Introduction to Embedded System

Unit 1

1 Introduction to Embedded System

1.1 Embedded Systems Overview

The invention of the microprocessor in early 1970s revolutionized the computing method
and paved the beginning of modern computing system. Since then millions of computing
systems are built every year targeting different desktop computer like personal computer,
laptops, workstations and mainframes. What may further be surprising is that billions of
such computing devices are built for different purpose. Such systems are either integrated
to larger system to carry some specific task or standalone doing some specific task. These
systems are sometimes recognizable from user prospects or sometime becomes completely
unrecognizable. This continual effort to integrate/embed smaller computing system into
bigger system have given rise to a new class of system, named as embedded computing
system or simply embedded system. The design goal of such embedded system varies
significantly from conventional computing system in the sense that they have very strict
performance requirements and at the same time need to meet different other design
constraints. If we go to the literal meaning of an Embedded System, it refers to a computing
system that is “embedded” or integrated within a larger system or devices. So, creating a
precise definition of such embedded system is not easy. There are endless definitions of
embedded system, defined contextually based on functional and practical approaches.
However, in more general method we can define embedded system as:

Definition: An embedded system is specialized computing system, that integrates both

hardware and software to perform specific tasks, and can be as part of a larger system or
standalone.

Thus, if we elaborate this definition we can re-write it in more comprehensive way as:

An embedded system is a dedicated computing system that integrates hardware and

software to perform a specific function within a larger system or as a standalone unit. It is
designed to operate under defined computational constraints such as real-time
performance, power efficiency, and reliability, making it highly optimized for its intended
task.

Embedded systems have become ubiquitous, found in almost every aspect of modern life.
From everyday gadgets to industrial application, embedded systems are seamlessly

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 1

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

integrated into the devices we use daily. There are numerous fields where we find
embedded system products, it will take pages if we list all of them. Here are some major
applications of embedded systems:

• Consumer Electronics (Smartphones, Tablets, Televisions, video camera, calculator,

etc.)
• Automotive Systems (Infotainment Systems, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems
ADAS, fuel injection, etc.)

• Healthcare Devices (Medical Imaging Systems, Patient Monitoring Systems,

Wearable Health Devices, etc.)
• Telecommunications (Network Routers, Mobile Base Stations, Communication
Satellites, etc.)
• Aerospace and Defense (Avionics Systems, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs),
Military Systems, etc.)

The ubiquity of embedded systems is evident, as they are now integrated into nearly every
electronic device, making it difficult to find a modern gadget without one. Even in rare
cases where such devices exist, they are likely to be replaced by embedded technologies in
the near future. The global market for embedded systems is currently valued at around USD
100 billion in 2024, and it is projected to reach USD 183 billion by 2032, growing at a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.97%. This surge is expected to generate
numerous job opportunities and promises a bright future in the field.

1.2 Embedded Systems vs. General-Purpose Systems

An embedded system consists of microcomputer/microcontroller integrated with different

mechanical and electronics components programmed to perform specific function. Any
system that requires inputs, decision-making, calculation, analysis and outputs can be
implemented as an embedded system. For example, a temperature sensor measures the
temperature of a room in degrees Celsius. This data is transmitted to the microcomputer or
microcontroller through an appropriate interface. The microcontroller, using its software,
processes the temperature readings, performs the necessary computations and decision-
making, and then sends the output through additional electronic interfaces. This output can
control heating or cooling systems (actuators) based on the predefined temperature

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 2

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

threshold. For instance, a thermostat can trigger an air conditioner or heater to adjust the
room temperature and maintain a comfortable environment.

In contrast, a general-purpose computer system is designed for flexibility and can handle a
wide range of tasks. It typically includes input devices like a keyboard, storage like disks,
and a display for graphical output. These computers can be programmed to perform tasks
such as word processing, email, business accounting, scientific simulations, and database
management. Users of general-purpose systems have access to both the software and
hardware, allowing them to select which operating system to run and which applications to
use. New programs can be easily added through removable disks or network interfaces.
Personal computers (PCs), laptops, and workstations fall under the category of general-
purpose systems and are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks with high flexibility
in application handling. These systems can run multiple types of software, making them
suitable for everything from office work and multimedia editing to scientific computing
and gaming. Their versatility allows users to install and run different applications, adapt to
various tasks, and switch between them seamlessly.

1.2.1 Major Characteristics of Embedded System

Embedded systems possess several characteristics that set them apart from other computing
systems, such as general-purpose computers. However, not all embedded system
necessarily supports every characteristic. Some of the key characteristics of embedded
systems are:

1. Single Functioned: Majority of embedded systems are designed to perform specific

task repeatedly. For example, a microwave oven has an embedded controller that takes
user inputs such as time and power settings and performs the job of heating or cooking
food. Similarly, a traffic light control system continuously monitors and manages the
sequence of traffic signals based on pre-programmed timings or real-time data from
sensors. In contrast, a general-purpose system (such as a desktop computer) can handle
many different types of operations, from web browsing to complex computations. An
embedded system, however, is typically optimized for its specific task and can carry it
out more efficiently than a general-purpose system could.
2. Tightly constrained: Embedded systems are typically designed with several strict
constraints. These systems must be cost-effective, compact in size, and low in power

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 3

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

consumption. These constraints often limit the scalability of embedded systems

compared to general-purpose computers. For example, a fitness tracker must be cost-
effective, compact, and power-efficient, as it operates on a battery and is worn like a
watch. This device continuously monitors a user’s physical activities, tracking metrics
such as steps taken, heart rate, and sleep patterns. Its small size allows it to be
comfortably worn throughout the day, while its energy-efficient design ensures long
battery life, typically lasting several days on a single charge.
3. Real-Time: Most embedded systems are real-time in nature, meaning they most
response within the specified and fixed timeframe and failing to do so can result in
catastrophic consequences. Real-time systems are of two types: Hard real-time and Soft
real-time. For example, if a fire detection system fails to activate fire extinguishers
immediately after detecting a fire alarm through its sensors, it could result in significant
damage or loss. This type of system falls under the category of hard real-time systems.
On the other hand, if there is a delay in broadcasting from a radio station to the end
user, it may result in a slight lag in reception, but the consequences are not catastrophic.
Such systems are classified as soft real-time systems, where timing is important but not
life-threatening, allowing for some flexibility in response times.
4. Reactive: Most embedded systems are reactive in nature. They continuously interact
with the environment and response immediately in any change in the environmental
change. For example, a temperature control system reacts to changes in ambient
temperature by adjusting heating or cooling mechanisms to maintain a desired climate.
In contrast, proactive systems do not require constant interaction with their
environment. Once initiated, a proactive system operates independently to generate
output based on pre-defined criteria or schedules.
5. Minimal User Interface: Most embedded systems utilize minimal user interfaces,
often consisting of simple control buttons, switches, and LEDs. Unlike general
computing devices that rely on keyboards and screens, embedded systems hide complex
functionalities, providing users with only the essential features needed for specific
tasks.

1.2.2 Comparison Between Embedded System and General Computing device

Embedded systems and general-purpose computing systems exist at opposite ends of the
computing spectrum. Embedded systems are purpose-built to perform dedicated tasks with

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 4

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

precision and efficiency, while general-purpose computers are designed for versatility,
capable of handling a broad range of functions such as gaming, media playback, software
development, document processing, and more. The following points highlight the key
differences between embedded systems and general-purpose computing systems.

Criteria General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

Functionality Multi-functioned: Can run multiple, varied Singled-functioned: Designed to perform
tasks specific tasks.
Design Focus Versatile, flexible for various applications Optimized for a specific function or application
Real-Time May or may not require real-time processing Often require real-time operation to meet
Operation deadlines
Reactivity Not typically designed for continuous Continuously reactive to external events and
interaction inputs
Performance Few constraints on memory, speed or resources Tightly constrained by memory, speed and
constraints other resources
Power Utilization Power consumption is generally high Low power consumption is critical, often
battery-operated
User Interaction Direct user interaction with input Limited or no direct interaction, uses sensor or
devices(keyboard, mouse) interfaces
Operating General-purpose OS (Windows, Linux, Custom, real-time OS(RTOS) or bare-metal
System macOS) software
Deployment Found in workstations, desktops, laptops, Found in industrial devices, home appliances,
Environment servers vehicles etc.
Cost Higher cost, as it is designed for versatile usage Lower cost, focused on specific functions and
constraints

1.3 Applications and Industry Domains of Embedded Systems

Embedded systems are deeply embedded in modern life, playing a crucial role in a wide
variety of application domains that span diverse industries and technologies. From low-
cost consumer electronics in daily life, such as smartphones and home appliances, to high-
end industrial automation systems, embedded systems are designed to meet specific
functional requirements with high efficiency. They power entertainment systems, academic
tools, medical devices, and even sophisticated aerospace and defense technologies like
missile guidance systems and satellite communication. This versatility showcases how
embedded systems touch nearly every aspect of modern society, driving advancements in
sectors ranging from healthcare to automotive, energy, and beyond. The following sections

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 5

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

will explore the broad applications and industry domains where embedded systems play an
indispensable role, shaping the future of technology and improving our quality of life.

1.3.1 Automotive Industry

The word “Automotive” refers to all aspects related to the road vehicles, such as cars, buses
or any other motorized vehicles. Automotive industry represents a vast network of
companies and organization that are responsible for producing and maintaining vehicles.

The role of embedded systems in the automotive domain is rapidly growing, significantly
enhancing vehicle safety, efficiency, and convenience. For instance, embedded systems
optimize engine performance by precisely controlling fuel injection and ignition timing,
which helps reduce emissions and ultimately improve fuel efficiency. Moreover, these
systems are extensively deployed across the automotive industry to manage various aspects
of vehicles, including infotainment systems that provide entertainment and navigation, as
well as critical safety features such as anti-lock braking systems (ABS) and advanced
driver-assistance systems (ADAS) that enable autonomous driving capabilities. Through
these innovations, embedded systems are transforming the automotive landscape, making
vehicles safer and more efficient than ever before. The role of embedded systems in
automotive industry have wide range of application and are now standard in most vehicles,
enabling advanced features like:

• Engine Control Units (ECUs): The Engine Control Unit (ECUs) is a pivotal
component in modern automotive embedded system. It is responsible for controlling
various aspects of internal combustion engine like fuel injection control, Ignition
Timing Management and Emission Control. By utilizing such advance technology in
automotive industry embedded system is changing the landscape of automotive
industry by improving fuel efficiency, increasing the performance and overall reducing
the environmental impacts.
• Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS): An anti-lock braking system (ABS) are critical
safety features mostly adopted in modern vehicles. ABS system prevent wheel lock-up
or skidding during hard braking, especially on slippery surface. The integration of ABS
contributes to advanced automotive safety technologies, providing drivers with greater
confidence and control on the road.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 6

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

• Airbag Control Systems: Airbag control systems, play a crucial role in enhancing
vehicle safety by rapidly deploying airbags during collisions. These systems rely on
sensors that detect sudden deceleration or impact, triggering the embedded controller
to activate the airbag within milliseconds. The embedded system ensures precise timing
and deployment, minimizing injury to passengers by cushioning the impact.
• Autonomous Driving: Autonomous driving relies heavily on embedded systems to
enable vehicles to operate without human intervention, transforming the future of
transportation. Embedded systems in autonomous vehicles process vast amounts of data
from sensors like cameras, radar, and LIDAR to perceive the environment, detect
obstacles, and navigate safely. These systems are responsible for real-time decision-
making, including steering, acceleration, braking, and lane changes. By integrating
complex sensor data and machine learning models, embedded systems play a pivotal
role in making autonomous driving a reality, enhancing safety, convenience, and
efficiency in transportation.
• Infotainment Systems: Infotainment systems in modern vehicles are powered by
embedded systems, providing drivers and passengers with entertainment,
communication, and navigation features. These systems integrate multimedia
functions, such as music, video, and smartphone connectivity, with real-time
information like GPS navigation, traffic updates, and voice control. Embedded systems
ensure seamless operation, allowing users to interact through touchscreens, voice
commands, or steering wheel controls. Additionally, infotainment systems are often
connected to the internet, enabling access to apps, cloud services, and over-the-air
updates.

1.3.2 Healthcare and Medical Devices

With advancements in science and technology, embedded systems have become vital to the
medical field, playing a crucial role in medical equipment by enabling functions such as
patient monitoring, diagnosis, and treatment. These systems enhance the efficiency and
accuracy of medical professionals, making them an integral part of modern healthcare. As
embedded systems evolve, they will significantly impact healthcare, offering greater
convenience to patients and driving innovation in medical technologies. In the healthcare
domain, embedded systems are crucial for developing life-saving devices. Some of the
application includes:

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 7

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

• Medical Monitoring Systems: Medical monitoring systems are a critical application

of embedded systems in healthcare, providing continuous and real-time monitoring of
patients' vital signs. These systems are used to track parameters such as heart rate, blood
pressure, oxygen saturation, and body temperature. Embedded systems process data
from various sensors, allowing healthcare professionals to detect abnormalities early
and respond quickly to any health issues.
• Imaging Systems: Imaging systems in healthcare, such as MRI, CT scanners, and
ultrasound machines, rely on embedded systems to process and display high-resolution
images of the body’s internal structures. Embedded systems play a crucial role in
managing the large volumes of data generated by these devices and enabling real-time
imaging, which is essential for accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Wearable Devices: Wearable devices, powered by embedded systems, have become
increasingly popular in healthcare for monitoring and managing various health metrics
in real-time. These compact, sensor-driven devices are designed to be worn on the body,
continuously tracking data such as heart rate, activity levels, sleep patterns, and more.
Embedded systems within these devices process sensor data and provide valuable
insights into a user’s health, promoting proactive and preventive care.
• Pacemakers and Implantable Devices: Pacemakers and other implantable devices
rely on embedded systems to perform life-saving functions by continuously monitoring
and regulating critical bodily functions, such as heart rhythms. These devices are
implanted in patients to address conditions like arrhythmia, ensuring the heart beats
regularly by delivering electrical impulses when necessary. Embedded systems play a
central role in controlling these devices, making them highly reliable, safe, and
efficient.

1.3.3 Industrial Automation and Control Systems

Automation and control play a critical role in today’s industrial automation processes. By
integrating embedded systems, companies can significantly enhance productivity, improve
safety, and lower operational costs. These systems enable the optimization of processes,
continuous monitoring of critical parameters, and real-time decision-making, resulting in
greater operational efficiency and improved product quality, which ultimately leads to
increased profitability. Furthermore, automation and control contribute to reducing the
environmental impact of industrial operations by minimizing waste and optimizing

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 8

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

resource utilization. In essence, embedded systems are essential for industries to thrive in
an ever-evolving technological landscape. Some of the key application where embedded
system plays its role in this domain includes:

• Process Control: Embedded systems play a vital role in process control by managing
key parameters like temperature, pressure, and flow rates in manufacturing. They
collect data from sensors and make real-time adjustments to maintain consistency and
precision during production. This ensures that processes run smoothly, leading to
higher quality products and greater efficiency in manufacturing operations.
• Robotics and Automated Machinery: Embedded systems are essential in robotics and
automated machinery, enabling industrial robots to perform tasks such as assembly,
welding, and material handling with exceptional accuracy and speed. These systems
control the robots' movements and ensure safe interaction with their surroundings,
allowing for efficient and reliable operation in various manufacturing processes. By
integrating embedded systems, industries can streamline production, reduce errors, and
enhance overall productivity.
• Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA): Embedded systems are
fundamental to Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, which
are crucial for monitoring and controlling essential infrastructure, such as power plants,
water treatment facilities, and oil refineries. These systems gather data from remote
sensors and manage equipment, enabling operators to oversee and control operations
from a centralized location. By utilizing embedded systems, SCADA enhances
efficiency, improves response times, and ensures the reliability of critical services.
• Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
are specialized embedded systems designed for industrial control applications. They
run pre-programmed instructions to manage machinery, production lines, and other
automated systems. Known for their robustness and reliability, PLCs are crucial in
harsh industrial environments, ensuring smooth and efficient operations. Their ability
to withstand challenging conditions while maintaining consistent performance makes
them an integral part of modern manufacturing and automation processes.
• Safety Systems: Embedded systems are integral to safety-critical applications,
including emergency shutdown systems and fire detection systems. These systems
continuously monitor environmental conditions and can automatically activate safety
mechanisms when hazardous situations arise. By ensuring quick and reliable responses

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 9

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

to potential dangers, embedded systems help protect both personnel and equipment,
enhancing overall safety in industrial environments. Their ability to operate
autonomously in emergencies is essential for maintaining a secure and safe working
atmosphere.

1.3.4 Internet of Things (IoT)

Embedded systems are foundational to the Internet of Things (IoT), providing the
intelligence that enables devices to communicate seamlessly with each other and the cloud.
They integrate sensors to monitor physical properties like temperature and humidity,
process the data generated, and transmit it for analysis. By facilitating both wired and
wireless communication through various protocols, embedded systems ensure efficient data
exchange among devices. Additionally, they play a crucial role in maintaining security by
protecting data transmission and safeguarding against cyber threats. Effective power
management by embedded systems is essential for optimizing energy consumption and
prolonging battery life in IoT devices. Overall, embedded systems are integral to enhancing
the functionality, efficiency, and security of IoT applications, driving innovation across
various sectors. IoT applications spans across various industries:

• Smart Homes: In smart homes, embedded systems play a crucial role in automating
and controlling various functions, including lighting, heating, cooling, and security
systems. These systems enable devices like smart thermostats, smart locks, and smart
lighting to operate efficiently and respond to user commands. Embedded systems
facilitate communication between devices, allowing them to work together seamlessly
for enhanced convenience and energy management. For example, a smart thermostat
can adjust the temperature based on user preferences and occupancy patterns, while
smart lighting can be programmed to turn on or off according to a set schedule or in
response to motion detection. By integrating these technologies, smart homes not only
improve comfort and security but also promote energy efficiency, contributing to a
more sustainable living environment.
• Industrial IoT (IIoT): Industrial IoT (IIoT) leverages embedded systems to monitor
and control various manufacturing processes, enhancing operational efficiency and
safety. Embedded systems in IIoT devices gather real-time data from machinery and
production equipment, enabling continuous monitoring and early detection of

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 10

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

anomalies. This allows industries to implement predictive maintenance, which reduces

unexpected downtime and maintenance costs by addressing issues before they escalate.
Additionally, IIoT solutions optimize resource usage, automate repetitive tasks, and
ensure the smooth running of complex industrial operations. These advancements lead
to improved productivity, minimized operational risks, and better overall performance
in industrial environments.
• Agriculture: In agriculture, IoT applications powered by embedded systems are
transforming traditional farming practices. Embedded systems are integrated into
devices like soil moisture sensors, weather stations, and automated irrigation systems
to monitor and optimize environmental conditions in real-time. By collecting data on
soil health, humidity, temperature, and weather patterns, these systems enable farmers
to make informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and crop management. This
level of precision helps to manage resources more efficiently, reduce water and
fertilizer usage, and ultimately enhance crop yield and sustainability. With these
advancements, smart farming promotes productivity and environmental conservation,
paving the way for more sustainable agricultural practices.

• Smart Cities: In smart cities, IoT-enabled embedded systems are crucial for
monitoring and managing urban infrastructure to enhance efficiency and sustainability.
These systems are integrated into various city services, including traffic lights, parking
systems, waste management, and energy grids. For example, smart traffic lights use
real-time data to optimize traffic flow, reducing congestion and emissions. Smart
parking systems help drivers find available spots quickly, minimizing fuel waste. Waste
management systems monitor fill levels in bins and schedule timely pickups, while
smart energy grids optimize power distribution based on consumption patterns.
Collectively, these applications contribute to more efficient resource usage, reduced
environmental impact, and an improved quality of life in urban environments.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 11

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

• Remote Health Monitoring: Remote health monitoring, powered by IoT-enabled

embedded systems, plays a transformative role in modern healthcare. Embedded
systems in wearable devices and medical sensors continuously track vital signs like
heart rate, blood pressure, glucose levels, and oxygen saturation. This real-time data is
transmitted to healthcare providers via secure networks, allowing for timely
interventions and personalized care, even from a distance. Patients benefit from
continuous monitoring without needing to visit a healthcare facility, improving
convenience and access to care. Remote health monitoring also aids in early detection
of medical conditions, reduces hospital readmissions, and enhances the overall
efficiency of healthcare services.

1.3.5 Aerospace and Defense

Embedded systems are indispensable in the aerospace and defense industries, where
reliability, efficiency, and precision are of the utmost importance. These systems are
meticulously integrated into a wide array of components found in aircraft, spacecraft, and
defense mechanisms, ensuring that both routine and mission-critical functions are executed
with precision. From handling navigation and communication to managing complex
operations in real-time, embedded systems enable smooth and safe functioning in
environments that demand the highest level of performance. Their contribution extends to
controlling avionics, executing defense strategies, and ensuring secure, real-time data
processing. These characteristics make embedded systems foundational to the continued
advancements in aerospace and defense technologies. Some of the application of embedded
system in this domain includes:

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 12

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

• Avionics: In the aerospace sector, embedded systems are integral to avionics,

supporting vital functions such as navigation, communication, flight control, and
monitoring. These systems process real-time data from various sensors, enabling
aircraft to make critical adjustments during flight, ensuring smooth and safe operations.
By integrating embedded systems, modern aircraft achieve higher levels of reliability
and precision, enhancing overall flight safety and efficiency.
• Missile Guidance Systems: Embedded systems play a crucial role in missile guidance,
providing precise control and navigation. By processing real-time data from sensors
and using advanced algorithms, embedded technology ensures accurate targeting and
trajectory adjustments. This precision is critical for the effectiveness of defense
systems, enabling them to respond rapidly and reliably in high-stakes environments.
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Embedded systems are fundamental to the
operation of drones and UAVs, providing essential functions such as navigation,
surveillance, and communication with ground control. These systems enable remote
operation, real-time data processing, and autonomous decision-making, making UAVs
highly effective in advanced military missions. They offer capabilities like aerial
reconnaissance, target tracking, and precision strikes, enhancing operational efficiency
and safety in defense applications.
• Flight Control Systems: Embedded systems are integral to flight control systems in
aircraft, overseeing navigation, autopilot functions, and stability management. These
systems continuously process data from various sensors to maintain optimal flight
conditions, ensuring safe and efficient operation. By making real-time adjustments to
control surfaces and engine performance, embedded systems enhance flight safety and
reliability, allowing for smooth and precise maneuvering during all phases of flight.

• Radar and Surveillance Systems: Embedded systems are crucial components of radar
and surveillance systems, enabling real-time detection, tracking, and analysis of objects
in various defense applications, including both aerial and ground operations. These
systems process data from radar signals to identify and monitor potential threats,
ensuring accurate situational awareness. By leveraging advanced algorithms, embedded
systems enhance the capability to analyze vast amounts of data quickly, allowing for
timely responses to dynamic security challenges. Their reliability and efficiency are
essential for effective defense strategies in complex operational environments.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 13

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

1.4 Key Components of Embedded System

Embedded systems are specialized computing systems designed to perform dedicated tasks
within a larger system. Unlike general-purpose computers, embedded systems are tailored
to specific applications, ensuring efficiency, reliability, and often real-time performance.
The major components of an embedded system can be categorized into two core areas:
hardware and software. These components work in harmony to ensure the system performs
its intended function efficiently and reliably.

1.4.1 Hardware Components of Embedded System

An embedded system contains various hardware components that work together to perform
specific tasks. These components are often integrated into a single unit, such as a
microcontroller, to ensure efficient and reliable operation. Below is a breakdown of key
hardware components in an embedded system.

Figure 1-1: Essential Hardware Components

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 14

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

1. Processor (Microcontroller or Microprocessor)

The processor is the heart of an embedded system, responsible for executing instructions
and controlling other components. Most embedded systems use microcontrollers because
they integrate a CPU, memory (RAM and ROM), and I/O peripherals on a single chip,
offering a compact and cost-effective solution. The processor manages data flow, processes
input signals, and executes control actions based on system requirements.

2. Input/output (I/O) Subsystem

I/O subsystems in a microcontroller, like General Purpose Input/output (GPIO), are critical
for interfacing the processor with external devices. These pins can be configured as either
digital inputs or outputs.

• Digital Inputs: Used for reading the status of switches, push buttons, or other digital
devices.
• Digital Outputs: Can control external devices such as motors, lights, or valves by
sending digital signals.

3. Timers and Counters

Timers and counters are integral to generating precise time delays, controlling periodic
tasks, or counting external events. They are used for functions such as generating interrupts
at regular intervals for multitasking, controlling motors, or generating external triggers for
other systems. These are vital for real-time applications that require accurate timing and
event management.

4. Memory (ROM and RAM)

Embedded systems require memory to store instructions and data:

ROM (Read-Only Memory): Used to store the system’s firmware or application code,
ensuring that it remains intact even when the system is powered off.

RAM (Random Access Memory): Used for temporary data storage during system
operation, enabling fast access and modification of data.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 15

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

5. Serial Interfaces (SPI, I2C, UART)

Serial communication interfaces, such as SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), I2C (Inter-
Integrated Circuit), and UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter), allow the
processor to communicate with external devices like sensors, displays, or other embedded
systems. These interfaces enable the transfer of data between the microcontroller and
peripherals with minimal pin usage, providing flexibility and expandability.

6. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

The ADC converts analog signals from sensors into digital values that can be processed by
the microcontroller. For example, sensors that measure temperature or pressure provide
analog output, which the ADC converts into a digital format for further processing by the
system.

7. Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

The DAC is the opposite of the ADC; it converts digital signals generated by the
microcontroller into analog signals. This is useful for applications where analog control is
required, such as controlling motor speeds or audio signals.

8. Power Supply

The power supply ensures that the embedded system receives stable voltage levels for
operation. In many embedded systems, the power supply includes voltage regulators that
convert external power sources into a stable voltage required by the microcontroller and
other components.

9. Reset Circuit

The reset circuit initializes the system when it powers up or when a fault is detected. It
ensures that the processor starts executing instructions from the correct memory location
and can reset the system to a known state in case of errors or failures.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 16

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

10. Interrupt Controller

The interrupt controller manages interrupt signals that temporarily halt the processor's
current task to handle high-priority events, such as an external input or a timer overflow.
This is crucial for real-time systems that require immediate responses to certain events.

11. Peripherals and Interfaces

Embedded systems often include additional peripherals, such as displays, communication

modules (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Ethernet), and other specialized interfaces like USB and
CAN for networking capabilities. These peripherals extend the functionality of the
embedded system and allow it to interact with the external world more effectively.

12. Application-Specific Circuitry

Application-specific circuits are custom-designed hardware components tailored to the

unique requirements of a specific embedded system. These circuits enhance the system's
performance, reduce power consumption, and ensure that the system is optimized for the
task at hand. Some of the application specific circuits commonly found in embedded system
hardware are FPGA, DSP etc.

13. Power Management

Power management is a critical aspect of embedded systems, especially in battery-operated

devices, where efficient energy usage is essential for prolonged operation. It involves
multiple components and strategies to ensure that the system consumes the least amount of
power without sacrificing performance.

14. Bus Interface

Some larger microcontrollers include a bus interface, which exposes the internal address,
data, and control buses to the external environment. This feature enables the processor to
connect with a wide range of peripherals, similar to how conventional processors operate.
Through the bus interface, various devices and interfaces can be integrated, allowing for
flexibility and compatibility with different peripherals.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 17

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

1.4.2 Sensors, Actuators, and Peripherals

Sensors, actuators, and additional peripherals are crucial components that enhance the
functionality of embedded systems, allowing them to interact with the physical world
effectively. Here’s a breakdown of these components:

1. Sensors
Sensors are devices that detect changes in the environment and convert physical
phenomena into electrical signals. They provide vital input data to the embedded
system, enabling it to respond to real-world conditions. Common types of sensors
include temperature sensors, pressure sensors, accelerometers, and light sensors.
Each sensor type is designed to measure specific environmental parameters and
send the corresponding data to the microcontroller for processing.
2. Actuators
Actuators are devices that perform actions based on commands received from the
microcontroller. They convert electrical signals into physical movement or action,
allowing the embedded system to interact with the environment. Examples of
actuators include motors (for movement), solenoids (for linear motion), and relays
(for switching). Actuators are critical for executing control actions based on the
processed data from sensors.
3. Peripherals
Peripherals expand the capabilities of the embedded system by providing additional
functionalities. These can include input devices (like keyboards and touchscreens),
output devices (like displays and speakers), and communication modules (such as
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Ethernet). Peripherals facilitate interaction between the user
and the embedded system and enable communication with other systems or
networks.

1.4.3 Software Components of Embedded System

Software components in embedded systems are essential for enabling functionality and
ensuring reliable operation. These components can be categorized into two primary areas:
Application Software and Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS).

1. Application Software

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 18

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

Application software is designed to perform specific tasks within the embedded system. It
includes firmware that directly controls hardware, device drivers that facilitate
communication with peripherals, and data management software that handles the
processing and storage of information. This software is crucial for executing the main
functions of the embedded system.

2. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

Real-Time Operating Systems are specialized operating systems that ensure timely and
predictable responses to events. An RTOS manages tasks, prioritizes operations, and allows
for multitasking, making it ideal for applications that require immediate responses, such as
robotics or industrial automation. It ensures that the system runs efficiently and meets real-
time performance requirements.

1.4.4 Case Studies on Commonly Used Embedded Systems

To enhance your understanding of the concept and architecture of embedded systems, here are
some practical case studies of commonly used devices. These examples will help illustrate how
embedded systems operate in various applications and demonstrate the integration of hardware
and software components.

A. Washing Machine as an Embedded System

A modern washing machine is a perfect example of an embedded system that seamlessly

integrates hardware and software to perform specific, real-time tasks. Both hardware
components (sensors, actuators, control peripherals) and software (embedded control logic,
user interface) play a key role in the functioning of the washing machine.

1. Hardware Components

The hardware of the washing machine consists of various sensors, actuators, and
peripherals that interact with the real world.

• Control System (Microcontroller): The microcontroller acts as the brain of the

washing machine, coordinating data from sensors and sending signals to actuators.
• Sensor Unit:

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 19

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

o Water Level Sensor: Monitors water level and ensures the appropriate
amount is used based on the load.
o Load Sensor: Determines the weight of the clothes in the drum, helping
optimize water and detergent usage.
o Temperature Sensor: Keeps track of water temperature and adjusts it
according to the selected wash cycle.
• Actuator Unit:
o Water Inlet Valve (Solenoid): Controls the inflow of water, automatically

opening and closing based on the machine’s requirements.

o Motor: Drives the agitator or rotating disc, facilitating the washing and
spinning process. The motor operates at various speeds depending on the load
and cycle.
o Drain Pump: Removes dirty water after the wash and rinse cycles.
• Other Peripherals:
o Tub & Agitator/Rotating Disc: The inner tub holds the clothes, and the
agitator or rotating disc creates the necessary movement for scrubbing the
clothes.
o Timer: Ensures the correct duration of each wash, rinse, and spin cycle, either
manually set or automatically managed by the system.
o Printed Circuit Board (PCB): Houses the microcontroller and various circuits
programmed to manage washing tasks efficiently based on different washing
related logic.

2. Software Components

The embedded software handles the control logic and manages interactions between the
hardware components, optimizing the wash process based on user input and real-time
conditions.

• Control Logic & Cycle Management: The software takes care of:
o Cycle Selection & Optimization: Based on user input (like fabric type and
wash cycle), the software determines parameters such as water level, motor
speed, and cycle duration.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 20

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

o Water and Energy Efficiency: Fuzzy logic-based algorithms ensure the

machine uses optimal amounts of water and energy based on the load and
washing needs.
• Real-Time Operating System (RTOS): An RTOS ensures the washing machine’s
tasks, like motor control, water inlet valve operation, and sensor monitoring, occur in
real-time and without delays.
• User Interface Software: The user interface allows for easy interaction with the
machine. The software processes inputs and displays the washing machine’s status
(e.g., cycle progress, remaining time).
o Display and Controls: The interface may include buttons, dials, or a
touchscreen. Users can select wash programs (e.g., delicate, heavy-duty) and
see real-time updates, such as washing time, cycle stage, and error codes.
o Error Detection: The software handles diagnostic checks and displays error
codes for issues like unbalanced loads, low water pressure, or door lock
problems.

How Hardware and Software Work Together

• Sensor Inputs and Software Decisions: Sensor readings (water level, load size,
temperature) are sent to the microcontroller, where the software processes the data and
makes real-time adjustments. For instance, the system adjusts the water inlet valve to
control the water level based on the load size.
• Software Control Over Actuators: The software commands actuators like the motor
and water valve. For example, during the wash cycle, it controls the motor speed and
direction to agitate clothes or spin them at high speeds.
• User Interface Integration: The user selects wash settings (like fabric type or wash
time), and the interface software relays these selections to the microcontroller. The
machine then performs the cycle according to the chosen settings and provides visual
feedback, such as displaying the time remaining or any errors encountered.
• Feedback and Adjustment: The embedded system works in a feedback loop where
the software continuously monitors sensor readings and adjusts the actuators
accordingly. For instance, if the load is too heavy, the motor speed might be adjusted
automatically.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 21

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

B. Smart Home Thermostat as an Embedded System

A smart thermostat is a classic example of an embedded system designed to control the heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in a home. The device integrates various
sensors, a microcontroller, actuators, and a user interface, combined with software algorithms
to optimize temperature control based on user preferences and environmental conditions.

1. Hardware Components

The hardware of the smart thermostat includes sensors for temperature and humidity
monitoring, actuators to control HVAC systems, and other peripherals such as
communication modules and user interface elements.

• Control System (Microcontroller): The core of the thermostat is a microcontroller

that processes sensor data and adjusts the HVAC system accordingly.
• Sensor Unit:
o Temperature Sensor: This sensor measures the ambient room temperature,
providing real-time data to maintain the set temperature.
o Humidity Sensor: Monitors the indoor humidity levels, which helps the system
make better decisions about air conditioning and heating cycles.
• Actuator Unit:
o HVAC Control Relays: The thermostat sends signals to relays that control the
HVAC system (heating, cooling, and ventilation). Based on the desired
temperature, the system activates the heater, air conditioner, or fan.
• Other Peripherals:
o Wi-Fi/Bluetooth Module: Allows the thermostat to connect to a home network
or smartphone, enabling remote control through apps.
o Power Supply: A built-in or external power supply ensures the microcontroller
and other components receive power.

2. Software Components

The embedded software in a smart thermostat manages temperature control logic, user
preferences, and connectivity features. It runs on a real-time operating system (RTOS) to
handle time-sensitive tasks efficiently.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 22

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

• Control Logic & Climate Management:

o Temperature Control Algorithms: Based on user settings (e.g., "Comfort
Mode" or "Energy Saver Mode") and real-time sensor data, the thermostat
adjusts the HVAC system. It learns user preferences over time and optimizes
energy consumption.
• Real-Time Operating System (RTOS):
o The RTOS ensures that temperature measurements, user commands, and HVAC
control happen in real time. This is crucial for maintaining comfort and energy
efficiency.
• User Interface Software:
o Interactive Display and Controls: Users interact with the thermostat through
a touchscreen or physical buttons, setting desired temperatures, schedules, or
modes (e.g., "Home," "Away").
o Mobile App Integration: The thermostat’s software supports mobile
applications, allowing remote control from smartphones, including viewing
real-time temperature, setting schedules, or receiving notifications.
o Smart Home Integration: The thermostat can be integrated with home
automation systems (like Google Home or Amazon Alexa) for voice control and
automation.

How Hardware and Software Work Together

• Sensor Inputs and Software Control: The thermostat collects data from the
temperature and humidity sensors, sending the information to the microcontroller. The
software interprets this data and decides whether to turn on the heating, cooling, or
ventilation systems.
• Control Over Actuators: Based on user-defined settings and real-time conditions, the
software activates actuators (relays) to control the HVAC system. For example, if the
room temperature falls below the desired level, the heating system is switched on.
• User Interface Integration: Users set their preferences using the display or app. These
preferences are stored and processed by the software to ensure the system runs
efficiently. The thermostat may also learn from user behavior and adjust itself
automatically.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 23

 Introduction to Embedded System
Unit 1

• Remote Control and Smart Features: The Wi-Fi module allows the thermostat to
communicate with a smartphone app or other smart home devices. Users can remotely
adjust temperature settings, monitor energy usage, or receive maintenance alerts via the
software.

Review Questions
Q.1 What is an embedded system? Why is it so hard to define?
Q.2 List and define the three main characteristics of embedded system that
distinguish such system from other computing system?
Q.3 Justify Washing Machine as an example of Embedded System?
Q.4 What are the essential components of Embedded System? Explain in
detail.
Q.5 What is a tightly constrained system. What are the different types of
constraints that we can encounter in embedded system design?
Q.6 Can a general-purpose system be adapted for a single, specific task like
an embedded system? If so, how does it differ in efficiency?
Q.7 How are embedded systems transforming healthcare, particularly with
devices like wearable monitors?
Q.8 How do embedded systems form the backbone of IoT devices? Discuss
the role of microcontrollers in enabling IoT funcnality.

By: Deepesh Prakash Guragain Unit -1 24