Unit 3 lecture

NLS, UNIT-III, KARTHIK THIRUMALA JULY 2022
Networks and Linear Systems
Unit – III
Differential equation of translational and rotational systems -
transfer function modeling for simple electrical and mechanical
systems - open loop and closed loop systems –
block diagram representation - Block diagram algebra –
signal flow graph - Mason's gain formula.
Dr. Karthik Thirumala

Email: [email protected]
Reference textbooks:
1) D. Roy Choudhury, ‘Networks and Systems’, New Age International Publications, 1st Edition,
2013.
2) I. J. Nagrath, M. Gopal, ‘Control Systems Engineering’, New Age International Publisher, 6th
edition, 2017.
3) A. Nagoor kani, ‘Control Sytems’, RBA Publications, 3rd Edition, 2017.
1
Lecture - 1
Introduction
System is an interconnection or group of elements or components connected in a sequence to perform
a specific function. The control system is that means by which any quantity of interest or the output in
a system is maintained or controlled in accordance with the desired manner. Control system theory
evolved as an engineering discipline and due to universality of the principle involved, it is extended to
various fields like economy, sociology, medicine, etc. The output quantity is called controlled variable
or response and the input quantity is called command signal or excitation.
The diagrammatic representation of a control system is known as block diagram representation

wherein each block represents an element, a plant, mechanism, device, etc. Each block has an input
and output signal which are linked by a relationship characterizing the block. The signal flow through
the block is unidirectional. Parameters change can be a disturbance. Disturbance is beyond our control
as the characteristics of the signal are unknown to us.
Open Loop System

Any physical system which does not automatically correct for variation in output is called an open
loop system. In these systems, the output remains constant for a constant input signal provided the
external conditions remain unaltered.
In open loop system, the output can be varied by varying the input. But due to external disturbances
the system output may change. When the output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by
changes in input to correct the output. In open loop systems, the changes in output are corrected by
changing the input.
The example for an open loop system is the driving system of an automobile. The input signal is force
and the controlled variable is speed. Another example is traffic light control system where red and
green lights are put on by a timer mechanism set for predetermined fixed intervals of time.
Closed Loop System

Control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in order to maintain the
desired output are called closed loop systems. The information about the instantaneous state of the
output is feedback to the input and is used to modify it in such a manner as to achieve the desired
output.
Control systems involving continuous manual control by a human operator are classified as manually
controlled systems. Example is automobile driving system with human eye’s and brain is the input.
The closed-loop system where human visual and tactile measurements constitute the feedback loop.
Another example is manually operated traffic control system considering varying rate of traffic in a
direction.
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In many complex and fast-acting systems, the presence of human element in the control loop is
undesirable because the system response may be too rapid for an operator to follow or the demand on
the operator’s skill may be unreasonably high. Furthermore, some of the systems. e.g. missiles, are
self-destructive and in such systems human element must be excluded. Even in situations where
manual control could be possible, an economic case can often be made out for reduction of human
supervision. Thus, in most situations the use of some equipment which performs the same intended
function as a continuously employed human operator is preferred. A system incorporating such an
equipment is known as automatic control system. If the provision of feedback automatically corrects
the change in output due to disturbances, such control system is called automatic control system.
The general block diagram of an automatic control
system which is characterized by a feedback loop, is
shown in figure above. The reference signal
corresponds to desired output. An error detector
compares a signal obtained through feedback
elements, which is a function of the output response,
with the reference input. Any difference between
these two signals constitutes an error or actuating
signal, which actuates the control elements. The control elements in turn alter the conditions in the
plant (controlled member) in such a manner as to reduce the original error.
The first automatic control system, the fly-ball governor, was invented by James Watt in 1770 to
control the speed of steam engines. This device is usually prone to hunting.
Note: Unfortunately, the feedback which is the underlying principle of most control systems,
introduces the possibility of undesirable system oscillations.
3
Lecture - 2
Mathematical Models of Physical Systems
A physical system is a collection of physical objects connected together to serve an objective.
Example are governing mechanism of a steam turbine, satellite orbiting around earth,
electronic amplifiers, power system. Examples for non-physical system are economic,
biological or management system. The modeling is restricted to physical systems.
No physical system can be represented in its full physical intricacies and therefore idealizing
assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis and synthesis of physical system.
An idealized physical system is called as physical model. Once a physical model of a
physical system is obtained, the next step is to obtain a mathematical model using physical
laws like Newton’s laws, Kirchhoff’s law, etc. Depending upon the choice of variables and
the coordinate system, a given physical model may lead to different mathematical models.
The mathematical models for most of the physical systems are characterized by differential
equations. After obtaining the mathematical models, transfer function representation, Fourier
transform, Laplace transforms can then be used for linear time-invariant systems.
A control system may be modelled as a scalar differential equation describing the system or
state variable vector-matrix differential equation. When the mathematical model is solved for
various input conditions, the result represents the dynamic response of the system. For
transient response of SISO system, the transfer function representation forms a useful model.
On the other hand, when the system has multiple inputs and multiple outputs (MIMO), the
vector notation may be more convenient.
Unfortunately, no physical system in nature is perfectly linear. Therefore, certain
assumptions are always made to get a linear model. First build a linear model as far as
possible, by ignoring certain nonlinearities and other physical properties which may be
present in the system and thereby get an approximate idea of the dynamic response of a
system; a more complete model is then built for more complete analysis.
We shall in first step build the physical model of a system as interconnection of idealized
system elements and describe these in form of element laws. These idealized elements are
sort of building blocks of the system. An ideal element results by making two basic
assumptions.
4
Consider ideal elements which have a single port or two-terminal representation and so have
two variables associated with it as shown below. These variables are identified as
a) Through variable VT, which passes through the element
and so has the same value at in and out ports. For
example, current through an electrical resistance.
b) Across variable VA, which appears across the element.
Example is voltage across an electrical resistance.
c) Input variable
d) Output variable
Mathematical Models of Mechanical Systems

The mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equations. The input-
output relations of various physical components of a system are governed by differential equations.
Mechanical systems and devices can be modeled by means of three ideal translatory elements (mass,
spring and dash-pot) and three ideal rotatory elements (mass, spring and dashpot). Their diagrammatic
representation and elemental relationships are given below. In case of mass/inertia elements, it may be
noted that one terminal is always the internal reference frame with respect to which the free terminal
moves/rotates. The through and across variables for ideal mechanical elements are listed in table
below.
5
Mechanical translational Systems
Force balance equations of idealized elements

1) Mass Element
2) The Spring Element
6
3) The Damper Element
The friction exists in physical systems whenever mechanical surfaces are operated in sliding contact. The
friction encountered may be of Coulomb friction force, viscous friction force and Stiction. In most physical
situations, the viscous friction predominates. The relations given above are based on this assumption.
A mechanical translation system which is modeled using the three ideal elements presented above would yield a
mathematical model which is an ordinary differential equation. Take Laplace Transform of the differential
equations to find the transfer function of the system.
Guidelines to write the differential equations and determine the transfer function
Note: The gravitational effect is eliminated at zero position. The zero position is taken to be at the
point where the spring and mass are in static equilibrium.
7
Lecture - 3
Example 1: Write the differential equations governing the mechanical translational system and
determine the transfer function.
Solution: The system has two nodes and they are mass M1 and M2. The differential equations
governing the system are given by force balance equations at these nodes.
8
9
Special Case: Gravity is considered
So far, we have always defined our displacements to be zero when springs are relaxed, neither
compressed nor elongated. There are many situations when other definitions of zero position are
easier to work with. For example, when gravity acts to extend (or compress) a spring, the
gravitational force can be omitted from the analysis of system motion if the zero positions are taken
when the system is at equilibrium with gravity. This is best demonstrated with an example.
In figure (a), the position "x" is defined to be zero when
the spring is in its relaxed position. We can draw a free
body diagram and find the equations of motion. We
draw the applied force, fa, and the force of gravity, m·g,
to be downwards. The forces k·x, b·vx and m·ax have
their directions defined to be upward, i.e., opposite to the
positive direction of x. (Just to reiterate, this is not to
say that the forces will be upward, just that we define
them to be positive in the upward direction when the
displacement is positive in the downward directions).
When the system is at equilibrium and with no

applied force, fa=0, the equation simplifies to
Let us call this distance x0.
Now consider the situation shown in figure (b). A new variable "z" is defined that is zero at the
equilibrium position, z=x-x0, or x=z+x0. If we plug this into the equations (and using the fact that the
derivatives of x0 are all zero) we get
This last equation tells us that if we define our zero position to be when the system is at equilibrium with
gravity, that we can ignore the effect of gravity. This is a consequence of superposition. We are
essentially taking the two inputs (gravity and fa) and treating them separately. Gravity gives a
displacement of x0 from the position at which the spring is relaxed, and the displacement, z, is that due to
the applied force. We could not make this separation if the system
was not linear.
In short, if we take figure (b) and define z=0 when the system is at
equilibrium with gravity (and applied forces are zero), we can
immediately draw a free body diagram and write the equations of
motion without considering gravity.
10
Mechanical Rotational Systems
Torque Balance equations of idealized elements

1) Ideal Inertia element
2) Ideal torsional spring element
3) Ideal frictional element (Viscous friction)
11
Example:
12
Lecture - 4
Electrical Analogous of Mechanical Systems
If the differential equations governing the system or transfer functions are in identical form, such
systems are called as analogous systems. The electrical analogous of any kind of system is of great
importance since it is easier to construct electrical models and analyze them. The three basic elements
13
used in translational and rotational mechanical systems are analogous to resistance, inductance and
capacitance of electrical networks. The input force or torque in the mechanical system is analogous to
either voltage or current source in the electrical systems. The output velocity (or angular velocity) are
analogous to either current or voltage in an element in electrical system. Therefore, two types of
analogies: Force (Torque) – Voltage Analogy and Force (Torque) – Current Analogy.
Let’s see the Force – Voltage analogy

The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical systems based
on force – voltage analogy
14
Summary of Force (or Torque) – Voltage Analogy
Summary of Force (or Torque) – Current Analogy
The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical systems based
on force – current analogy
15
Example: Write the differential equations governing the
mechanical system shown below. Draw the force-voltage
and force-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by
writing mesh and node equations.
Solution:
Force- Voltage Analogous Circuit
It is observed that the loop equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.
Force – Current Analogous Circuit
It is observed that the node equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.
16
Example: Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown below. Draw the
torque – voltage and torque – current electrical analogous circuits and
verify by writing mesh and node equations.
Solution:
Torque – Voltage Analogous Circuit
It is observed that the loop equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.
Torque – Current Analogous Circuit
It is observed that the node equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.
17
Lecture - 5
Transfer Function of Armature Controlled DC motor
Note: here f0 is the frictional coefficient, B
Transfer Function of Field Controlled DC motor

The field-controlled DC motor is shown in figure. In the field
control, armature voltage is kept constant and the speed is varied
by varying the flux of the machine, which is varied by the field
current.
18
Block diagram representation

A block diagram is graphical representation of functions performed by each component and the flow
of signals. The differential equations governing the system are used to construct the block diagram.
19
Summing Point: Summing Points are used to add two or more signals
in the system. Referring to figure 1.26, a circle with a cross is the
symbol that indicates a summing operation. The plus or minus sign at
each arrowhead indicates whether the signal is to be added or
subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted
have the same dimensions and the same units.
Branch Point: A branch point is a point from which the signal from a
block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
Construct the block diagram of armature-controlled DC motor
20
Construct the block diagram of field-controlled DC motor
21
Block Diagram Algebra
22
Lecture – 6
Shortcut for doing problems for a unity feedback control system
Block diagram reduction

1) Reduce the block diagram and find the transfer function C/R
Solution:
23
2) Obtain the closed loop transfer function of the following system
Solution:
3) Using block diagram reduction obtain the closed loop transfer function of the following system
Answer:
4) Using block diagram reduction rules, convert the block diagram to a simple loop and determine
the transfer function.
Solution:
5) For the block diagram of a feedback control system shown, the output is C(s) = H(s)R(S) +
Hw(s)W(s). Find the transfer functions.
24
R
W
Solution: Considering the input ‘R’ at Station-I alone and input ‘W’ at station-II is made zero.
W W
W W
Lecture – 7
Signal flow graph and Mason’s gain formula
the relation between system variables without requiring any reduction procedure or manipulation of the
signal flow graph.
Signal Flow Graph Terminology

The basic element of a signal flow graph is a unidirectional line segment called a branch, which relates the
dependency of an input and output variable in a manner equivalent to a block of a block diagram. The
input and output points of a branch, called nodes, represent the input and output variables; the branch
transmits the input-node signal to the output node through a gain called transmittance of the branch. In the
signal flow graph shown below, the branch is directed from node X1 to X2, representing the dependence of
25
the variable X2 upon X1. The signal X1 travelling from the node X1
along the branch is multiplied by the transmittance G of the branch
so that a signal GX1 is delivered at node X2; X2 = GX1.
In a signal flow graph with several nodes and branches, each node
variable is the algebraic sum of all incoming signals; and all outgoing signals from any node equal the
node variable and do not affect it. As an illustrative example, consider a system described by the following
set of algebraic equations.
(ix) Forward path gain: It is the product of the branch gain encountered in traversing a forward path.
The two forward paths of Fig. 3.16a and 3.16b have the path gains (G 12G23G34G45) and
(G12G23G35), respectively.
(x) Loop gain: It is the product of the branch gains encountered in traversing a loop. The five
individual loops have gains (G23G32), (G23G34G42), (G23G34G45G52), and (G23G35G52), respectively.
26
Masons gain formula
27
28
29
Lecture – 8
Example: Using Mason gain rule, find the transfer function of given signal flow graph
G6
Answer:
Example:
Example:
Solution:
30
Example:
Answer:
Example: Eliminate node 5 of the given signal flow graph
Example:
Answer:
31
Example:
32

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NLS, UNIT-III, KARTHIK THIRUMALA JULY 2022

Networks and Linear Systems

Dr. Karthik Thirumala

The diagrammatic representation of a control system is known as block diagram representation

Open Loop System

Closed Loop System

Mathematical Models of Mechanical Systems

Force balance equations of idealized elements

2) The Spring Element

When the system is at equilibrium and with no

Let us call this distance x0.

Torque Balance equations of idealized elements

2) Ideal torsional spring element

3) Ideal frictional element (Viscous friction)

Let’s see the Force – Voltage analogy

Summary of Force (or Torque) – Current Analogy

Force- Voltage Analogous Circuit

Force – Current Analogous Circuit

Torque – Voltage Analogous Circuit

Torque – Current Analogous Circuit

Note: here f0 is the frictional coefficient, B

Transfer Function of Field Controlled DC motor

Block diagram representation

Construct the block diagram of armature-controlled DC motor

Construct the block diagram of field-controlled DC motor

Block diagram reduction

Signal Flow Graph Terminology

Masons gain formula

Example: Eliminate node 5 of the given signal flow graph

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