM are heat conduction problems. These
problems are represented by a temperature gradient, G, and heat flux density, F [27]. The
heat flux density must obey Gauss’ Law, which says that the heat flux out of any closed
volume is equal to the heat generation within the volume; this law is represented in
differential form as
div · F = q (11)
where q represents volume heat generation.
Temperature gradient and heat flux density are also related to one another via the
constitutive relationship:
F = kG (12)
where (k) is the thermal conductivity.
FEM allows for the variation of conductivity as an arbitrary function of tempera-
ture. Usually, the goal is to find the temperature, T, rather than the heat flux density or
temperature gradient. Temperature is related to the temperature gradient by

G = − grad T (13)

Substituting (13) into Gauss’ Law and applying the constitutive relationship yields
the second-order partial differential equation:

− div · (k grad T ) = q (14)

FEM solves (14) for temperature T over a user-defined domain with user-defined heat
sources and boundary conditions.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 6 of 19

As in this work the losses by joule effect is modeled as a function of the current density,
J, the heat generation can be defined as follows [25]:

J2
q = (15)
σ
where σ is the electrical conductivity of the material, ω is the angular frequency, and the
current density can be defined taking into account the magnetic vector potential A [28].

J = jωσA (16)

The eddy current loss is written in terms of the current density as

x 1
Pc = J 2 dxdy (17)
σ
Ω

If A corresponds to the peak value of the vector potential, then the loss in a first order
triangle will be
1 x
Pc = J · J ∗ dxdy (18)
2σ
∆

J∗
where J is the current density, is the complex conjugate of the current density, σ is the
electrical conductivity of the material, and ∆ is the determinant of the matrix formed by
the coordinates of the element. Since A varies linearly over the element, then by (16) so
does J; therefore [29],

1 

J = ( ai + bi x + ci y) Ji + a j + b j x + c j y Jj + ( ak + bk x + ck y) Jk (19)
2∆
Substituting into (18)
s
Pc = 12 1 2 {( ai + bi x + ci y) Ji + ( a j + b j x + c j y) Jj + ( ak + bk x + ck y) Jk }
4σ∆
∆ (20)
 ∗
· ( ai + bi x + ci y) Ji + ( a j + b j x + c j y) Jj + ( ak + bk x + ck y) Jk dxdy

Solving the integral, we have

∆  2 2
  
PC = | J | + Jj + | Jk |2 + Ji Jj∗ + Ji Jk∗ + Jk Jj∗ (21)
12σ i
This way, it is possible to determine the losses as a function of current density in the
coil of transformer.

2.4. Calculation of Electromagnetic Forces in Windings

In the structural model, the objective of this work is to analyze the forces acting on
transformer windings, which at high values can critically deform the internal structure of
→
windings. According to the electrodynamic theory, force density f in a given volume of a
transformer winding can be defined by the following equation [30,31].
→ → →
f M = J ×B (22)
→ →
where the magnetic force density f M is related to the current density J and the magnetic
→
flux of dispersion B in the winding; however, the dispersion field decomposes into two
components, one axial and one radial, at the lower and upper ends of the windings.
Figure 2 illustrates this decomposition of the magnetic dispersion flow.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 7 of 19

Figure 2. Direction of the magnetic field in the windings by a transformer. Recreated from [31].

The previous equation can be decomposed into the following relations:

→ → →
f Ax = J × B Ra
→ → → (23)
f Ra = J × B Ax
→ →
The axial force density f Ax is related to the radial magnetic flux B Ra , and the axial
→ →
force density f Ra is related to the axial flux B Ax .
Radial forces are produced by the magnetic flux density of axial dispersion, presenting
different behaviors for the external and internal windings. The value of the axial dispersion
magnetic flux density increases from zero in the outermost region of the high voltage
winding to a maximum value in the inner diameter (in the interval between the two
windings). Therefore, the magnetic flux density of dispersion at the midpoint between the
windings can be determined by (24) [32]
√
2 µ0 N Ir
Ba = (24)
hw

where Ba is the magnetic flux density of axial dispersion, N is the number of turns in the
winding, Ir is the nominal current of the winding, hw is the height of the winding, and µ0
is the vacuum permeability.
Therefore, the radial force on a medium diameter winding can be determined by (25)
as follows [32]:
2π 2 ( N Ir )2 Dm
FR = (25)
hw
where Fr is the total radial force in the winding and Dm is the average diameter in the
winding.
As for the axial forces, the analytical calculations in a transformer with concentric
windings are not simple or precise regarding the calculation of the magnetic flux density
of radial dispersion. However, there are methods that provide approximate results, but
the axial forces must be analyzed in two distinct ways, designated as ideal and non-ideal
conditions [33].
In the ideal condition, the transformers have a uniform distribution of magnetomotive
forces in concentric windings of equal length. For this condition, the sum of axial compres-
sion close to the midpoint for the external and internal windings can be obtained directly,
according to (26) [34,35]

2π 2 ( N Ir )2
 
d1 + d2
FR = ( π Dm ) d 0 + 10−7 (26)
hw 3
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 8 of 19

where N Ir is the magnetomotive force of the windings; Dm is the average diameter of the
transformer windings, considering the two windings; hw is the height of the windings; d0
is the space between the windings; and d1 and d2 are the radial thicknesses of the external
and internal windings, respectively.
For the non-ideal condition, there is a significant increase in axial force in these
circumstances. Axial forces present greater complexity for the solution through analytical
methods. This occurs mainly because of the difficulty in taking into account the curvature
of the windings and the presence of the ferromagnetic core [34]. Thus, the density of the
mean radial flow in the mean diameter of the transformer is given by (27).

2πa( N Imax ) −4
Br = 10 (27)
he f f

where he f f is effective length of the radial flow, a is the conductor length, and Imax is the
nominal winding current.
The axial force on the other winding of the (N Imax ) maximum ampere-turns trans-
former can be determined by means of (28) [36]

2π 2 a( N Imax )2 Dm −7
Fa = 10 (28)
he f f

The action of these forces on the windings in nominal operating conditions already
exert a mechanical stress on the windings, and during the occurrence of a transient phe-
nomenon, this stress worsens, further generating deformations in the windings.
The action of radial and axial forces causes different deformations in the windings.
The axial force deforms the windings by compressing the upper and lower ends (Figure 3a).
The radial force acts more intensely at half the height of the windings, expanding the outer
winding and compressing the inner winding (Figure 3b).

Figure 3. Behavior of forces in the transformer winding: (a) axial, (b) radial.

The mathematical relationship to determine the deformation (in percentage of elonga-

tion) of a body in the elastic regime is obtained according to (29) [37].

l f − l0 ∆l
ε = = (29)
l0 l0

where ε is the deformation suffered; ∆l is the elongation suffered; and l f − l0 are the final
and initial lengths for the elongation, respectively.

3. Main Transients in Transformers

Transient phenomena may occur at various times during operation or during energiz-
ing of the transformers. These events are configured to raise the peak values of nominal
currents in the machine to high levels. The main transients include short-circuit currents
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 9 of 19

and inrush currents. Each phenomenon has specific effects, consequences, and durations
as follows.

3.1. Inrush
The energizing current has a high initial peak value, as illustrated by Figure 4, and
may exceed the peak current of rated current by as much as 20 times. Although this current
typically appears during the energization of the transformer, other transients that occur in
the circuit may cause this transient current to appear.

Figure 4. Waveform characteristic of the inrush current.

Therefore, in order to mathematically determine the behavior of the inrush current as

a function of time, one can use (30) [38,39]:
−R −R
   
N ( 1 t) R ( 1 t)
i1 = 1 −φmp cos(ωt + θ ) + φmp cos(θ )e L1 ± 1 φr e L1 (30)
L1 L1

where φmp is the maximum magnetic flux; φr is the residual flow; θ is the angle at the switch-
ing instant; N1 is the number of turns of the winding; and R1 and L1 are the resistances
and inductances of the primary winding, respectively.
However, there are other ways to calculate the peaks of the static inrush current, where
the maximum peak is calculated and then coefficients are used to determine the decay of
the waveform, in order to determine the current value of the first peak, as in (31):


2Bmp + Br − 2.03 Ac hw
i0 max = (31)
µ0 Aw N1

where Bmp is the projected steady-state flux density value in the core, Br is the residual flux
density, Ac is the cross-sectional area of the core, Aw is the mean area of a winding loop,
and µ0 is the magnetic permeability of vacuum.
In this paper, only the first peak of the inrush condition was analyzed, which is the
most critical case for transformers.

3.2. Short-Circuit
Short-circuit currents, besides being one of the most frequent causes of faults in
transformers, are also among the faults that present greater severity in terms of impact on
the structures of transformers support. Under the action of a short-circuit, the dispersion
flux density increases significantly and, therefore, the forces acting on the windings also
increase [30]. Figure 5 illustrates the characteristic curve of the short-circuit current.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 10 of 19

Figure 5. Characteristic curve of the short-circuit current.

For simplification of empirical short-circuit calculations, the impedances of static

components such as transmission lines, cables, reactors, and transformers are assumed to
be time-invariant. Ignoring these effects and assuming that the transformer impedance (Z)
is time-invariant during a short-circuit, the transient and steady-state currents are given by
the differential equation of the R − L circuit with an applied sinusoidal voltage [40]:

di
L + Ri = Em sin(ωt + θ ) (32)
dt
where L is the inductance, R is the resistance, Em is the peak source voltage, ω = 2π f is
the angular frequency, f is the frequency of the AC source, and θ is the angle on the voltage
wave at which the fault occurs. The solution of this differential equation is given by
− Rt
i = Im sin(ωt + θ − φ) − Im sin(θ − φ)e L (33)

where Im is the maximum steady-state current, given by Em /Z, and the angle φ =
tan−1 (ωL)/R. The transient current, given by the second term of (33), can be called a
DC component and it decays at an exponential rate. Equation (33) can be simply written as
− Rt
i = Im sin(ωt) + Idc e L (34)

Although the short-circuit current presents this transient behavior, in this work, only
the maximum current point of this Icc phenomenon in a transformer will be analyzed; it
can be calculated by (35) [26]. √
k 2 Sn 106
Icc = √ (35)
3V Z
where k is the asymmetry factor of short-circuit current, Sn is the nominal power of the
transformer in MVA, V is the phase-to-phase nominal voltage of the transformer, and Z is
the impedance of the transformer.

4. Results
The finite element method (FEM) has multiple applications; however, for the present
paper, three different types of analysis coupling three different physical domains (magnetic,
thermal, and structural) were carried out with three different modes of operation (nominal,
inrush, and short-circuit) of a 50 MVA transformer. The simulations were developed using
the Ansys Workbench commercial software, a computational tool widely used in academia
to develop numerical FEM simulations. The analyses developed in this work are described
in the following topics.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 11 of 19

4.1. Transformer Data

The object of the study was a single-phase 50 MVA transformer connected to a three-
phase bank that is in operation in Northern Brazil, as illustrated in Figure 6. Its factory
characteristics are listed in Table 1.

Figure 6. Three-phase bench mounted by three single-phase transformers. Recreated from [21].

Table 1. Characteristics of the 50 MVA transformer.

Windings
Characteristics
External Internal
Inner diameter (mm) 1406 1096
External diameter (mm) 1599 1262
Axial height (mm) 2080 2080
Radial height (mm) 96 83
Number of turns 572 191
Frequency (Hz) 60 60
Power (MVA) 50 50
Phase voltage (kV) 132.80 39.84
Phase current (A) 376.55 1255.12
Connection Star Star

For the construction of the modeling of the transformer used in this work, we took into
account the B-H curve of the ferromagnetic material, where the 1008 cylindrical steel was
used, with a packing factor of 0.72. Copper was used to model the windings, in addition to
following all the geometric parameters in Table 1.
From the transformer board data, we developed a computational model according to
construction parameters. This model is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Computational model of the transformer used in simulations.

Energies 2021, 14, 3266 12 of 19

4.2. Simulation in Nominal Operation

In the first moment, the modeling of the transformer under analysis was developed,
and then the nominal operating current was inserted as a source of excitation for the
electromagnetic analysis. After the solution of the electromagnetic equations, the losses by
Joule effect were collected as results. These losses were inserted in a thermal simulation
through a coupling, where it was possible to determine the temperature distribution along
the transformer windings, as shown in Figure 8. Then, the temperature values obtained
were compared with temperature values measured directly inside the transformer at the
same time that the current values were collected to validate the developed thermo-magnetic
coupling methodology.

Figure 8. Thermo-magnetic coupling.

As shown previously, the losses due to the Joule effect occur as a function of the
current density, and thus this type of coupling is necessary to give more precision to the
results since the losses are not evenly distributed along the transformer windings.
Considering that the main sources of heat in the transformers are the losses and the
Joule effect, we initially performed magnetic simulations by inserting as input data the
currents of 131.8 A in the external winding and 421.1 A in the internal winding; these
current values were collected directly from the machine in operation.
Figure 9 shows the ohmic losses in the transformer windings from these results, and,
using coupled simulations, the calculated losses were entered as a boundary condition for
the thermal simulation.

Figure 9. Ohmic losses during nominal operation: (a) in external winding, (b) in internal winding.

After conducting the electromagnetic simulation for the nominal operating condi-
tion, we found that the losses in the internal winding (Figure 9b) were higher than the
losses in the external winding (Figure 9a), thus describing what happens physically in the
transformer.
In the sequence, the thermal simulation of the transformer was performed to estimate
the temperature of the windings. Ohmic losses calculated in the electromagnetic simulation
were inserted in the boundary condition as a heat source; copper emissivity of 0.018,
ambient temperature of northern Brazil in the amount of 35 ◦ C, and thermal conversion
coefficient were also considered in the amount of 9 W/m2 ◦ C.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 13 of 19

In this way, it was possible to determine the temperatures of the transformer windings
for the nominal operating condition, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Heat flow in the windings (a) in external winding, (b) in internal winding.

Analyzing the results of the thermal simulation, we were able to observe that the
temperatures in the internal winding (Figure 10b) were higher than the temperatures in
the external winding (Figure 10a); this was due to the fact that the losses in the internal
winding were higher than the losses in the external winding.
In order to validate the computational methodology used in this work, we compared
the data obtained with data collected directly from the equipment in nominal operation
(Table 2).

Table 2. Comparison of thermal data.

Windings
Temperature (◦ C)
External Internal
Measurement 52.0 53.1
Simulation 41.7 43.7
Margin of error 19.8% 17.7%

Table 2 shows the summary of the comparison between the thermal data. On the basis
of this comparison, one can conclude that the methodology used for the simulations was
valid, even having presented a significant margin of error between the values obtained in
the simulation and the values measured by temperature sensors in the transformer.
When analyzing the data in Table 2, we were able to observe that the temperature
values of the windings measured by sensors were higher than the temperature values
found in the simulation. This was due to the fact that in the simulations developed in this
work, oil temperatures and losses in the transformer core were not considered, whereas the
transformer sensors captured the temperature of the transformer oil and used an analytical
methodology to estimate the temperature of the windings.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 14 of 19

4.3. Simulation with Inrush Current

In the second case, the same modeling of the transformer was used; however, in
this case, the maximum peak value of the inrush current was applied as the energizing
current for the electromagnetic simulation. After processing, the axial and radial forces
generated in the external winding were collected as a result, as shown in Figure 11. Then,
the calculated forces were inserted as a boundary condition in the structural simulation
through the magneto-structural coupling, where it was possible to determine the radial
deformation in the external winding. The deformation results found were compared
with results found in the literature in order to validate the magneto-structural coupling
methodology developed in this work.

Figure 11. Magneto-structural coupling.

Once the thermal part methodology was validated, simulations were performed,
considering more severe operating conditions in order to analyze the deformation caused
by the action of magnetic forces inside the machine.
Figure 12 shows the results obtained in magnetic simulation for inrush current opera-
tion, in which case a current of 1733.1 A was used in the external winding.

Figure 12. Magnetic flux density: (a) radial, (b) axial.

From the axial and radial magnetic flux density, we were able to calculate the radial and
axial forces, respectively. The calculated forces were entered as a boundary condition for
the structural simulation in order to estimate winding deformation, as shown in Figure 13.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 15 of 19

Figure 13. Deformation of the external winding.

For the inrush condition, only the external winding was energized, and thus there
was only the generation of electromagnetic forces in one of the windings.
Observing the results of the structural simulation, we obtained the value of 6.4 × 10−3
mm as the maximum radial strain. The values found in this stage of the simulations were
higher than the values found in the literature, as for example in Fonseca et al. [13], where
a similar methodology was used with the same equipment under the same operating
conditions. However, in Fonseca et al. [13], the electromagnetic stage was modeled in 2D,
while in this work the electromagnetic part was modeled in 3D.
The difference between the results can be justified in Feng et al. [41], where the author
compared simulation computational results in 2D and 3D and showed that, even with
acceptable values, 3D simulations always present values higher than 2D results. This
is because in 2D models, a simplification is used in geometries that present an axis of
symmetry in addition to the use of a depth coefficient to approximate the model, whereas
in 3D cases, the problem is fully modeled in the three dimensions.
Therefore, the methodology for the simulations can be considered valid.

4.4. Simulation with Short-Circuit Current

One of the main contributions developed in this article that is characterized by per-
forming a 3D multiphysics analysis of a power transformer for the short-circuit condition
coupling electromagnetic-thermal-structural phenomena. After validating the previous
coupling methodologies, we built a new methodology based on the previous ones—
however, in this case, using the maximum peak current of the short-circuit current as
the excitation source.
Using the same modeling of the transformer shown above and inserting the short-
circuit current as a source of excitation for the electromagnetic simulation, after processing,
we extracted the Joule losses and axial and radial forces as results. In the sequence, the
losses calculated in the electromagnetic analysis were inserted in the thermal simulation
as a boundary condition, where it was possible to determine the temperature distribution
along the windings of the transformer, and it was also possible to determine the thermal
expansion suffered by the windings due to the high temperatures. Finally, a structural
analysis was coupled to the set where the axial and radial forces calculated in the elec-
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 16 of 19

tromagnetic analysis and the thermal expansion calculated in the thermal analysis were
inserted as a boundary condition. In this way, it was possible to reach a more precise
structural deformation of the windings to the transformer since these consider electro-
magnetic and thermal elements that directly influence the structure of the transformer.
The developed scheme for coupling the electromagnetic, thermal, and structural physical
domains is illustrated in Figure 14.

Figure 14. Magneto-thermo-structural coupling.

As the last condition for the simulations of this work, short-circuit currents were
adopted, a requirement that is considered to be one of the most severe among transients.
Under these conditions, currents with amplitudes of 8979 A were adopted in the external
winding and 34,586 A in the internal winding, where the following results were obtained.
Like the previous step, in the electromagnetic simulation, the current density was
calculated in windings during the maximum peak of a short-circuit; due to Joule losses,
these high-current values flowing through a conductor cause extreme heating inside the
equipment, as shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Temperatures inside the transformer during a short-circuit (a) in external winding, (b) in
internal winding.

Analyzing the temperature shown in Figure 15, we were able to see how critical a
short-circuit is to a transformer, reaching temperatures that can break insulation or even
melt winding discs. At this point, it is important to note that the current protection system
should quickly isolate the fault, preventing the equipment’s temperature from reaching
these extremely high levels. In this paper, this protection was not considered exactly for
demonstrating the temperature level that can be reached if the protection system fails,
which would certainly lead the transformer to irreparable damage.
In addition to current density, the magnetic simulations provide the determination of
magnetic forces generated inside the transformer during short-circuit. From the magnetic
forces and using coupled simulations, we determined the deformation suffered due to the
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 17 of 19

interaction of magnetic forces and thermal expansion due to the heating. The joint action
of all these factors resulted in the deformation illustrated in Figure 16.

Figure 16. Total deformation due to the action of magnetic forces and thermal expansion (a) in
external winding, (b) in internal winding.

According to Figure 16, it is possible to observe that the deformation was more critical
in the external winding; considering that the two previous conditions were validated, the
results obtained in this step can be considered valid. Although the maximum deformation
achieved reached 2.15 mm, this would already be enough to break the insulation and
drastically compromise the operation of the transformer.

5. Conclusions
In this work, several analyses were developed combining electromagnetic, thermal,
and structural phenomena using the FEM to analyze the behavior of a 50 MVA transformer
operating with nominal current, inrush current, and short-circuit current.
1. Initially the transformer was simulated using a thermo-magnetic methodology and
considering the nominal operating current. The results obtained were compared with
values measured by sensors to validate the methodology.
2. In the second case, a magneto-structural methodology was used to simulate the
same equipment; however, in this case, the maximum peak of the inrush current was
considered as a source of excitation. Even though the results obtained in this step
were higher than the results found in the literature, this difference is perfectly justified
in view of the way in which this methodology was constructed.
3. In the last step of the methodology of this work, a magneto-thermo-structural method-
ology was developed where the 50 MVA transformer was simulated considering
the maximum peak of the short-circuit current as an operating condition. In this
case, it was considered the most severe case that can occur in the transformers. The
results found showed internal temperatures that can melt the contours, in addition to
deformations that can easily break the insulation of the turns to the transformer.
4. The methodology used in this work is very promising and the results obtained
describe a projection for the physical behavior of the transformer; however, there
are still points to be improved in future works, such as the use of this coupling
methodology in transient analyses considering the operation curves, as well as the
variation of the phenomena over time.
Energies 2021, 14, 3266 18 of 19

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F., R.C.F.A., and D.d.S.L.;

methodology, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F., and D.d.S.L.; software, A.R.M.d.S., W.d.S.F., and
D.d.S.L.; validation, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., and W.d.S.F.; formal analysis, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N.,
W.d.S.F., R.C.F.A., and D.d.S.L.; investigation, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F., and D.d.S.L.; resources,
A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F., R.C.F.A., and D.d.S.L.; data curation, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F.,
R.C.F.A., and D.d.S.L.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., and W.d.S.F.;
writing—review and editing, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F., R.C.F.A., and D.d.S.L.; visualization,
A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F., R.C.F.A., and D.d.S.L.; supervision, M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F., and D.d.S.L.;
project administration, M.V.A.N. and W.d.S.F.; funding acquisition, A.R.M.d.S., M.V.A.N., W.d.S.F.,
R.C.F.A., and D.d.S.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Pro-Rectory of Research and Post-Graduate Studies-
PROPESP/UFPA.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

FEM Finite element method

HTS High-temperature superconducting
SVP Saturated vapor pressure
CTC Continuously transposed conductors

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