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KodÃ¡ly Today A cognitive Approach to Elementary
Music Education 1st Edition MÃcheÃ¡l Houlahan Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): MÃcheÃ¡l Houlahan, Philip Tacka
ISBN(s): 9780195314090, 0195314093
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 4.76 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
Kodály Today
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Kodály Today
A Cognitive Approach to Elementary Music Education
Mícheál Houlahan and Philip Tacka
1
2008
1
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Houlahan, Mícheál.
Kodály today : a cognitive approach to elementary
music education / by Micheál Houlahan and Philip Tacka.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-19-531409-0
1. School music—Instruction and study. 2. Cognitive learning.
3. Kodály, Zoltán, 1882–1967. I. Tacka, Philip. II. Title.
MT1.H838 2007
372.87—dc22 2006100161
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America

on acid-free paper
We are the music-makers,
And we are the dreamers of dreams,
Wandering by lone sea-breakers,
And sitting by desolate streams—
World-losers and world-forsakers,
On whom the pale moon gleams—
Yet we are the movers and shakers
Of the world forever, it seems.
Arthur O’Shaughnessy, “Ode”
(first stanza)
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Mme. Kodály for her support of this project in allowing us to quote
from the Selected Writings of Zoltán Kodály. We were both fortunate enough to study at the
Franz Liszt Academy/Kodály Pedagogical Institute in Hungary and at the Kodály Center of
America with world-renowned Kodály experts, many of whom were Kodály’s pupils and
colleagues, who shared their knowledge with us over many years. Among them were Erzsé-
bet Hegyi, Ildiko Herboly-Kocsár, Lilla Gabor, Katalin Komlos, Katalin Forrai, Mihály
Ittzés, Klára Kokas, Klára Nemes, Eva Vendrai, Helga Szabo, Laszlo Eösze, Peter Erdei, and
Katalin Kiss. Special thanks is due Virginia Womack-Pohlmeier for her critical reading of
the manuscript and her insightful suggestions regarding this approach to instruction and
learning.
Kodály Today has profited from the many contributions of our teachers and students.
We are especially grateful to Millersville University of Pennsylvania for their support of
this project. The university’s library assistance, technical, administrative, and financial
support, and overall encouragement for this project have allowed us to bring this volume
to completion.
Many individuals have provided us with invaluable advice and assistance in both schol-
arly and practical matters. We would like to thank Fine Arts Director Dr. John May of the
Austin Independent School District and Fine Arts Director Gary Patterson of the Houston
Independent School District, both of whom allowed us to work with their music instruc-
tors to field-test the ideas presented in this publication.
Special acknowledgment must be made to Patty Moreno, Director of the Kodály Cer-
tification Program at Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas, for her support and con-
tinued encouragement of this project. We would also like to thank Holly Kofod for her
contributions regarding assessment. Thanks to Vivian Ferchill, Cecilia Pena, Kathy Hunt,
Nancy Cavendish, Kelly Laws, Jane Pippart-Brown, and Lisa Roebuck for their considered
reading and critical comments that helped us bring this book to completion. Special
thanks is also due to Magdelena Fitzsimmons on the faculty of the American Kodály In-
stitute for her thorough examination of Kodály Today.
Many of our students in Kodály Certification Programs at Texas State University, Bel-
mont University in Nashville, Tennessee, The Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New
York, have all helped us shape the approach instruction and learning that is presented
herein. Our many years working together have not only contributed to the information we
present but also have served as a continuing source of inspiration in working with the ped-
agogical processes we outline. In practical matters we would like to thank our students at
viii Acknowledgments
Millersville University for helping us with initial drafts. A special thanks is due Paul Gal-
lello, Abigail Kozlowski, Rachel Dennison, Emily Murphy, and Nate Sheffer.
We would like to thank Alan Browning, Headmaster of the Blue Coat School, Bir-
mingham, England, for his encouragement and support in allowing his staff and students
to become involved in the development of this teaching approach. The high standard
achieved by the students of the Blue Coat School is a testament to his commitment to
music.
This book would not be as complete in terms of pedagogy and educational content
were it not for the critical readings and comments from Blaithín Burns, Kodály instructor
at the Blue Coat School and Birmingham Conservatory of Music, Birmingham, England.
She provided invaluable assistance in the initial design of Kodály Today and field-tested
many teaching strategies. Richard Schellhas deserves thanks for his personal patience and
understanding as well as words of encouragement and advice throughout the writing of
this manuscript.
Research for this publication was supported by a grant from Millersville University, the
State System for Higher Education in Pennsylvania. We would like to express our gratitude
to Dr. Sandra Mathias, Director of the Kodály Program at Capital University, for giving us
permission to include songs from ¡Vamos a cantar! 230 Folk Songs of Spanish-Speaking
People to Sing, Read, and Play and My Singing Bird, vol. 2 of 150 American Folk Songs from
the Anglo-American, African-American, English, Scottish and Irish Traditions, published by
Kodály Institute at Capital University, 2006. All songs with text in Spanish are reprinted
from ¡Vamos a Cantar! with permission.
We wish to thank Suzanne Ryan, senior editor at Oxford University Press, for her en-
couragement and critical guidance. We thank Norm Hirschy, assistant editor at Oxford
University Press, and Bob Milks, senior production editor, for their support in the pro-
duction of this manuscript.
We hope that you’ll find Kodály Today informative and useful, and if we can answer
questions, please don’t hesitate to contact us at [email protected] and philiptacka
@aol.com.
Contents
Introduction 3
1 Constructing a Teaching Resource Portfolio 9

2 Kodály’s Philosophy of Music Education: “Legyen A Zene Mindenkié”
[Music Should Belong to Everyone] 15
3 Children as Stewards of Their Cultural and Musical Heritage: Selecting
Music Repertoire for the Classroom 37
4 Children as Performers: Singing, Movement, and Playing Instruments in
the Elementary Music Classroom 71
5 Children as Critical Thinkers and Problem Solvers: Developing Music
Literacy Skills 115
6 From Sound to Symbol: A New Learning Theory Model 143
7 Developing Musicianship Skills 163
8 Teaching Strategies for Rhythmic and Melodic Musical Elements 241
9 Sequencing and Lesson Planning 401
10 Teaching Musicianship Skills to Older Beginners 419
11 Evaluation and Assessment 435
Appendices
1 Curriculum Goals 453

2 Alphabetical Song List 469
3 Pedagogical Song List 487
4 Monthly Plans 507
Notes 591
Song Index 597
Index of Teaching Strategies 599
General Index 605
Kodály Today
Introduction
I learned, amazed, how much there is for a Bard to know, outside and beyond his music, and
I began to realize the power that lies in the harper’s hands; power greater than a king’s reach-
ing beyond a man’s own death-day, into the tomorrow of the world. Like all mysteries, one
cannot speak of it, except to a fellow craftsman, for it has to do with hidden things, that must
not be profaned. Like all mysteries, its core is the truth in man, and in his relationship to the
world he knows, and the universe beyond it. At its deepest level it is concerned with the har-
mony, the measure, the rhythm out of which all things were created, and by which they must
be governed, consciously or unconsciously. It is the life thread that holds us suspended safely
above ultimate chaos, and the navel cord that joins life to eternity.1
“To teach music effectively, we must know our subject—music. We must embody and ex-
emplify musicianship. This is how children develop musicianship themselves: through
actions, transactions, and interactions with musically proficient teachers”2 This is no small
task. “Teachers with insufficient musicianship or educatorship are highly prone to philo-
sophical and practical misunderstandings. Thus many school choral and instrumental
programs squander the opportunity to educate students musically because the teachers
involved are not concerned with authentic musical performing and artistic music listening,
only with simplistic ‘sound producing.’”3
Like the Bard from The Pendragon, music instructors must exemplify excellent musi-
cianship in order to transmit to their students the “strict meticulous discipline” of music
that will allow students control of their voices and the instruments they perform on so that
“the truth can sing” through them “and touch the spirit of those who listen.”4
Since its introduction to the United States in the early 1970s, the Kodály philosophy
of music education, long associated with the transmission of excellent musicianship, has
gained significant importance in undergraduate and graduate music methods courses as
well as elementary, middle, and high school choral curriculums. In a Kodály music class-
room children first are
actively involved in a combination of music making, singing, creating rhythmic and vocal
accompaniments to songs, and active listening. Second, the Kodály approach offers a rich
array of tools and concepts for the development of musical literacy. Third, Kodály special-
ists have been at the forefront of the movement to include world folk music in the curricu-
lum. Fourth, Kodály teaching techniques provide excellent ways of approaching what Elliott
calls “musical problem solving” and “problem reduction” in music education. Fifth, children
3
4 Kodály Today
who study music in a Kodály-based program tend to develop lifelong skills and excellent
musical ears.5
Kodály inspired music instruction has also had a significant impact on student behavior
outside the music classroom. The broad effects of this type of teaching and learning have
been documented by Dr. Martin F. Gardiner of the Center for the Study of Human Devel-
opment at Brown University. He writes:
The specific methods of arts training common to these studies is Kodály music training. The
Kodály training is a methodology for building skills in individual and group singing that,
along with specific musical skills, gives the children an opportunity to practice and build in-
dividual attitudes of attention, learning and sensitivity to the group, and capabilities for
working together. It is possible to hypothesize that attitudes and behaviors towards learning
in this arts training helped to build the more general improvements in classroom attitudes
and behaviors that were documented by the teachers . . . and were in turn closely related to
improvements in reading. Teacher reports support this viewpoint, as does recent data show-
ing greater improvements in classroom behavior in those students receiving more extensive
Kodály training. (The Teaching Exchange, January 1999, “Arts Training in Education”)6
We have written this book as a basic introduction to the the Kodály vision of music edu-
cation for experienced music instructors, inservice and pre-service teachers, and college
methods professors who are looking for a way to enhance the musicianship of their stu-
dents. Our future publications will address early childhood music education and teaching
instrumental music. For additional information on teaching music fundamentals please
consult Houlahan and Tacka, From Sound to Symbol: Fundamentals of Music Theory (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
The motivating force for writing this book was our work with teachers over the last
decade. We conducted focus discussions and surveys to learn and understand the peda-
gogical needs and concerns of music specialists. These teachers repeatedly voiced their
concerns about the lack of specificity concerning issues relating to the teaching of music
according to the Kodály philosophy of music education. Of particular concern are issues
dealing with:
• how to select repertoire for the music classroom from the aural/oral and written
traditions,
• how to analyze repertoire from the aural/oral and written traditions,
• how to actively develop the skill of music listening,
• how to teach traditional notation in tandem with rhythmic and melodic solfège
syllables,
• how to understand the different rhythm syllable systems in current use,
• how to teach compound meter,
• how to teach music to older beginners,
• how to design lesson plans that develop critical thinking skills,
• how to develop strategies for developing musical skills and keep track of these
skills throughout the year,
• how to develop harmonic hearing in the elementary classroom,
Introduction 5
• how to teach improvisation and composition,

• how to develop evaluation and assessment tools for use in the classroom.
This text expands upon the work we first present in our Sound Thinking Music Series
and provides viable answers to the concerns and questions raised by music teachers work-
ing in the field. All of the ideas and lesson plans in the text have been field-tested over a pe-
riod of six years with music teachers.
Through our experiences working with teachers in the field and our work in the area
of music perception and cognition, we have developed and modified aspects of processes
and procedures commonly associated with Kodály’s philosophy for music education that
are congruent with national and state standards. We may have strayed from what some
teachers recognize as the Kodály concept of music education but we believe that the find-
ings and procedures we present in this book are in keeping with the composer’s philoso-
phy. Kodály asserts: “It is the fate of science that each successive age produces new results
and usually modifies or completely refutes the results obtained by the preceding age.”7 In
his lecture Ancient Traditions—Today’s Musical Life, Kodály said: “But this is part and parcel
of the development of science. Science keeps on changing and fluctuating.”8
Dr. Klára Kokas, a psychologist and graduate of the Franz Liszt Academy of Music in
Budapest and a pupil of Kodály, has long been a proponent of adaptation and modifica-
tion of the Kodály philosophy, Since the early 1970s the “musical compass” through which
she researches and develops her own approach to teaching has been grounded by Kodály’s
philosophy for music education. In the following quote Kokas provides a rationale as to
why the Kodály concept requires modification and adaptation.
In Hungary, Kodály’s principles were applied and developed within the traditional frame-
work of centralized education. The central control exercised by the Ministry of Education,
its lower representative organs, and the centralized form of assessment of teaching stan-
dards left little room for teacher initiative. Our personal visions were strongly circumscribed
by the Marxist-Leninist philosophy and the aesthetics introduced by the establishment as a
compulsory component at each level of education. Thus the frameworks in kindergartens—
and even more so in school education—were strictly limited. In the given political set-up,
Kodály’s method had little scope for further refinement and development.9
We have developed this book with teachers. Over the past decade we have been engaged
in a dialogue with music instructors who teach in title one schools, urban schools, private
schools, and other public schools; with teachers who see their students three and four
times a week and teachers who see their students three times a month; with teachers who
have a strong background in teaching pedagogies and with beginning music instructors.
Instead of continually forcing our pedagogical procedures on them we worked with them
to address their needs and concerns both musical and practical.
The aim of this book is to provide elementary level music instructors with a practical
guide for teaching a Kodály-based music curriculum. We hope that Kodály Today will en-
able music instructors to initiate their students into the many dimensions of musicianship
that are common in the both the aural/oral and written music traditions. Some of these
dimensions include performing, critical thinking, listening, improvising, composing, and
becoming stewards of a cultural heritage that includes knowledge of aural/oral (folk
music) and written musical traditions (classical music). Teaching procedures and lesson
preparation examples are presented in considerable detail but need not be taken literally.
6 Kodály Today
They should, instead, be used as a point of departure for each teacher’s own creativity and
personality. It is expected that teachers will apply these suggestions in a way that is re-
sponsive to the needs, backgrounds, and interests of their own students. The sample les-
son plans and sample curriculums we provide are not meant to be comprehensive. We ex-
pect that music instructors will infuse these ideas with their own national and regional
benchmarks for teaching. Kodály Today offers teachers a practical way to help children de-
velop as performers, listeners, critical thinkers, composers and improvisers, and stewards
of their cultural heritage. We appreciate that teachers must develop their own philosophy
for teaching music, their own repertoire of songs reflecting the musical needs of their com-
munities, the procedures, and the processes for teaching musical skills while considering
such factors as the frequency of music instruction, the size of the class, the length of the
class, and current music abilities of students.
Outline
Each chapter in Kodály Today begins with key questions that provide a context for issues
discussed in every chapter. At the end of each chapter there are discussion questions as well
as on-going assignments that allow the reader to practice and reflect upon the suggestions
offered in the text. All chapters also include a bibliography.
Kodály Today is divided into eleven chapters. Chapter 1, “Constructing a Teaching Re-
source Portfolio,” introduces some of the general considerations for developing a teaching
portfolio for each grade. This portfolio includes a philosophy statement that guides teach-
ing practices in the classroom, repertoire list, sequence for teaching music literacy, strategy
plans for teaching concepts, lesson plans, activities for developing music skills, listening
examples, and samples of evaluation and assessment forms. All components of this port-
folio will be further discussed in subsequent chapters of this book.
Chapter 2, “Kodály’s Philosophy of Music Education,” provides a brief introduction
to Kodály’s philosophy of music education and allows teachers to understand how a cur-
riculum can be developed using Kodály’s educational philosophy. (Appendix 1 includes a
sample curriculum for grades one through five.) This chapter includes a discussion of how
the adoption of the Kodály’s philosophy for music education affects the design of a music
curriculum.
Chapter 3, “Children as Stewards of Their Cultural and Musical Heritage: Selecting
Music Repertoire for the Classroom,” deals with how to select and analyze a song reper-
toire. This chapter provides a rationale for the selection of music repertoire for teaching as
well as addresses how the selection and analysis of musical repertoire affects lesson plan-
ning. (Appendix 2 includes an alphabetized list of songs.)
Chapter 4, “Children as Performers: Singing, Movement and Playing Instruments in
the Elementary Music Classroom,” addresses the various components of teaching perform-
ance skills in an elementary music class including singing, ensemble work, movement, and
playing musical instruments. Included in this chapter is a discussion of how teaching per-
formance skills, such as singing, movement, and playing instruments, affects the design of
a lesson.
Chapter 5, “Children as Critical Thinkers and Problem Solvers: Developing Music Lit-
eracy Skills,” discusses how to develop a sequence of rhythmic and melodic elements for
Introduction 7
teaching music literacy. Included in this chapter is a discussion of the different types of
rhythmic syllable systems. The emphasis in this chapter is to demonstrate the importance
of teaching traditional notation to students and how rhythmic and melodic syllables are
successful tools to accomplish this outcome. This chapter addresses how teaching music
literacy affects lesson planning. (Appendix 3 includes a list of suggested songs for teaching
specific musical concepts.)
Chapter 6, “From Sound to Symbol: A New Learning Theory Model,” presents our
model of music learning and instruction. This model is based on current research in the
field of music perception and cognition as well as standard techniques used by Kodály
teachers in the classroom.
Chapter 7, “Developing Musicianship Skills,” describes how various musical skills
can be developed. (Appendix 4 includes monthly plans for grades one through five. These
monthly plans also provide the musical skills to be developed in each grade.)
Chapter 8, “Teaching Strategies for Rhythmic and Melodic Musical Elements,” presents
teaching strategies for elementary rhythmic and melodic elements based on the model of
learning presented in chapter 6.
Chapter 9, “Sequencing and Lesson Planning,” continues to define the different types
of lesson plan structures. We also show how the teaching strategies described in chapter 8
are transformed into lesson plans. Included in this chapter are sample lesson plans based
on the suggested lesson plans.
Chapter 10, “Teaching Musicianship Skills to Older Beginners,” describes how to im-
plement a Kodály program for students who have not been exposed to techniques associ-
ated with the Kodály approach. Included is a discussion of vocal development and selection
of repertoire for older students.
Chapter 11, “Evaluation and Assessment,” describes how to assess and evaluate both
student learning and the instructor’s success to design and implement a lesson plan.
Outstanding Features
• Kodály Today is research based. Teaching techniques delineated in this text may
already be known to educators familiar with Kodály-inspired teaching. However,
we have combined these ideas with current research findings in the field of
music perception and cognition to develop a model of music instruction and
learning that offers teachers a map to follow for developing their students’ musical
understandings.
• Kodály Today is an instructor-centered and child-centered publication. The proce-
dures and suggestions outlined in this volume have been shaped through numer-
ous discussions with music teachers, observations, and the authors’ research and
experience teaching at all levels of education. Music instructors will be able to use
the ideas and materials in this book as a springboard for developing music lessons
that will allow children to grow as performers, critical thinkers, listeners, creative
human beings, and stewards of their cultural heritage.
• This text provides a comprehensive approach to music teaching that positions
music performance, movement, age-appropriate repertoire, instruments, music
literacy skills, music creativity, and music listening as the basis for a music
education.
8 Kodály Today
• The building blocks of music are derived from repertoire from both the aural/oral
tradition as well as from the classical music tradition.
• Kodály Today presents an approach to teaching music skills such as singing, move-
ment, playing instruments, improvisation, composition, ensemble work, inner
hearing, form and analysis, memory, listening, and harmonic hearing. We are
interested in teaching musical concepts and elements that are common to all
musical styles. While numerous works describing Kodály-based techniques and
curriculums exist, few spell out in detail teaching procedures for presenting musi-
cal concepts and elements as well as ideas for developing musical skills.
• We delineate two processes: (1) the process for developing a curriculum based on
the Kodály approach and (2) the process for teaching music according to Kodály’s
philosophy of music education. While several music books describe teaching tech-
niques and provide sequenced materials for teaching repertoire, few offer detailed
teaching procedures for presenting musical concepts according to the Kodály con-
cept. Kodály Today presents a clear picture of how the teaching and learning
processes go hand-in-hand during the music lesson.
• The book presents a learning theory model. This model builds upon the accepted
process of teaching music elements: prepare, make conscious, reinforce, and as-
sess. While we have adopted these phases of learning, each one of these phases is
further broken down into stages that allow for the sequential teaching of music
elements, development of musical skills, as well as the means for their assessment.
This learning theory model builds upon current research in the field of music
perception and cognition. It is a model that incorporates the learning practices
associated with folk music tradition and classical music.
• Each chapter includes discussion questions and ongoing assignments that allow
the reader to absorb the content of each chapter.
• Each chapter includes a general bibliography; many chapters also contain a spe-
cific bibliography, relating to the Kodály concept that is germane for that chapter.
W Chapter 1
Constructing a Teaching Resource Portfolio
W Key Question
What are the key components of a Teaching Resource Portfolio?
As well as outlining the key components of a teaching resource portfolio, this chapter will
provide an outline of the entire book.
What Is a Teaching Resource Portfolio?
A resource portfolio contains practical information that an instructor will use for teaching
music. The information contained in each section of this portfolio will be updated through-
out your professional career. This process will allow you to organize your processes for
teaching.
The key components of a teaching resource portfolio for each grade can include:
1. Statement of Teaching Philosophy and Reflective Practice

2. Curriculum Goals
3. Repertoire
4. Performance
5. Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Music Literacy Goals
6. Music Improvisation and Composition
7. Listening
8. Assessment
Table 1.1 Components of a teaching portfolio, by chapter
Components of a Teaching Portfolio Related Chapter
Statement of teaching philosophy and Chapter 2

reflective practice
Curriculum goals Appendix 1
Repertoire Chapter 3 and Appendix 2
Performance Chapter 4
continued
9
10 Kodály Today
Table 1.1 Continued
Components of a Teaching Portfolio Related Chapter
Critical thinking and music literacy goals Chapter 5; Chapter 6; Chapter 7; Chapter 9
Music improvisation and composition Chapter 7
Listening Chapter 7
Assessment Chapter 11
Class profiles Chapter 11
Resources Chapter 9
9. Class Profiles
10. Resources
Statement of Teaching Philosophy and Reflective Practice
The first component of your teaching resource portfolio is a statement concerning your
philosophy of music education that will shape the design of your curriculum. This state-
ment provides a rationale for the inclusion of music in the curriculum and should be
linked to the school’s mission, vision, and philosophy statement. The philosophy state-
ment provides the instructor with a basis for developing realistic curriculum goals and
lesson plans. In chapter 2 we provide a brief summary of Zoltán Kodály’s philosophy
of music education that may provide a model for developing your personal philosophy of
music education.
Curriculum Goals
Curriculum goals provide instructors with a practical guide for creating a sequenced and
well-structured musical education for their students. The curriculum should meet local,
state, and national standards as well as reflect current research findings from the fields of
music pedagogy and music perception and cognition. There are a number of factors that
will affect the success of a music curriculum. These include the musicianship and the ped-
agogical background of the music instructor, the singing and musical abilities of students,
the number of music lessons per week, and the length of each class period.
Once you have developed a philosophy statement it is easier to determine your cur-
riculum goals. Appendix 1 includes a sample of curriculum goals appropriate for grades
one through five. Curriculum goals are broad in nature and should incorporate the same
language as your philosophy statement. For example, curriculum goals for teaching music
may include:
1. Repertoire for developing singing, instrumental performance, and movement.

2. Performance goals for developing singing, ensemble singing, movement, and
playing instruments.
3. Music literacy goals.
Chapter 1 Constructing a Teaching Resource Portfolio 11
4. Creativity goals that include the development of improvisation and composition skills.
5. Listening goals.
6. Curricular connections to other disciplines.
Repertoire
In this section of your portfolio keep a copy of songs for developing singing, movement, and
instrumental skills for each grade. In selecting repertoire you may want to ask yourself:
How many songs should be multicultural?

How many songs need to be included for specific holidays, seasonal songs, commem-
oration days, and patriotic celebrations?
Which songs should be taught by rote or by note?
Chapter 3 provides ideas concerning the selection of repertoire for each grade. Also in-
cluded are procedures and guidelines for analyzing this repertoire from both a music the-
ory and pedagogical perspective. Appendix 2 provides an alphabetical list of sample songs.
Performance
This section of your teaching portfolio includes strategies for developing singing, en-
semble, and movement skills, as well as performing on instruments. Chapter 4 provides
ideas for developing the singing voice, a movement sequence, as well as a sequence for
introducing instruments to students. Specific strategies and ideas for presenting songs are
included in this chapter.
Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Music Literacy
This component of your teaching portfolio includes a list of repertoire arranged by musi-
cal concept and elements that you will use for teaching music literacy skills that also pro-
motes critical thinking and problem solving skills. The bulk of chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9
provide information to assist you in developing your students’ music literacy and critical
thinking skills.
Appendix 3 includes a pedagogical list of rhythmic and melodic elements to be taught
in each grade. Chapter 8 includes strategies for teaching musical concepts and elements.
Lesson plans are examined in detail in chapter 9. Chapter 7 discusses techniques for the
development of musical skills such as reading, writing, memory, inner hearing (audiation),
form, and ensemble work.
Music Improvisation and Composition
The purpose of this section of the portfolio is to have a list of suitable strategies, activities,
and worksheets for developing improvisation and composition skills appropriate for each
grade. Chapter 7 presents techniques for developing improvisation and composition skills.
12 Kodály Today
Listening
This component of the portfolio is for instructors to compile a list of listening repertoire
and ideas for sequencing music listening activities for the classroom as well as appropriate
worksheets. Chapter 7 discusses appropriate repertoire and music listening activities.
Assessment
The purpose of assessment is to improve instruction. Assessment is an essential compo-

nent of teaching and learning. The instructor needs to determine how to assess musical
growth throughout the year as well as design rubrics to measure students’ musical devel-
opment. In the teaching resource portfolio the instructor should include assessment ac-
tivities and scoring rubrics for each grade. In chapter 11 we provide examples of assessment
and scoring rubrics that may be adapted for any grade level.
Class Profiles
In this section create a record of both class and student progress for the year. During the
first weeks of each academic year the instructor can conduct informal and formal assess-
ments of student knowledge. This information can be used to design a class and indi-
vidual student profile and can be updated as the year progresses. In chapter 11 we provide
examples of student and class profiles.
Resources
This component of your teaching portfolio includes such things as sample lesson plans,
internet resources, sources for purchasing instruments, books and recordings, as well as
videos that reinforce other areas of the curriculum. Chapter 9 provides examples of dif-
ferent types of lesson plans.
W Discussion Questions
1. What components should be included in a teaching resource portfolio?

2. Review the national or state standards for music education in your state. How do these
standards affect a music curriculum?
3. Interview a successful music instructor in your community and find out what his or
her long-term and short-term plans for music instruction entail.
4. Identify web resources that could be useful for music instructors.
Chapter 1 Constructing a Teaching Resource Portfolio 13
W Ongoing Assignment
Imagine that you have been hired by a school to teach music for grades one through five
next September. Create a teaching resource portfolio for each grade. Get a binder for
each grade and tab the binder according to the ten teaching portfolio components. This
is an ongoing assignment and you will be adding to each grade’s portfolio as you
progress through each chapter in the book.
References
Choksy, Lois, Robert M. Abramson, Avon E. Gillespie, David Woods, and Frank York. Teaching Music
in the Twenty-first Century. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 2000.
Drake, Susan M. Planning the Integrated Curriculum: The Call to Adventure. Alexandria, Va.: Associ-
ation for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1993.
W Chapter 2
Kodály’s Philosophy of Music Education
“Legyen A Zene Mindenkié”
[Music Should Belong to Everyone]
Philosophy works to render the implicit explicit, with the ultimate intent of
enriching both understanding and perception. Among its greatest allies is a
persistent curiosity. Its enemies are the habitual, the stereotypical, the un-
examined, the acritical, the “common sense” assumption or assertion. The
philosophical mind critically challenges and explores received doctrine, re-
nounces the security and comfort of dogma, exposes inconsistencies, weighs
and evaluates alternatives. It explores, probes, and questions, taking very little
for granted.
Wayne Bowman, “Philosophy, Criticism, and Music Education:
Some Tentative Steps Down a Less Traveled Road”
W Key Questions
What are the major tenets of the Kodály philosophy of music education?
How can the Kodály philosophy of music education provide a model for devel-
oping a personal philosophy of music education?
What are the multiple dimensions of musicianship training?
How do the multiple dimensions of musicianship training connect to the Kodály
philosophy of music education? How can we develop a music curriculum
based on the Kodály philosophy of music education?
How can we develop a lesson plan framework based on a music curriculum
inspired by the Kodály philosophy of music education?
How is the Kodály philosophy of music education connected to the national
content standards for music education?
What you teach and how you teach will be determined by your personal philosophy of
music education. Understanding Zoltán Kodály’s philosophy of music education can pro-
vide a useful model for developing your own personal philosophy of music education.
Having a philosophy of music education allows you to understand your goals and purpose
15
16 Kodály Today
in the classroom. A philosophy of music education puts you in a better position for be-
coming an advocate for the inclusion of music in the school curriculum. The goal of this
chapter is to provide a brief introduction to Kodály’s philosophy of music education and
to identify the components that need to be considered in the design of a successful music
curriculum. Appendix 1 includes a sample curriculum for grades one through five. To pro-
vide a context for understanding Kodály’s philosophy of music education we are provid-
ing a brief biographical outline of the composer.
Zoltán Kodály: A Biographical Outline
The Early Years: 1882–1905
Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967)1 was a Hungarian composer, ethnomusicologist, and music

educator, who along with Béla Bartók is recognized for creating a new style of Hungar-
ian art music based on the folk music heritage of Hungary. Through his efforts in music
education, Kodály sought to cultivate a far-reaching, musically literate Hungarian society.
His philosophical and pedagogical contributions to the field of music education have be-
come known as the Kodály concept or Kodály method of music education now in world-
wide use.2
Kodály’s early musical experiences and education prepared him for a career as an artist
and a scholar. His father, an amateur violinist, and his mother, an amateur pianist and
singer, filled the Kodály house with chamber music of the European masters. He studied
language and literature at Eőtvős University and composition at the Ferenc Liszt National
Academy of Music in Budapest, Hungary. He earned degrees in both composition and
teaching in 1904 and 1905, respectively. In April 1906 he was awarded the Ph.D. for his
thesis A Magyar népdal strófaszerkezete [The Stanzaic Structure of Hungarian Folk Song].
Kodály compiled research material from existing Hungarian folk music collections, music
that he had gathered in Galánta, and Béla Vikár’s phonograph cylinder recordings. The
work reflects his interests and scholarship in the interdisciplinary aspects of music and
language. After receiving his doctorate, Kodály settled in Buda and began an ambitious
investigation of Hungarian folk tradition.
The Young Composer: 1905–1922
In 1906, Kodály took part in a study tour in Berlin and Paris and then began his teaching
career as a music theory instructor at the Budapest Ferenc Liszt Academy of Music. At the
same time, Kodály continued collecting folk songs, composing, and writing articles on all
aspects of music and performance. His folk song collection grew to over three thousand
songs. His compositions included piano, chamber, and choral works. Kodály’s musical crit-
icism appeared in literary journals and newspapers.
Association with Béla Bartók led to a joint concert of their works in 1910. Contradic-
tory criticism of the concert was consistent with the style of commentary for the period.
Kodály’s use of folk tunes and unfamiliar harmonies earned him the title “deliberate
heretic.” He was accused of holding “both thought and melody in contempt.” This deroga-
tory view of Kodály was to change within the course of a decade.
Chapter 2 Kodály’s Philosophy of Music Education 17
The Creative Period: 1923–1939
The years 1923–1939 were Kodály’s most prolific, both as a composer and an author. His
most noted compositions of the period were written for the opera and chorus. Kodály
wrote Psalmus Hungaricus, for choir and orchestra, to mark the 50th anniversary of the
united city of Budapest. The period saw the premiere, first in Hungary then abroad, of the
singspiel Háry János, Dances of Galanta, and the Concerto. Kodály made his international
conducting debut in Amsterdam with the Concertgebouw Orchestra in 1927.
His scholarly works of the period included a number of articles in which Kodály
sought to define the nature of Hungarian folk music. Kodály contributed a historical sur-
vey of Hungarian folk music to the Zenei lexikon [Dictionary of Music]. He then published
his own work on the topic, entitled Folk Music of Hungary.
Kodály said that 1925 was the year in which his attention was directed toward the mu-
sical education of children. Beginning in 1927, Kodály’s former students started the Youth
Choral Movement in Hungary. The most famous of these were Jenő Ádám, Lajos Bárdos,
Győrgy Kerényi, Zoltán Vásárhelyi, Endre Borus, and Adrienne Sztojanovits. The first
choral collection, Little Pieces for Children’s Choir, was published in 1928 and edited by
Győrgy Kerényi. In 1929 Kodály realized that music education must be methodical and
that only music materials of the highest quality should be included in the curriculum. In
addition, he came to realize that the only form of music education accessible for every
child is based on singing. In 1937 Kodály wrote the first volume of Bicinia Hungarica, in
which he discusses the benefits of using relative solmization.3 The ABC of Singing [Énekes
Á bécé], a music textbook containing folk music materials and the first real effort to use
relative solmization in Hungary, was compiled by Győrgy Kerényi and Benjamin Rajeczky
in 1938 and published by Magyar Kórus, Budapest. Based on relative solmization, it con-
tained about 300 folk songs, classical music, and fundamentals of music. A teacher’s man-
ual, Éneklő iskola [Singing School], was published two years later in 1940 by Irma Bors and
Győrgy Gulyás.
The Educator: 1940–1967
In his later years, Kodály pursued with even greater zeal the improvement of musical ed-
ucation in Hungarian schools. He edited numerous songbooks tailored specifically for
children and set forth principles for early musical education in works such as “Zene az
ovodában” [Music in the Kindergarten]. In 1943–1944, Magyar Kórus published Kodály
and Kerényi’s two-volume school song collection Iskolai énekgyüjtemény I–II [Collected
Songs for Schools]. This was a collection of 630 melodies, including Hungarian and Euro-
pean folk songs and canons arranged according to a methodological sequence. In 1943
Kodály’s 333 reading exercises were published.4 The Szó-mi I–VIII books were written with
Jenő Ádám and published in 1944 and 1946. This was a selection of materials from the Col-
lected Songs for Schools for grades one through eight. During 1944 a handbook to Kodály’s
School Song Collection and to the Szó-mi songbook by Kodály and Ádám was published
by Jenő Ádám called Módszeres Énektanítás a Relativ Solmizáció Alapján [Methodical
Music Teaching Based on Relative Solmization]. In these books Kodály began melodic
training with the minor third interval. In 1945 and 1947 Kodály published Pentatonic
Music.5 In 1945 Kodály gave a lecture in Pécs on 19 November titled “Hungarian Musical
18 Kodály Today
Education.” He discussed the importance of basing Hungarian musical education on Hun-

garian folk music. The composer defended the notion of teaching Hungarian music as a
prerequisite to the music of other nations. He also addressed the efficacy of teaching singing
before teaching an instrument.6
In 1946, a specialized primary school was established in keeping with Kodály’s prin-
ciples. His article “100 éves terv” [A Hundred Year Plan] was published in Énekszó. The aim
of Kodály’s plan was to restore Hungarian musical culture by making reading and writing
music a part of general education throughout the Hungarian school system. Kodály’s plan
can best be summarized with his own words: “The aim: Hungarian musical culture. The
means: making the reading and writing of music general, through the schools. At the same
time the awakening of a Hungarian public taste in music and continual progress towards
what is better and more Hungarian. To make masterpieces of world music literature pub-
lic property, to convey them to people of every kind and rank.”7 The Hungarian minister
of education recognized his efforts and invested Kodály with the Grand Cross of the Order
of the Republic in 1948. He was a member and then president of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences (1946–1949), where he established the folk music research group.
Kodály lobbied Hungarian leaders for better music education for children in the
schools and in 1950 the first music primary school started in Kecskemét, led by Márta
Nemesszeghy. In a preface to Erzsébet Szőnyi’s Musical Reading and Writing,8 Kodály pro-
vides a brief overview of music education focusing on the German model and commenting
on the curriculum of the Paris Conservatory. He praises the Musical Reading and Writing
text for providing an outline for a music education but cautions that it is the artistry of the
teacher that will provide the musical example for the students, not books.9 In the foreword
to Let Us Sing Correctly10 published in 1964, Kodály explains that proper intonation in
singing matches the acoustic, not the tempered intervals and that the singing teacher or
choral director should not depend on the piano for pitch. He examines the use of part
singing and solfège for developing good intonation. Musical examples are presented and
analyzed.
The 1964 Budapest Conference of the International Society for Music Education drew
international attention to the musical phenomenon taking place in Hungarian music ed-
ucation; this was called “the Kodály Method.”11 Accordingly, Kodály was recognized as a
prominent figure in twentieth-century music education.
Further accolades were bestowed upon Kodály in his final years; he was presented with
three Kossuth prizes as well as honorary degrees from Oxford, Humboldt, and Toronto
Universities. Kodály became a citizen of the world. He was invited to conduct in Great
Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States. He was selected to chair conferences held
by the International Folk Music Council and the International Society for Music Educa-
tion. He was an honorary president of the latter. As a final tribute from his own people,
Kodály received the title of “Eminent Artist” from the Hungarian People’s Republic.
A Brief Examination of Zoltán Kodály’s

Philosophy of Music Education
In order to understand Kodály’s philosophy of music education, it is best to understand

his philosophy of music through his musical compositions, writings, and speeches. Here
we examine some of his most famous statements concerning the justification for the
inclusion of music in the school curriculum and the importance of a well-trained music
teacher, as well as his views on the essential components of a music education for students.
The majority of these statements were originally written in Hungarian and translated into
English. We have not attempted to correct grammatical errors or English translations. The
quotes appear as they have originally been translated. While some statements are awkward,
the essence of Kodály’s thoughts is evident.
We have chosen quotes from Kodály’s writings that provide insights into the follow-
ing: (1) justifying music in the school curriculum; (2) the importance of excellent artist-
teachers; and (3) the multiple dimensions of musicianship. These dimensions include
performance, stewardship of culture, critical thinking, creativity, and listening.
Justifying Music in the School Curriculum
Kodály believed that music should belong to everyone and not just to a musical elite. “It is
the right of every citizen to be taught the basic elements of music, to be handed the key
with which he can enter the locked world of music. To open the ear and heart of the mil-
lions to serious music is a great thing.”12
He believed that “with a few years’ technical preparation children can achieve results
measurable by the most exacting of absolute artistic standards.”13 He observed, “With
music, one’s whole future life is brightened. This is such a treasure in life that it helps us
over many troubles and difficulties. Music is nourishment, a comforting elixir. Music mul-
tiplies all that is beautiful and of value in life.”14
Taken separately, too, the elements of music are precious instruments in education. Rhythm
develops attention, concentration, determination and the ability to condition oneself. Melody
opens up the world of emotions. Dynamic variation and tone colour sharpen our hearing.
Singing, finally, is such a many-sided physical activity that its effect in physical education is
immeasurable—if there is perhaps anyone to whom the education of the spirit does not
matter. Its beneficial effect in health is well known; special books have been written on this.15
With us it is scarcely every twentieth person who uses his speech and breathing organs cor-
rectly. This, too, should be learned during the singing lesson. The discipline of rhythm, the
training of the throat and lungs set singing right beside gymnastics. Both of them, no less
than food, are needed daily.16
The curriculum and instructions (as we should term them) for British schools declare on
the role of music in education: “By now the value of music in school life is so well recog-
nized that it is superfluous to dwell at length upon it.”17
Our age of mechanization leads along a road ending with man himself as a machine; only
the spirit of singing can save us from this fate.18
The Importance of Excellent Artist-Teachers
We believe that students must be taught music based on an apprenticeship model of

instruction that closely mirrors a teaching model used by exceptional studio instructors.
20 Kodály Today
Simply stated, students learn the craft of music from individuals who themselves are ex-
cellent musicians. “There is a need for better musicians, and only those will become good
musicians who work at it every day. The better a musician is the easier it is for him to draw
others into the happy, magic circle of music. Thus will he serve the great cause of helping
music to belong to everyone.”19
The following quotes verify Kodály’s conviction that only excellent music instructors
should be allowed to teach.
It is more important who the singing master at Kisvárda is than who the director of the
Opera House is, because a poor director will fail. [Often even a good one.] But a bad teacher
may kill the love of music for thirty years in thirty classes of pupils.20
Only excellent artist teachers will be able to:
Teach music and singing at school in such a way that it is not a torture but a joy for the pupil;
instill a thirst for finer music in him, a thirst which will last for a lifetime. Music must not
be approached from its intellectual, rational side, nor should it be conveyed to the child as
a system of algebraic symbols, or as the secret writing of a language with which he has no
connection. The way should be paved for direct intuition. If the child is not filled at least
once by the life-giving stream of music during the most susceptible period-between his
sixth and sixteenth years—it will hardly be any use to him later on. Often a single experi-
ence will open the young soul to music for a whole lifetime. This experience cannot be left
to chance, it is the duty of the school to provide it.21
Music instructors need to develop students’ inherent musical abilities in the classroom
through performance, creativity, listening, critical thinking, and musical literacy skills as
well as enabling students to become stewards of their musical and cultural heritage. The
goal of music instruction is to create a community of learners in the music classroom that
experience and explore all of the various facets of music and begin to share this knowledge
as a service to the community.
But professional music education in music itself is still not sufficiently inspired by the idea
that music-making is not an end in itself but that it must stand at the service of the whole
people.22
It is the bounden duty of the talented to cultivate their talent to the highest degree, to be of
as much use as possible to their fellow men. For every person’s worth is measured by how
much he can help his fellow men and serve his country. Real art is one of the most power-
ful forces in the rise of mankind and he who renders it accessible to as many people as pos-
sible is a benefactor of humanity.23
The Multiple Dimensions of Musicianship
In addition to speaking about the value of music in the school curriculum, Kodály wrote
about the multiple dimensions of musicianship training. These dimensions include per-
formance, musical literacy and critical thinking skills, creativity skills, listening, as well as
stewardship of musical and cultural heritage. Therefore it is clear that when developing
children’s musicianship skills we need to address the different facets of what it means to be
a musical human being. If we are to develop children’s self-knowledge, self-awareness, and
emotions, we need to educate them to be:
1. Performers (we mean the act of making and sharing music)

2. Stewards of musical and cultural heritage
3. Critical thinkers
4. Creative human beings
5. Listeners
Children as Performers: Singing, Instruments, and Movement
Music performance is at the core of a music program. Through performance students

engage in singing, movement, playing instruments, and conducting.
Singing
Kodály was convinced that singing is the most direct means to a musical education.
Singing requires the rapid internalization of sound and provides immediate participation
in the musical experience. Kodály’s intent was to lead students to a deep appreciation of
art music. Since the human voice is the most intimate of all instruments and the inner ear
is more easily developed through this personal medium, the voice is the most logical start-
ing point.
If one were to attempt to express the essence of this education in one word, it could only
be—singing. The most frequent word to be heard on Toscannini’s lips during his orchestral
rehearsals was “Cantare!” expressed in a thousand and one shades of meaning.24
Fortunate indeed is the child who creates with his own voice the first association linking it
with the picture of the notes. If he starts singing based on the concepts of instrumental tech-
niques, then our endeavors to make the singing and aural concepts primary can hardly suc-
ceed. And if he does not sing at all, it will be nearly impossible for him to achieve free and
intimate “singing” on any instrument. Even the most talented artist can never overcome the
disadvantages of an education without singing.25
There is a well-known saying of Bulows: He who cannot sing, be his voice good or bad,
should not play the piano either. What did Bulow mean by this? He did not mean that every
movement and part of a Beethoven sonata should be sung before it is played. But that no-
body can play it well if he does not feel and know where the essence of the melody is, and if
he cannot bring it to life with his voice whatever his voice may be like.26
Most singing teachers and chorus masters believe in controlling the pitch of the voice by the
piano. But singing depends on the acoustically correct “natural” intervals, and not on the
tempered system. Even a perfectly tuned piano can never be a criterion of singing, not to
speak of the ever “out-of-tune” pianos available at schools and rehearsal rooms. Yet how
often have I found chorus masters attempting to restore the shaky intonation of their choirs
with the help of a mistuned piano!27
22 Kodály Today
Instruments
Kodály believed that instrumental instruction should also incorporate the use of
singing.
Understand once and for all what this is all about: the psychological procedure of our whole
music making is faulty—it must be inverted. So far it is the fingers that have run ahead, with
the head and heart hobbling after them. The way for the true musician is the opposite: he
starts with the head and the heart and from there directs the fingers, the larynx, or whatever
instrument. It is because they do not go about it in this way that so many of our pianists play
mechanically. When someone is twenty or thirty they announce that he has no talent. But
perhaps if he had tried to make music with his voice when he was six years old, he might
have come closer to the soul of the music and his piano playing might have been more
musical as a result.28
We should not allow anyone even to go near an instrument until he or she can read and sing
correctly. It is our only hope that one day our musicians will be able also to “sing” on their
instruments.29
To teach a child an instrument without first giving him preparatory training and without
developing singing, reading and dictating to the highest level along with the playing is to
build upon sand.30
I heard the finest singing in the world by the world’s worst voice—Toscaninni, when at
rehearsal he demonstrated a phrase in his blunt hoarse voice for his players and singers. And
this is why they could sing so beautifully under his baton. His most frequent comment to
the orchestra was “Cantare! Cantare!”31
Kodály did acknowledge the use of instruments to provide appropriate and tasteful song
accompaniments in the classroom. “But it is an even greater ‘pleasure and amusement’ for
children if they accompany themselves on their instruments. . . . The xylophone is not so
bad either. I shall never forget the charming sight and sound in Nagyvárad in 1942 of forty
children playing the xylophone simultaneously.”32 Kodály believed that students should
perform simple melodies on instruments. “However, these pieces can be played on any
other instrument or can be sung unaccompanied, wordlessly or with a text if a suitable one
can be invented.”33
Movement
The composer was convinced that movement through singing games and folk dancing
is critical for the musical development of children.
Children’s singing games allow a more profound insight than anything else into the primeval
age of folk music. Singing connected with movement and action is a much more ancient
and, at the same time, more complex phenomenon than is a simple song. It offers much
more hitherto untouched material to science for all kinds of investigation than any other
branch of folk music, on which its thorough examination can also throw new light.34
We must look forward to the time when all people in all lands are brought together through
singing, and when there is a universal harmony.35
In order to develop children’s musicianship skills as performers, we should include activ-

ities for developing children’s singing, instrument playing, and movement skills. Movement
activities may also include teaching simple conducting patterns.
Children as Stewards of Their Cultural Heritage: Music Repertoire
Although some music educators36 believe that the music education of children is more im-
portant than the transmission of a musical and cultural heritage, Kodály believed otherwise.
Not even the most excellent individual creation can be a substitute for traditions. To write a
folksong is as much beyond the bounds of possibility as to write a proverb. Just as proverbs
condense centuries of popular wisdom and observation, so, in the traditional songs, the
emotions of centuries are immortalized in a form polished to perfection. No masterpiece
can replace traditions.37
Kodály voiced concern that art be presented in such a way that it was not a torture, but a
joy for the pupil, so that it would instill in the child a thirst for finer music and affect his
or her level of taste in a way that would last for a lifetime.38 When children gain knowl-
edge of different musical repertoires beginning with music of their own community and
expanding to include music of other communities as well as art music they are in a posi-
tion to become stewards of their cultural legacy. Kodály believed that material suited to the
physical, developmental, and psychological needs of the young could be best found in folk
songs of their community. Kodály valued folk songs for their simplicity, beauty, and her-
itage, but he emphatically stressed the importance of using only authentic folk songs, link-
ing them to folk music of other cultures, to the finest art songs, art music and recently
composed music.
Through the use of folk songs and singing games in the school, the teacher can pro-
ceed with suitable material that is already part of the child’s cultural experience. Ruth
Crawford Seeger believed also that it is “one of the aims of education to induct the child
into the realities of the culture in which he will live, may we not say that this traditional
music and language and ideology, which has not only grown out of but has in turn influ-
enced that culture—and is still influencing and being used by it—should occupy a familiar
place in the child’s daily life, even though it may not be current in the particular neighbor-
hood in which he happens to be living.”39
The connection between folk tradition, art music, and recently composed music is
important in the music of each historical era. Therefore it becomes one of the goals of the
music teacher to teach the best folk and composed music to children so that they can be-
come the cultural stewards of this repertoire for their community.
It was Kodály’s belief that the communication of inferior music inhibits the growth of
maximum musical understanding. He maintained that the type of material used and the
manner of presentation has a lasting effect on the development of a child’s musical taste.
As students’ skills develop, folk songs of other cultures are gradually introduced along with
art music of the great composers and recently composed music. “There are strictly speak-
ing only two kinds of music: good and bad. . . . Bad foreign and bad native music are
equally damaging, like the plague.”40
24 Kodály Today
Bad taste spreads by leaps and bounds. In art this is not so innocent a thing as in, say, clothes.
Someone who dresses in bad taste does not endanger his health, but bad taste in art is a ver-
itable sickness of the soul. It seals the soul off from contact with masterpieces and from the
life giving nourishment emanating from them without which the soul wastes away or be-
comes stunted, and the whole character of the man is branded with a peculiar mark.41
The pure soul of the child must be considered sacred; what we implant there must stand
every test, and if we plant anything bad, we poison his soul for life.42
The use of contrived or diluted music is not suitable for instruction.
Let us stop the teachers’ superstition according to which only some diluted art-substitute is
suitable for teaching purposes. A child is the most susceptible and the most enthusiastic au-
dience for pure art; for in every great artist the child is alive—and this is something felt by
youth’s congenial spirit. Conversely, only art of intrinsic value is suitable for children! Every-
thing else is harmful. After all, food is more carefully chosen for an infant than for an adult.
Musical nourishment which is rich in vitamins is essential for children.43
Quality music literature for each grade will expand students’ knowledge of folk songs, art
music, and recently composed music. Instructors will need to decide how many songs and
from what cultural origins should be included in their curricula. From that point they can
determine which materials may be taught through music reading, or through a rote ap-
proach to learning. Through their tradition of oral transmission, folk songs have long been
considered ideal for developing ear-training and musical memory. This renders them well-
suited to fostering musical literacy.
Children as Critical Thinkers and Problem Solvers: Music Literacy
Kodály believed that all students should become musically literate, that is, they should be
able to read and write music with ease; comparable to the ease with which they read and
write their own language. “I was always amazed how an intelligent adult was willing with-
out the slightest protest to let himself be treated like a parrot. A choir which has even half
an idea of reading will in a given period of time learn ten times as many works and its per-
spectives will become ten times as broad as one which repeats like a parrot by ear.”44
Kodály inspired many musicians and teachers to work with folk materials and to ana-
lyze them from a musicological and pedagogical perspective. After careful analysis, a music
curriculum and pedagogical sequence was established that introduced the most common
intervals, rhythms, meters, and forms that are common in Hungarian music to students.
This approach differed from the older subject-logic approach to music learning in which
the material was taught in a manner that is logical in terms of content, but did not take
into account how children learn. For example, rhythm was often taught beginning with the
whole note, then dividing the whole into half notes, quarter notes, and so on. The Kodály
concept advocates beginning the study of rhythm with the patterns most common to chil-
dren’s singing games and chants. Thus, patterns of quarter and eighth notes are taught in
the context of music that the child has already experienced in many ways.
As Kodály’s ideas were developed, Hungarian teachers began using teaching techniques
that have sometimes been thought to constitute a “Kodály method.” These techniques in-
clude the use of the moveable do system of solmization, the use of hand signs to indicate
the notes of the scale, rhythmic syllables, and a form of musical shorthand derived from
the solfège and rhythmic systems. These devices were adapted by Kodály’s colleagues and
found useful in teaching music to children. However, they did not originate with Kodály-
based teaching.
The moveable do or tonic-solfa system can be traced to the eleventh century, when
Guido d’Arezzo used it for musical instruction. An Englishman, John Curwen, developed
the hand signs used to represent the notes of the scale in 1862. Hand signs provide physi-
cal and visual reinforcement of the musical sound. Musical shorthand, or stick notation,
was developed in Hungary and is simply a rapid way of writing music without the use of
the staff.
It is the use of these teaching techniques in combination with the folk song and art
music in a child-centered curriculum where children develop their critical thinking skills
through discovery learning that makes the Kodály concept of music education unique.
For the roots of science and of art are the same. Each, in its own way, reflects the world. The
basic conditions: sharp powers of observation, precise expression of the life observed, and
raising it to a higher synthesis. And the foundation of scientific and artistic greatness is also
the same: just man, vir Justus.45
On the basis of what has been said, the characteristics of a good musician can be summa-
rized as follows: a well trained ear, a well trained intelligence, a well trained heart, and a well
trained hand. All four must develop together, in a constant equilibrium. As one lags behind
or rushes ahead, there is something wrong.46
Children will develop critical thinking skills through the analysis of familiar music reper-
toires. Music tools such as rhythmic and solfège syllables should be used to aid in identi-
fying typical rhythmic and melodic patterns, referred to as “building blocks,” commonly
found in this repertoire. A knowledge of the basic components of a music repertoire will
enable students to develop their performance, listening, composition, and improvisation
skills. For example, much like a jazz musician, when students understand the basic build-
ing of a particular repertoire of music, they can manipulate these building blocks to create
other compositions.
Children as Creative Human Beings:

Music Composition and Improvisation
Music improvisation, the art of composing extemporaneously, and composition, the art of
formulating and writing music, are indispensable components of a music education.
Kodály believed that students should possess a well-trained ear to engage in music com-
position. “How often has it happened that pupils studying composition without a trained
ear write down something quite different from what they have imagined? . . . Here, too,
we have seen often enough what a struggle the study of composition, and even of simple
harmony, is for one who failed to learn the reading and writing of music early enough.”47
Two types of improvisation and composition activities are used in the music class-
room: one type where students improvise a rhythm or melody without thinking about the
26 Kodály Today
pitches or sounds being used and another type where students consciously use specific
rhythmic or melodic elements. The instructor who teaches music inspired by the Kodály
concept uses improvisation and composition in order that the students will develop the
ability to understand the creative process in music as well as understand the stylistic ele-
ments of a piece of music. Students who are able to improvise and compose music based
on typical forms, and melodic and rhythmic patterns commonly found in a particular
style of music will develop a greater feeling and understanding for that style. Improvisa-
tion and composition skills should be closely correlated to the conscious and unconscious
knowledge of rhythmic and melodic elements.
Children as Listeners
Music listening is an important component of the Kodály concept. No matter what the
activity in the music classroom children are constantly taught how to listen when they
perform, create, or while developing their critical thinking skills. Of course the music
instructor also needs to provide students with specific listening activities that will enable
them to form connections between the song repertoire they are singing and art music.
Kodály believed that there was a connection between folk music and art music. “For
instance, Haydn, the best to begin with, has manifest connection with folksong, but even
in many works of Mozart it is easy to recognize the sublimated Austrian folk songs.
Beethoven’s many themes are also folk-song like.”48
Kodály believed that listening was of paramount importance for the music student.
It is not enough to listen once, fleetingly, to great works; one has to prepare for them and to
follow the notes through the pages before and after hearing them in order to implant them
abidingly in one’s mind.49
It is the richness of both the musical experiences themselves and the memory of them that
makes a good musician. Individual singing plus listening to music (by means of active
and passive well-arranged experiences) develops the ear to such an extent that one under-
stands music one has heard with as much clarity as though one were looking at a score; if
necessary—and if time permits—one should be able to reproduce such a score. This, and
certainly no less, is what we expect from the student of a language; and music is a manifes-
tation of the human spirit similar to a language. Its great men have conveyed to mankind
things unutterable in any other language. If we do not want such things to remain dead
treasures, we must do our utmost to make the greatest possible number of people under-
stand their secrets.50
Activities for developing students’ listening skills should be included in the curriculum.
These activities should be closely correlated to the conscious knowledge of rhythmic and
melodic elements and used in practicing melodic or rhythmic elements. Listening activities
should include songs to be sung or performed by the classroom teacher or other students
in the music school as well as the performance of repertoire by professional musicians for
students. Specific pieces of repertoire should be listed in the curriculum and should in-
clude music that reinforces elements and concepts taught.
Linking the Kodály Concept, the Multiple

Dimensions of Musicianship, and the
National Content Standards for Music Education
A music curriculum built on the Kodály concept of music education aligns with the na-
tional content standards for music education.51 The following is a brief summation of
how a curriculum built on the philosophy of Kodály is reflective of the national content
standards. Each standard is cited along with a brief overview of how it relates to a Kodály
curriculum.
Content Standard One: Singing, Alone and

with Others, a Varied Repertoire of Music
Singing provides the foundation of all learning in the Kodály classroom. Through singing
students are guided to discover and subsequently internalize the elements of music. Stu-
dents learn a varied repertoire of multicultural music, classical music, and recently com-
posed music through singing. The curriculum engages students in group and solo
singing, call and response songs, melodic ostinati, rounds, canons, partner songs, and art
music.
Content Standard Two: Performing on Instruments,

Alone and with Others, a Varied Repertoire of Music
Kodály teachers use a variety of rhythm instruments as reinforcement of beat and rhythm
concepts. Melody instruments such as barred instruments and step bells are used to per-
form borduns and ostinati and may be used to practice melodic concepts. Recorders, gui-
tar, and auto harp may be introduced into classroom activities once students have reached
a level of maturation that enables them to perform on the instruments. In keeping with
the main tenets of the Kodály concept, students should first sing what is to be performed
on instruments.
Content Standard Three: Improvising

Melodies, Variations, and Accompaniments
Students use their knowledge of rhythmic and melodic elements as well as their stylistic
knowledge of folk music as the basis for their improvisation activities and compositions
in the classroom. Instructors engage students in a myriad of improvisation activities such
as improvising rhythmic or melodic answers to questions, improvising within a given
form as well as creating melodic and rhythmic ostinati. These activities also provide as-
sessment of student understanding of musical elements and musical styles as well as their
skill of performance.
28 Kodály Today
Content Standard Four: Composing and

Arranging Music within Specific Guidelines
Students in a Kodály classroom learn to audiate music (audiation, the skill of thinking
music) before they write it down rather than using a computer or instruments to first cre-
ate the sounds they write. Activities may include learning to create rhythmic and melodic
ostinati to known music, learning to create melodies to a given text, learning to arrange a
folk song for two voices, and learning to compose a new song within given compositional
parameters.
Content Standard Five: Reading and Writing Music
Kodály-trained students learn to read and write music using stick or staff notation, solfège
and rhythm syllables, and hand signs. Beginning reading and writing exercises and examples
include simple pentatonic, pentachord, and hexachord melodies and progress to diatonic
major, minor, and modal melodies as well as two- and three-part compositions.
Content Standard Six: Listening to,

Analyzing, and Describing Music
Kodály-trained students are guided to listen, analyze, and describe music using their
knowledge of music elements. Young students are taught how to listen for elements in a
piece of music and how to describe these elements. Instructors may focus on analysis when
they sight-sing additional pieces of music that include the same elements in listening ex-
amples. Both rhythmic and melodic dictation strategies include identifying the forms and
compositional elements of musical examples.
Content Standard Seven: Evaluating

Music and Music Performance
Because singing and performance is at the heart of the Kodály classroom, instructors and
students continually evaluate their performance. Knowledge of musical elements improves
the stylistic knowledge of the repertoire studied. The instructor may provide assessment
rubrics for performance that can be used by students for evaluation.
Content Standard Eight: Understanding

Relationships between Music, the Other Arts,
and Disciplines outside the Arts
Kodály-inspired music education develops students’ kinesthetic abilities as well as spatial,

mathematic, and reading aptitudes in the music classroom; skills that are readily transferred
to other areas of the curriculum.
Content Standard Nine: Understanding

Music in Relation to History and Culture
Kodály-trained students study the folk music and art music of different cultures and eras.
Children learn the text of folk songs in their original language; something that permits the
music instructor as well as classroom teachers to discuss historical information and make
connections to related disciplines and art forms. The study of art music includes history,
an understanding of the various style periods common to other art forms: visual arts,
architecture, and dance.
Building the Framework of a Curriculum Based

on Kodály’s Concept of Musicianship and the
National Content Standards for Music Education
In appendix 1, we have included a sample curriculum for a music program for grades
one through five. Each section of the curriculum will be discussed in greater detail in
subsequent chapters. Of course we have only provided a shell of a music curriculum as
the teaching demands placed upon music teachers are different from one school district
to another. The goal of this curriculum is to provide a model for constructing your own
curriculum. We have purposely not addressed every teaching situation in terms of cur-
riculum and lesson plan design. Once you have an understanding of the Kodály philoso-
phy and the approach to teaching you will be able to make the modifications to suit your
particular teaching situation.
The following is a framework for a grade one music curriculum based on the philoso-
phy of Zoltán Kodály. The specific musical skills need to be modified according to the fre-
quency of instruction.
I. Repertoire: Children as Stewards of their Cultural and Musical Heritage

Expand song repertoire to add to students’ knowledge of children’s songs and
games, folk music of the children’s culture, art music, and recently composed
music.
II. Performance: Children as Performers
Broaden performance skills to include:
A. Singing
1. Be familiar with a repertoire of thirty folk songs and singing games, classi-
cal music and recently composed music.
2. Know by memory ten to fifteen songs and are able to sing these with
solfège and rhythm syllables.
3. Perform all songs with accurate intonation, clear diction, clear head tone,
musical phrasing/breathing, appropriate dynamics, and tempi.
B. Part Work
1. Sing songs antiphonally.
2. Practice intervals simultaneously with hand signs.
3. Accompany a song with a rhythmic ostinato using quarter and eighth
notes and quarter note rests.
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and violinists could not play two or more notes with ‘one bow.’
Neither did they endeavor to conquer the technical difficulties of
playing on the G string. They made practically no use of the fourth
string until the end of the century. In addition, the instruments were
badly constructed, equipped with strings of inferior quality and tuned
in a low pitch, all of which militated strongly against purity and
accuracy of intonation. Hans Gerle (a flute player of Nuremberg), in
his 'Musica Teutsch, auf die Instrument der grossen und kleinen
Geigen’ (1532), advised that intonation marks be placed on the
fingerboard, and this naïve advice was in use as late as the middle of
the eighteenth century.[45]
The same writer points out that instrumentalists in improvising their

parts were prone to vie with each other in demonstrating their ability
as contrapuntists, a perfectly comprehensible habit, which must have
affected instrumental music in the sixteenth century as badly as the
vagaries of coloratura singers affected operatic music in the
eighteenth.
Gerle’s book, incidentally, contained a number of German, Welsh,

and French songs, and a fugue for four violins. Among other early
books on the violin mention may be made of these:
S. Virdung: Musica getuscht, 1511.
Judenkönig: A truly artistic instruction * * * of learning upon

the lute and violin, 1523. (Contains 25 numbers for violin and
flute.)
Agricola: Musica Instrumentalis, 1528. (Here the author refers

to the vibrato as a device that ‘makes the playing more
sweet.’)
La Franco: Scintille di Musica, 1533.
Silvestro Ganassi: Regola Rubertina che insegna suon di

Viola d’arco, 1543.
Ludovico Zacconi: Prattica di Musica, 1592 (Zacconi stated
here that the compass of the violin was g-ciii).
M. Prätorius: Syntagma Musicum, 1619.
Touching upon the use of the violin in the sixteenth century there is
extant a wealth of historical references. From one of these, for
example, we gather that at a public festival in 1520 viols were used
to accompany songs. We may assume their popularity in England
from the fact that they were used in the family of Sir Thomas More
(1530), an ardent music lover, and that during the reign of Edward VI
the royal musical establishment increased the number of its viols to
eight. Violins were used at public performances in Rouen in 1558; at
a fête in Bayonne for dance music in 1565, and in a performance of a
Mass at Verona in 1580. In the year 1572 Charles XI of France
purchased violins from Cremona and a little later ordered the famous
twenty-four violins from Andrea Amati. In 1579, at the marriage of the
Duke of Joyeuse, violins were used to play for dances, and
Montaigne in his Journal (1580) refers to a marriage ceremony in
Bavaria, where ‘as a newly married couple went out of church, the
violinists accompanied them.’ From this passage of Montaigne we
may infer that, in Germany at least, the popularity of violin music was
not confined to the upper classes. It must be remembered, however,
that the terms ‘viola,’ ‘violin,’ ‘viol,’ etc., were often applied
indifferently to stringed instruments of various kinds, and in view of
this inaccurate nomenclature historical references must be accepted
with a certain amount of reserve.
We know little of the music that was played on the violin before the
last decade of the sixteenth century. Violins, we are aware, were
employed in ensembles, in orchestras, and in unison with voices, and
in looking for violin music we have not necessarily to consider
compositions written especially for violin. By way of illustration we
may cite a collection of French Dances (1617), published for
‘instruments,’ presumably for all kinds of instruments, and a
collection of ‘Songs’ edited in Venice (1539) bearing the remark ‘to
sing and play,’ and indicating no special instruments. Probably much
of this sort of music was played by violin. Among examples of
specific writing for the violin there has come down to us previous to
1539 a Fugue (Fugato rather) for four violins, composed by Gerle. It
is in four parts: Discant (first violin), Alto (second violin), Tenor (viola)
and Bass ('cello), perhaps the earliest specimen of a composition for
string quartet. The style is purely vocal, as we may see from the
theme:
There is no suggestion of the violin idiom in the piece and it throws

no light on the development of violin music. Cortecci and Striggio in
1565 scored their intermezzi for two gravecembali, violins, flutes,
cornets, trombones, and several other instruments. D’Etrée, an oboe
player, wrote down the common lively tunes which had been
previously learned by ear and published them in 1564. As a practical
musician he undoubtedly considered also the violin. In the
performance of Beaulieu’s Circe (1581) ten bands were used and in
the first act ten violin players in costumes appeared. The famous
violinist, Beaujoyeaulx (an Italian in the service of Henry III whose
real name was Baltasarini), wrote ballets (1584), dances, festival
music, and other compositions, which were very successful at the
court. Doubtless he played them himself. Castiglione in his
Cortigiano mentions a composition as being written for 'quattro viole
da arco’ which almost seems to indicate another specimen of early
string quartet. Toward the end of the century we meet with the Balletti
of Gastoldi and of Thomas Morley, some of which are printed without
words and may have been intended for instrumental performances.
Still, they are vocal in character and do not exceed the compass of
the human voice. Besides these, there are other compositions and
collections of dances, etc., that may be considered musical material
for violinists of the time. Most of them, however, deserve no detailed
notice.
Up to 1587 the leading instrument of the orchestra was the Cornetto

(German ‘Zinke,’ an instrument of wood, not of metal). The earliest
instance where the Cornetto alternates with the violins in taking the
lead and where a part was inserted especially for violino is to be
found in Concerto di Andrea e Giovanni Gabrieli—per voci e
strumenti musicali, 1587. Some of G. Gabrieli’s compositions,
however, are still in vocal style, but some are decidedly instrumental
in character, as we may see from the following illustrations.
and
From a Sonata à 3 (1615).
and
(Note the last example, where the intentional contrast between piano
and forte is distinctly indicated.)
In 1593 Florentino Maschera, one of the celebrated organists of his

time, published a book of ‘Songs to play’ (Canzoni a sonar). The
work consisted of seventy-one pieces which had family names for
their titles, a custom that was often repeated in the first half of the
sixteenth century. It is important to note that these pieces were
printed in separate parts, so that they may be considered as the first
specimens of independent though not direct writing for the violin.
These canzoni were vocal in character and there was little that
suggested instrumental technique. The style was that of the vocal
compositions of the time—contrapuntal.
A genuine and daring innovator in the field of violin music was

Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643), who in some violin passages went
up as high as the fifth position. Besides broadening the technique of
the left hand, he demanded tremolos for dramatic effects in
accompanying recitative:
This passage from Combattimento di Tanceredi e Clorinda (1624)

offered so many difficulties to the musicians that at first they refused
to play it. As we shall see presently, however, Monteverdi was not the
first to introduce this effect (cf. p. 381). Another of his new effects
was the introduction of the pizzicato, which he marked thus: Qui si
lascia l’arco, e si strappano le chorde con duo diti, and afterwards
Qui si ripiglia l’arco. That Monteverdi expected violins to produce a
crescendo with the bow is apparent with the instruction Questa ultima
note va in arcato morendo. ‘Monteverdi with his two violins “alla
Francese” in the score of Orfeo (the first printed reference to the
violin as an orchestral instrument in the modern sense), probably
meant nothing more than that the violins were to be in the fashion of
the French, but in place of accompanying a dance, the character
indicated in the opera was accompanied by two violins in a particular
part of its music.’[46] In other violin pieces by Monteverdi, as in his
Scherzi musicali and Ritornelle (1607), we see his superiority to his
contemporaries, just as in his Sonata sopra Sancta Maria detratta,
etc. (1610), he showed plainly his desire to improve violin music.
III
The first attempt at independent violin composition was made by
Biagio Marini (1590-1660), maestro di cappella in Santa Eufemia in
Brescia and a court concert-master in Germany, who may be
regarded as the first professional composer-violinist. In his early
compositions the violin parts were not difficult for the players. There
were mostly half and quarter notes in slow tempi, displaying the
quality of vocal compositions, and without much use of the G string.
Witness the following example from his Martinenga Corrente (1622):
A passage from his Il Priulino Balletto e Corrente (marked canto

primo, secondo, and basso)
is more instrumental in quality, though the second part of the Balletto

reveals again the character of vocal music. The whole may be played
on the A and E strings. More violinistic passages are to be found in
his sinfonia La Gardana; for example:
Marini’s dance compositions are characteristic of all dance music at

the beginning of the seventeenth century. Among them, however, is
one that possesses particular interest for us from the fact that it is the
first extant composition marked distinctly ‘for violin solo.’ It is entitled
La Romanesca per Violino Solo e Basso (ad libitum), and has four
sections, each consisting of two parts. The first section, Parte prima,
has six measures in the first and second part; the second section has
five measures in the first part and six in the second. The form of the
third section is not so clear as that of the previous ones, although, as
we may see from the basses, the composer endeavored to give
clear-cut melodies. The same may be said of the fourth section,
where the figures are in the bass. The third section—terza parte in
altro modo—with new melodic and rhythmic material, has the
character of a dance. The violin part moves in figures of eight, and
there are sustained notes in the bass. The first few measures of each
section will serve as illustration.
Section I
Section II
Section III
Section IV
In his technique Marini does not go beyond the first position;
consequently the fluency of the melody suffers many a break, for
when he reaches the limit of the first position, he continues the
melody an octave lower. Yet he is responsible for several technical
innovations for the violin. He was the first to mark the bowing (legato
playing) and to introduce—seven years before Monteverdi’s
Combattimento—the coloring effect of the tremolo, thus:
Tremolo con arco.
Other innovations are to be found in his Sonate e Sinfonie Canzoni

(1629) where in a Capriccio ‘two violins play four parts’ (due violini
sonano quattro parti), thus:
and a ‘Capriccio to be played on the violin solo with three strings

after the manner of a lyre’ (Capriccio per sonare il Violino solo con tre
corde a modo di Lyra).
Besides Marini there were others who seriously endeavored to write

in a distinctive violin idiom. Before considering them we may mention
here Paolo Quagliati, who in his Sfera armoniosa (1623) made the
violin accompany the voices and used it also as a solo instrument
with the accompaniment of the theorbo in a toccata of the same
opus. The violin part usually consisted of sustained tones that were
to be embellished by the players according to the custom of the time.
Quagliati himself was not a violinist and this fact serves to explain the
simple technique of his violin parts.
Four years later Carlo Farina, a Saxon chamber virtuoso and concert
master, who may be termed the founder of the race of violin
virtuosos, published a composition for the violin, called Capriccio
stravagante. Here he strove toward new and unusual violinistic
effects. The very title, ‘an extravagant caprice,’ explains his object.
While the piece shows little improvement in form, the technique is
noticeably advanced. Farina goes to the third position and points out
how the change of position should be executed. Besides broadening
violin technique Farina was among the first to venture into the field of
realistic ‘tone painting.’ For he tried to imitate the whistling of a
soldier, the barking of a dog, the calling of a hen, the crying of a cat,
the sound of a clarinet and the trumpet. Farina’s experiments in tone-
painting were, however, rather the product of a desire for sensational
novelty than of a legitimate seeking after artistic expression. He lacks
the genuine qualities of a true artist.
Although Farina did not use the G string, and did not go further than
the third position, he recognized the power of expression latent in the
violin. Besides rapid figures of sixteenth notes and considerable
variety in bowing there are double stops:
and a series of consecutive chords with the instruction that it should

be executed with the stick of the bow:
It was also his idea—not at all a bad one—to mark double stops with
figures:
The fact that he found it necessary to give instruction for the

execution of double stops and tremolos, and the production of the
required effects in his imitations indicates that these devices were
entirely new in violin playing.
According to Gerber he published besides the Capriccio, a collection

of 'Sonatas’ and 'Pavanes’ (1628), which, if they existed at all, are
entirely lost. Of his other compositions (Dances, Arias) we possess
the first violin parts containing the melody. He used the G clef and
the term ‘violino.’
The compositions of Marini, Quagliati and Farina represent the

beginnings of independent violin solo music. The first to write
sonatas for violin solo was the violinist-composer Giovanni Battista
Fontana (1630). His works, compared with the sonatas of Gabrieli,
show a marked improvement in violin technique; they are
characterized by the same polyphonic style, but they are not so
conclusively vocal in character. The following selections will show the
great improvement in violin technique; they virtually comprise the first
‘runs’ composed for the violin:
From a Sonata for Violin Solo.
or
or
or
Fontana strove toward a broader form and in doing so he took a part

in the evolution of the later sonata. But he was not capable of fluent
and even expression, hence the effect of his works on the whole is
stiff and dry. We should not forget, however, that he lived during the
period of transition from the old tonal systems to the new, and that,
while he endeavored to write in the new style, the old one had not
lost its hold upon him. The result was awkwardness in modulation
and a general vagueness and uncertainty.
About the same time (1629) another composer, Bartolomeo Mont’

Albano, published his Sinfonie for one and two violins (and
trombones, with the accompaniment of the organ). These pieces are
incoherent and lack inspiration and power. Their value is far below
that of Fontana’s compositions. Mont’ Albano is only worthy of
mention as showing that Fontana was not absolutely alone in his
attempts to improve violin music. It may be noticed that he called his
compositions Sinfonie, meaning nothing more nor less than Fontana
meant in his sonatas—a proof that the technical terms at that time
were not yet strictly defined.
Great improvement in technique is obvious in the works of Tarquinno
Merula (1633). He used the G string freely, demanded skips from the
G to the E string, also tremolos, changes of position:
and octave passages:
Mont’ Albano’s music was thought out rather than invented and it
would give little pleasure to the modern ear. In the history of the
development of violin music these early compositions should be
considered simply as efforts or studies to advance violin technique
and musical form.
While Merula helped the progress of left hand technique, Marco

Ucellini (1669) made more demands on the bow, writing rapid thirty-
second notes for certain tremolo effects in his sinfonia entitled La
gran Bataglia.
A more pleasing musical quality is to be found in the sonatas of

Massimiliano Neri, who was the first to make a distinction between
the Sonata da chiesa and the Sonata da camera. In his Sonate e
Canzoni a quattro and in his Sonate da suonarsi con vari strumenti,
Neri followed the path of Gabrieli in writing for as many as twelve
instruments. The frequent change of time and the restless rhythm are
also reminiscent of Gabrieli’s peculiarities. Although Neri’s structure
of phrases and periods is more normal, his modulation more fluent,
and his music on the whole more agreeable to the modern ear than
that of Fontana and Merula, his works still belong to the practical
experiments of violin music, and are without great intrinsic merits.
The same may be said of the sonatas of Biagio Marini whom we
have already discussed. He may be termed one of the originators of
the cyclical form of the modern sonata, since his sonatas were in four
movements. The first, usually in slow tempo, was followed by an
Allegro, this by a longer or shorter piece that led to the last
movement (Allegro). While his style was still distinctly polyphonic, the
development of his motives was considerably more pleasing.
Improvement in harmony and modulation is found in the Sonate da
chiesa and Sonate da camera of Giovanni Legrenzi (1655), who did
not otherwise accomplish much in forwarding solo violin music.
Turning to Germany, it is to be regretted that the works, which, to

judge by their titles, might have shed some light on the development
of early violin music, are irretrievably lost to us. They are
Auserlesene Violinen Exercitium aus verschiedener Sonaten nebst
ihre Arien, Balladen, Sarabanden, etc., and Musicalische
Tafelbedienung von fünf Instrumenten, als zwei Violinen, zwei Violen,
nebst den General Bass, by Wilhelm Furcheim (1674), concert-
master at Dresden. The most important figure, among the earliest
German composers for the violin from the standpoint of technical
advance, is evidently Jacob Walter. His twelve Scherzi da violino solo
are in the style of the Sonate da Camera (Suite) or in the form of
variations. Eight of them are called sonatas, and contain three or four
movements, mostly in the same key but in a variety of tempi. From a
musical point of view most of Walter’s compositions are unattractive,
as the form is stiff, the rhythm awkward, modulation poor, and the
melody heavy and clumsy. His importance lies exclusively in the
advanced claims his writings make upon execution, for he ascends
as far as and writes many difficult double stops, chords, and
arpeggios. Walter was also fond of imitating other instruments, birds,
echoes, and so forth. In a set of variations we meet with imitations of
the guitar by playing pizzicato, of the pipes by going up high on the E
string, of fanfares by playing on the G string. In another composition
the imitation of the call of the cuckoo was his chief purpose; but we
would hardly recognize the cuckoo’s call, had he not in every case
taken the pains to mark the imitation. In another instance, in Hortulus
Chelicus, he endeavored to imitate the voice of some other bird. This
work as a piece of art is more valuable, since here he attempted to
write a duet for one violin. Another composition that is characteristic
of Walter’s musical ideas is a Capriccio, where the C major scale is
used as basso ostinato in forty-nine variations, as though the
composer wanted to give as many kinds of motions and figures as he
could.
Stradivarius at Work: Antonio Stradivari.
Walter was not an innovator in the art of tone painting, for Farina had
tried the same devices seventy years before. Still he cannot be
dubbed a mere imitator of Farina, though he was without doubt
strongly influenced by the latter. Walter’s technique is much more
advanced than that of Farina, but at the same time he shows little
improvement in a purely musical way.
IV
There is an obvious advance in musical value in the Correnti e
balletti da camera a due violini, 1666; Balletti, Sonate, 1667, 1669;
Correnti e capricci per camera a due violini e violone, 1683, and
other instrumental pieces by Giovanni Battista Vitali, 'sonatore di
Violino di brazzo’ in the orchestra of Bologna. Vitali’s melodies
contain much more pleasing qualities than those of his
contemporaries. In regard to form, his sonatas, in which rapid
changes from quick to slow movements mark the various sections,
show the transition from the suite to the sonata da camera. Vitali was
one of those early inspired composers, whose greatest merit lies in
their striving toward invention and toward the ideal of pure absolute
music. In technique Vitali does not show any material progress.
Of particular importance is Tommaso Antonio Vitali, a famous

violinist of his time. Of his works, Sonate a tre, due violini e
violoncello, 1693; Sonate a due violini, col basso per l’organo, 1693,
and Concerto di sonate a violino, violoncello e cembalo, 1701, the
most famous and most valuable is his Ciaccona, which is very often
played on the concert stage by present-day violinists. The Ciaccona
is full of poetic moods and its short, pregnant theme shows deep
feeling and genuine inspiration, qualities which we find here for the
first time. The whole is a set of variations upon a short theme,
constituting a series of contrasting pictures. Noteworthy are the
harmony and the advanced treatment of modulation. The ornamental
figures, too, are derived from the logical development of the theme,
hence do not serve the sole purpose of providing the virtuoso with an
opportunity to display his technical skill.
The first representative virtuoso-composer was Giuseppe Torelli

(1658-1708), to whom is ascribed the invention of the concerto, that
is, the application of the sonata form of his time to concerted music.
In Torelli’s concertos the solo-violins were accompanied not only by a
bass as in the sonatas, but by a stringed band, to which sometimes
a lute or organ was added. The solo-violins in his ‘Concerti grossi’
(1686) usually played together, though not always. That he had the
virtuoso in mind when he wrote may be gathered from the following
examples:
In his concertos Torelli was the direct precursor of Corelli, Vivaldi,
and Handel. His influence, however, was not so intense as that of
Giovanni Battista Bassani (1657-1716), whose music had more unity
and definiteness and on the whole ranked very much higher
artistically. This, added to the fact that he was Corelli’s teacher, gives
him a prominent place in the history of violin music. While the single
movements of Bassani’s sonatas on the whole show little
improvement in form, the composer established a higher standard in
the evenness and uniformity of his figures, in the smoothness of his
modulation and chromatics, in rhythms that were far superior to
those of earlier composers, in phrasing that was clear, especially in
slow movements, and in the almost complete abandonment of the
‘fugal’ treatment. His influence upon Corelli is so evident that one
could hardly distinguish one of his later compositions from an early
sonata of his famous pupil.
A few examples of Bassani’s writing may be of interest:
Grave. From a Sonata for two Violins and Bass.

Largo. From a Baletto e Corrente.
Gige
Sarabande. Presto
Before closing our account of the seventeenth century, reference

should be made to the prominent Antonio Veracini, the uncle and
teacher of Francesco Maria Veracini, whose sonatas are still played
by violinists today. Antonio Veracini’s sonatas, composed in the form
of the sonata da chiesa, do not lack a certain amount of beauty,
inspiration, and repose; they show, moreover, clearness, fluency and
roundness. His melodies are original, his modulations and
contrapuntal combinations good. While his Allegro movements show
no improvement in comparison with Bassani’s works, the Adagios
and Largos are of more independent finish.
There were numerous contemporaries, followers, and pupils of the

composers already discussed. Their works, however, were
academic, lacked individuality, and contained little that was worthy of
special consideration. The list of these minor composers includes
Laurenti, Borri, Mazzolini, Bononcini, Buoni, Bernardi, d’Albergati,
Mazzaferrata, Tonini, Grossi, Ruggeri, Vinacesi, Zanata, and others.
V
The first German composer of violin music of æsthetic value was
Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (born 1638), a very prominent
violinist and composer of his time. Although frequently his form is
vague and his ideas often dry, some of his sonatas contain
movements that not only exhibit well-defined forms, but also contain
fine and deeply felt ideas and a style which, though closely related to
that of the best Italians of his time, has something characteristically
German in its grave and pathetic severity. His sonatas on the whole
are of a much higher artistic quality than those of his
contemporaries. His sixth sonata, in C minor, published in 1687, is a
genuinely artistic piece of work. ‘It consists of five movements in
alternately slow and quick time. The first is an introductory largo of
contrapuntal character, with clear and consistent treatment in the
fugally imitative manner. The second is a passacaglia, which
answers roughly to a continuous string of variations on a short, well-
marked period; the third is a rhapsodical movement consisting of
interspersed portions of poco lento, presto, and adagio, leading into
a Gavotte; and the last is a further rhapsodical movement alternating
adagio and allegro. The work is essentially a violin sonata with
accompaniment and the violin parts point to the extraordinary rapid
advances toward mastery. The writing for the instrument is decidedly
elaborate and difficult, especially in the double stops and
contrapuntal passages. In the structure of the movements the fugal
influences are most apparent and there are very few signs of the
systematic repetition of keys which in later times became
indispensable.’[47] It was characteristic of Biber that his ambition was
to create something original and that his works always showed
individuality. He was fond of variations and this form was not lacking
in any of his eight sonatas. Besides the variation form he frequently
used the form of gavotte and giga, which he began and ended with
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1 Constructing a Teaching Resource Portfolio 9

1 Curriculum Goals 453

• how to teach improvisation and composition,

What are the key components of a Teaching Resource Portfolio?

What Is a Teaching Resource Portfolio?

1. Statement of Teaching Philosophy and Reﬂective Practice

Table 1.1 Components of a teaching portfolio, by chapter

Components of a Teaching Portfolio Related Chapter

Statement of teaching philosophy and Chapter 2

Table 1.1 Continued

Components of a Teaching Portfolio Related Chapter

Statement of Teaching Philosophy and Reﬂective Practice

1. Repertoire for developing singing, instrumental performance, and movement.

How many songs should be multicultural?

Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Music Literacy

Music Improvisation and Composition

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Zoltán Kodály: A Biographical Outline

The Early Years: 1882–1905

Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967)1 was a Hungarian composer, ethnomusicologist, and music

The Young Composer: 1905–1922

The Creative Period: 1923–1939

The Educator: 1940–1967

Education.” He discussed the importance of basing Hungarian musical education on Hun-

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The Importance of Excellent Artist-Teachers

We believe that students must be taught music based on an apprenticeship model of

Only excellent artist teachers will be able to:

The Multiple Dimensions of Musicianship

1. Performers (we mean the act of making and sharing music)

Children as Performers: Singing, Instruments, and Movement

Music performance is at the core of a music program. Through performance students

In order to develop children’s musicianship skills as performers, we should include activ-

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The use of contrived or diluted music is not suitable for instruction.

Children as Critical Thinkers and Problem Solvers: Music Literacy

Children as Creative Human Beings:

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Content Standard One: Singing, Alone and

Content Standard Two: Performing on Instruments,

Content Standard Three: Improvising