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Extending Structures
Fundamentals and Applications
Extending Structures
Fundamentals and Applications

Ana Agore
Institute of Mathematics of the Romanian Academy
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Gigel Militaru
University of Bucharest
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Contents

Introduction vii

Generalities: Basic notions and notation xiii

1 Extending structures: The group case 1

1.1 Crossed product and bicrossed product of groups . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Group extending structures and unified products . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Classifying complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4 Examples: Applications to the structure of finite groups . . . 30

2 Leibniz algebras 35
2.1 Unified products for Leibniz algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 Flag extending structures of Leibniz algebras: Examples . . . 45
2.3 Special cases of unified products for Leibniz algebras . . . . 55
2.4 Classifying complements for extensions of Leibniz algebras . 62
2.5 Itô’s theorem for Leibniz algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3 Lie algebras 71
3.1 Unified products for Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2 Flag extending structures: Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 Special cases of unified products for Lie algebras . . . . . . . 88
3.4 Matched pair deformations and the factorization index for Lie
algebras: The case of perfect Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5 Matched pair deformations and the factorization index for Lie
algebras: The case of non-perfect Lie algebras . . . . . . . . 97
3.6 Application: Galois groups and group actions on Lie algebras 107

4 Associative algebras 125

4.1 Unified products for algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2 Flag and supersolvable algebras: Examples . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.3 Special cases of unified products for algebras . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4 The Galois group of algebra extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.5 Classifying complements for associative algebras . . . . . . . 158

v
vi Contents

5 Jacobi and Poisson algebras 167

5.1 (Bi)modules, integrals and Frobenius Jacobi algebras . . . . 170
5.2 Unified products for Jacobi algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.3 Flag Jacobi algebras: Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.4 Classifying complements for Poisson algebras . . . . . . . . . 196

Bibliography 205

Index 221
Introduction

The classification up to an isomorphism of all finite objects of a certain type

(e.g., all groups of a given finite order, all associative/Lie algebras of a given
finite-dimension over a field k, etc.) is one of the famous and very difficult
problems which are still open although it has attracted the attention of many
mathematicians.
At the level of groups, the problem was first considered in 1854 by Cayley
([73]) who classified all groups whose order is at most 6. Later on, in 1881,
Peirce ([200]) formulated the analogue problem in the context of associative
algebras and initiated the classification of all associative algebras of dimension
at most 3 over the field of complex numbers; this classification was completed
in 1890 by Study ([215]).
In the same time, the problem was considered for Lie algebras by S. Lie
himself ([162]) who classified all Lie algebras of dimension 3 over the field of
complex numbers. The first important distinction between associative and Lie
algebras was observed: even in dimension 3, there exists infinitely many Lie
algebras and their bracket can be explicitly described (see, for instance [99,
141]). Although the classification problem was intensively studied ever since
using various methods, including computer software, very few general results
are known. For instance, in the case of groups we have complete classifications
only up to order less than 2048; we refer to [82] for the number of types
of groups of order less than 2048 and to [49] for a detailed account on the
fascinating problem of classifying finite groups. For associative (resp. Lie)
algebras there is even less information on the classification problem. Over an
algebraically closed field of characteristic zero, associative algebras have been
classified only up to dimension 5 by Mazzola [182] while, according to [201],
Lie algebras have been classified completely up to dimension 7.
The study of the classification problem led to several subsequent problems,
among which we mention the extension problem of Hölder ([133]) and the fac-
torization problem of Ore ([192]). We recall them briefly as they constitute the
starting point of what we have called the extending structures problem, the
subject of this monograph. Let H and G be two given groups. Loosely speak-
ing, the extension problem consists of describing and classifying all groups E
containing H as a normal subgroup such that the quotient E/H is isomor-
phic to G. The precise statement of the problem is given in Chapter 1 while
a comprehensive treatment of the problem is contained in [2, 210]. The fac-
torization problem of Ore is, in a certain sense, the “dual” of the extension

vii
viii Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

problem: it consists of describing and classifying up to isomorphism all groups

E that factorize through two given groups H and G, i.e., E contains H and
G as subgroups such that E = HG and H ∩ G = {1}. Surprisingly, although
its statement is quite natural, the factorization problem turned out to be
more difficult than the extension problem. For further details and background
information on the two problems we refer to Chapter 1.
Both problems were first introduced in group theory and subsequently
they were considered and intensively studied for many other mathematical
objects such as associative/Lie algebras, quantum groups, Poisson algebras,
etc. Although the two problems are completely different and they were studied
independently, there is however a common point between them: namely, in
both cases the group E contains H as a subgroup. Therefore the question of
whether we can formulate a general problem which will unify the extension
problem and the factorization problem arises naturally. The answer to this
question is affirmative and the present monograph is concerned with the study
of this problem which we called the extending structures problem or the ES
problem for short. Formulated in the most general context which will allow
us to approach it for various fields of research, the ES problem comes down
to the following:
Extending structures problem. Let H be a fixed object in a certain cat-
egory C (for instance, the category of groups, associative algebras, Lie algebras
etc.) and c a given cardinal. Describe and classify, up to an isomorphism that
stabilizes H, all objects C ∈ C which contain and stabilize H as a subobject of
codimension c.
Obviously, when we formulate the problem in the concrete case of groups
by codimension we mean the index of H in C while in the case of associative or
Lie algebras the codimension is precisely the ordinary concept used in linear
algebra. An isomorphism that stabilizes H is nothing but an isomorphism
which acts as the identity on H.
The ES problem can be formulated in many equivalent ways: for instance,
inspired by Lagrange’s theorem, at the level of groups, the ES problem can
be rephrased as follows (note that we replaced the fixed cardinal c by another
fixed set E):
Let H be a group and E a set such that H ⊆ E. Describe and classify, up
to an isomorphism that stabilizes H, the set of all group structures · that can
be defined on E such that H is a subgroup of (E, ·).
This monograph is dedicated to the study of the ES problem and its ap-
plications for five different categories, namely: groups, Leibniz algebras, Lie
algebras, associative algebras and Jacobi algebras. Each of these mathemati-
cal objects has its own dedicated chapter which can be read independently of
the others.
The monograph is structured as follows. The first section, called Gener-
alities, sets the notation and recalls some basic concepts which will be used
throughout the five chapters. Chapter 1 is dedicated to the study of the ES
problem at the level of groups. We start by recalling both the extension and
 Introduction ix

the factorization problem and the objects used to approach them, namely: the
crossed and the bicrossed product of groups. In particular, we revisit two clas-
sical results concerning the aforementioned problems: the theorems of Schreier
and Takeuchi as they served as a model for our approach of the ES problem.
The first important results of this chapter are given in Section 1.2: first we
construct a new product called the unified product, which unifies and gener-
alizes both the crossed and the bicrossed product of groups. We establish the
necessary and sufficient axioms for the construction of the unified product in
Theorem 1.2.1. This new product is responsible for the classification part of
the ES problem: any group structure on the set E which contains H as a
subgroup is proved to be isomorphic to a certain unified product. The answer
to the classification part of the ES problem is given in Theorem 1.2.16: the
set of all group structures · that can be defined on E such that H becomes a
subgroup of (E, ·) are classified up to an isomorphism of groups that stabilizes
H by a non-abelian cohomological type object which is explicitly constructed.
Moreover, as an application, a general Schreier type theorem for unified prod-
ucts is proven. The most important application is contained in Section 1.3
where we consider a question related to the ES problem called the classifying
complements problem or the CCP problem for short:
Classifying complements problem. Let A be a subgroup of G. If an
A-complement of G (that is, a subgroup H ≤ G such that G = AH and
A ∩ H = {1}) exists, describe explicitly, classify all A-complements of G and
compute the factorization index [G : A]f (that is, the number of isomorphism
types of all A-complements of G).
In the case of abelian groups the classifying complements problem is trivial:
if a subgroup A of an abelian group G has a complement then it can be easily
seen that this complement is unique up to isomorphism. The situation changes
radically in the case of non-abelian groups, where the problem is far from
being trivial and has very important consequences. As an argument in this
direction we mention that the factorization index of the canonical inclusion
Sn−1 ⊆ Sn (where Sn is the group of permutations on n letters) is equal to
g(n), the number of types of isomorphisms of groups of order n. We provide
the full answer to the classifying complements problem in three steps called
deformation of complements, description of complements and classification of
complements. The main result of this section is Theorem 1.3.11 which shows
that there exists a bijection between the set of isomorphism types of all A-
complements of G and a new cohomological type object which is explicitly
constructed. In particular, an explicit formula is provided for computing the
factorization index [G : A]f . Section 1.4 contains the main application of the
theory previously developed. More precisely, by applying our results to the
factorization Sn = Sn−1 Cn , where Cn is the cyclic group of order n, we obtain
a combinatorial formula for computing the number of isomorphism types of
all groups of order n which arises from a minimal set of data: the factorization
Sn = Sn−1 Cn .
Chapter 2 is dedicated to the study of both the ES problem and the CCP
problem for Leibniz algebras. The theory we developed in the first chapter
x Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

can be transposed, by “linearizing” the constructions, into the new context

of Leibniz algebras with the necessary changes. In this context we introduce
a new general product called the unified product for Leibniz algebras, which
will play a key role in solving the ES problem. Let g be a Leibniz algebra and
E a vector space containing g as a subspace. It is proved that any Leibniz
algebra structure on E which contains g as a subalgebra is isomorphic to a
unified product g n V , where V is a fixed vector space of dimension equal to
the codimension of g in E. The main result of this chapter, which provides the
theoretical answer to the ES problem, is given in Theorem 2.1.9: we construct
explicitly a cohomological type object which will be the classifying object of
all extending structures of a given Leibniz algebra g to a given vector space
E—the classification is given up to an isomorphism of Leibniz algebras which
stabilizes g.
Two special cases of the unified product are presented in detail, namely the
crossed and the bicrossed product (we kept the terminology used in the case of
groups) of Leibniz algebras which, exactly as in group theory, play a key role
in solving the extension problem and respectively the factorization problem
for Leibniz algebras. Moreover, we introduced a new class of Leibniz algebras
called flag Leibniz algebras: these are finite-dimensional Leibniz algebras E
which admit a sequence of Leibniz subalgebras of the form E0 := 0 ⊂ E1 ⊂
· · · ⊂ Em := E, such that Ei has codimension 1 in Ei+1 , for all i = 0, · · · , m −
1. Section 2.2 shows the efficiency of our theoretical results in classifying flag
Leibniz algebra. Section 2.4 deals with the classifying complements problem,
this time at the level of Leibniz algebras. The strategy developed for groups
can be transferred to this context providing a complete answer to the CCP
problem in Theorem 2.4.5. The last section of the chapter is devoted to the
proof of Ito’s theorem in the context of Leibniz algebras.
Chapter 3 is dedicated to the study of the same two problems in the con-
text of Lie algebras. Since the latter are special cases of Leibniz algebras, the
results of the first three sections of this chapter can be deduced from the cor-
responding results for Leibniz algebras proved in Chapter 2. We point out that
given the antisymmetry of the bracket of a Lie algebra, the input data for the
construction of unified products is significantly reduced, two of the actions of
an extending datum being trivial in this case. These considerations allow us to
provide several explicit examples in Section 3.4 and Section 3.5 respectively.
Among the important results of these sections we mention the explicit descrip-
tion of all Lie algebras L containing a given Lie algebra h as a subalgebra of
codimension 1 which are proved to be parameterized by the space TwDer(h)
of what we have called “twisted derivations” of h. As an application, the au-
tomorphism group of this type of Lie algebras is explicitly described. Several
other examples are presented in detail. Finally, in Section 3.6 we take the
first steps towards developing a Galois type theory for Lie algebra extensions,
analogous to the classical Galois theory for fields. If g ⊆ h is an extension
of Lie algebras, we give an explicit description of the Galois group Gal (h/g)
as a subgroup of the canonical semidirect product GLk (V ) o Homk (V, g) of
 Introduction xi

groups, where V is a vector space that measures the codimension of g in h,

i.e., the ‘degree’ of the extension h/g. The counterpart of Artin’s Theorem
for Lie algebras is also proved: if G is a finite group of invertible order in the
field k acting on a Lie algebra h, then the Lie algebra h is reconstructed as
a “skew crossed product” h ∼ = hG #• V between the Lie subalgebra of invari-
ants h and the kernel V of the Reynolds operator t : h → hG . The Galois
G

group Gal (h/hG ) is also described and we show that the group Gal (h/hG )
is different from G, as opposed to the classical Galois theory of fields where
the two groups coincide. The next step proves a version of Hilbert’s 90 The-
orem for Lie algebras: if G is a cyclic group then the kernel of the Reynolds
operator t : h → hG is determined. As an application we show that if g ⊆ h
is a Lie subalgebra of codimension 1 in h, then the Galois group Gal (h/g) is
metabelian (in particular, solvable). Based on this, the Lie algebra counter-
part of the concept of a radical extension of fields is introduced. As in the
classical Galois theory, we prove that the Galois group Gal (h/g) of a radical
extension g ⊆ h of finite-dimensional Lie algebras is a solvable group. Several
other applications and concrete examples of Galois groups are presented.
Chapter 4 is dedicated to the same two problems, namely the ES problem
and the classification of complements, this time for unital associative alge-
bras. Mutatis mutandis, all results proved in Chapter 2 for Leibniz algebras
can be transposed at the level of associative algebras, with the obvious changes
imposed by the new context. Therefore, instead of listing here all results con-
tained in this chapter, we only point out that these results are used in the next
chapter in approaching the same two problems in the more general setting of
Jacobi and Poisson algebras.
Chapter 5 deals with Jacobi (in particular Poisson) algebras. A Jacobi alge-
bra is a commutative associative algebra A with a Lie algebra bracket such that
the following compatibility is fulfilled: [ab, c] = a [b, c] + [a, c] b − ab [1A , c], for
all a, b, c ∈ A. A Poisson algebra is a Jacobi algebra A such that [1A , a] = 0, for
all a ∈ A. Jacobi (resp. Poisson) algebras are algebraic counterparts of Jacobi
(resp. Poisson) manifolds: a smooth manifold M is a Jacobi (resp. Poisson)
manifold if and only if the algebra A := C ∞ (M ) of real smooth functions on
M is a Jacobi (resp. Poisson) algebra. Poisson algebras are very important and
interesting objects since they appear in various research areas situated at the
border between mathematics and physics. The first steps towards the classifi-
cation of low dimensional Poisson manifolds, which is a very difficult task, are
taken in [122, 159] using mainly differential geometry tools. The classification
of finite-dimensional Poisson algebras is equally difficult being the algebraic
counterpart of the classification problem in differential geometry. To illustrate
this, Chapter 5 begins with the classification of all complex Jacobi algebras of
dimension 2 or 3. Frobenius Jacobi algebras are introduced and characterized
by using what we have called, inspired by Hopf algebra theory, an integral of a
Jacobi algebra. The main sections of this chapter deal with the two problems
subsequent to the classification problem for finite-dimensional Poisson/Jacobi
algebras, namely the ES problem and the classification of complements. Using
xii Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

the constructions previously introduced in Chapter 3 (resp. 4) for Lie algebras

(resp. associative algebras) we are able to construct the unified product A n V
associated to a Jacobi algebra A and a vector space V which are connected
through four actions and two cocycles. As expected, the unified product is
the object used in approaching the ES problem. Theorem 5.2.7 provides the
theoretical answer to the ES problem: for a given Jacobi algebra A and a vec-
tor space V , a non-abelian cohomological type object J H2 (V, A) is explicitly
constructed; it parameterizes and classifies all Jacobi algebras containing A as
a subalgebra of codimension equal to dim(V ). Several examples for comput-
ing J H2 (V, A) are provided in the case of flag extensions. The last part of
this chapter is concerned with the classifying complements problem for arbi-
trary extensions P ⊂ R of Poisson algebras. The main result is Theorem 5.4.9
which proves that there exists a bijection between the isomorphism classes of
all P -complements of R and a new cohomological object whose construction is
made explicit. A formula for computing the factorization index [R : P ]f is pro-
vided as well. Several examples are also included: in particular, an extension
P ⊆ R of Poisson algebras such that P has infinitely many non-isomorphic
complements in R is constructed.
Finally, we mention that the approach used in this monograph for solving
the ES problem (resp. the classifying complements problem) can constitute
a source of inspiration for considering the problem in other categories. The
first steps toward this goal were taken for Lie conformal algebras in [136]
and for associative conformal algebras (resp. left-symmetric algebras) in [134,
135]. Furthermore, a special case of the ES problem for Hopf algebras (more
precisely, corresponding to the forgetful functor from the category of Hopf
algebras to the category of coalgebras) was considered in [15].
Acknowledgement The first author was supported by a grant of Ro-
manian Ministery of Research and Innovation, CNCS - UEFISCDI, project
number PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2016-0124, within PNCDI III and is a fellow of
FWO (Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek—Flanders).
Generalities: Basic notions and
notation

For a family of sets (Xi )i∈I we shall denote by ti∈I Xi their coproduct in the
category of sets, i.e., ti∈I Xi is the disjoint union of the Xi ’s.
Throughout, k will be a field whose group of units is denoted by k ∗ . All
vector spaces, associative/Lie/Leibniz/Poisson/Jacobi algebras, linear or bi-
linear maps, tensor products and so on are over k. A linear homomorphism
f : V → W between two vector spaces is called the trivial map if f (v) = 0, for
all v ∈ V . V ∗ = Homk (V, k) and Endk (V ) denote the dual, respectively the
endomorphisms ring of a vector space V . If g ≤ E is a subspace in a vector
space E, another subspace V of E such that E = g + V and V ∩ g = 0 is called
a complement of g in E. Such a complement is unique up to an isomorphism
and its dimension is called the codimension of g in E. For two vector spaces V
and W we denote by Homk (V, W ) the abelian group of all linear maps from V
to W and by GLk (V ) := Autk (V ) the group of all linear automorphisms of V ;
if V has dimension m over k then GLk (V ) is identified with the general linear
group GL(m, k) of all m × m invertible matrices over k. As usual, SL(m, k)
stands for the special linear group of degree m over k which is the normal
subgroup of GL(m, k) consisting of all m × m matrices of determinant 1.
We briefly recall below the construction of the semidirect product of groups
using the right-hand side convention. Let G and H be two groups and / :
H × G → H a right action as automorphisms of the group G on the group
H, i.e., the following compatibility conditions hold for all g, g 0 ∈ G and h,
h0 ∈ H:
h / 1 = h, h / (gg 0 ) = (h / g) / g 0 (hh0 ) / g = (h / g)(h0 / g)
The associated semidirect product G o H is the group structure on G × H
with multiplication given for any g, g 0 ∈ G and h, h0 ∈ H by:
(g, h) · (g 0 , h0 ) := gg 0 , (h / g 0 )h0


(0.1)
Let V and W be two vector spaces. Then there exists a canonical right
action as automorphisms

of the group GLk (V ) on the abelian group
Homk (V, W ), + given for any r ∈ Homk (V, W ) and σ ∈ GLk (V ) by:
/ : Homk (V, W ) × GLk (V ) → Homk (V, W ), r / σ := r ◦ σ
We shall denote by GVW := GLk (V ) o Homk (V, W ) the corresponding semidi-
rect product, i.e., GVW := GLk (V ) × Homk (V, W ), with the multiplication

xiii
xiv Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

given for any σ, σ 0 ∈ GLk (V ) and r, r0 ∈ Homk (V, W ) by:

(σ, r) · (σ 0 , r0 ) := (σ ◦ σ 0 , r ◦ σ 0 + r0 ) (0.2)

The unit of the group GVW is (IdV , 0). Moreover, GLk (V ) = ∼ GLk (V ) × {0} is a
subgroup of GVW and the abelian group Homk (V, W ) ∼ = {IdV } × Homk (V, W )
is a normal subgroup of GVW . The relation (σ, r) = (σ, 0) · (IdV , r) gives an
exact factorization GVW = GLk (V ) · Homk (V, W ) of the group GVW through
the subgroup GLk (V ) and the abelian normal subgroup Homk (V, W ). Being
a semidirect product, the group GVW is a split extension of GLk (V ) by the
abelian group Homk (V, W ); that is, it fits into an exact sequence of groups
0 → Homk (V, W ) → GVW → GLk (V ) → 1 and the canonical projection
GVW → GLk (V ) → 1 has a section that is a morphism of groups. The group
GVW constructed above will play the key role in describing the Galois group
of an arbitrary extension of Lie algebras. If V ∼ = k is a 1-dimensional vector
space, then the group GkW identifies with the semidirect product k ∗ o W of
the multiplicative group of units (k ∗ , ·) with the abelian group (W, +) and will
be denoted simply by GW . The multiplication on GW = k ∗ o W is given for
any u, u0 ∈ k ∗ and x, x0 ∈ W by:

(u, x) · (u0 , x0 ) := (uu0 , u0 x + x0 ) (0.3)

The non-abelian group GW is an extension of the abelian group k ∗ by the

abelian group W = (W, +); hence, GW is a metabelian group (i.e., the derived
subgroup [GW , GW ] is abelian). In particular, GW is a 2-step solvable group.
On the other hand, if W ∼ = k is a 1-dimensional vector space then GVk =
∗
GLk (V ) o V , and for finite-dimensional vector spaces V the group can be
identified with the general affine group Aff (V ) = GLk (V ) o V .
Unless otherwise stated, by an algebra A we mean an associative and uni-
tary algebra; the unit of A will be denoted by 1A while the multiplication
mA is denoted by juxtaposition mA (a, b) = ab. However, whenever the al-
gebras are not unitary it will be explicitly mentioned. For an algebra A, we
shall denote by A MA the category of all A-bimodules, i.e., triples (V, y, x)
consisting of a vector space V and two bilinear maps y : A × V → V ,
x: V × A → V such that (V, y) is a left A-module, (V, x) is a right A-
module and a y (x x b) = (a y x) x b, for all a, b ∈ A and x ∈ V . All
algebra maps preserve units and any left/right A-module is unital. Alg (A, k)
denotes the space of all algebra maps A → k and AutAlg (A) the group of
algebra automorphisms of A. If (V, y, x) ∈ A MA , then the trivial extension
of A by V is the algebra A × V , with the multiplication given for any a, b ∈ A,
x, y ∈ V by:

(a, x) · (b, y) := ab, a y y + x x b
A Lie algebra is a vector space g, together with a bilinear map [−, −] :
g × g → g called a bracket, satisfying the following two properties:

[g, g] = 0, [g, [h, l]] + [h, [l, g]] + [l, [g, h]] = 0
 Generalities: Basic notions and notation xv

for all g, h, l ∈ g. The second condition is called the Jacobi identity. For two
given Lie algebras g and h we denote by AutLie (g) the group of automorphisms
of g and by HomLie (g, h) the space of all Lie algebra homomorphisms between
g and h. Let g be a Lie algebra and g0 := [g, g] be the derived algebra of g;
g is called perfect if g0 = g and abelian if g0 = 0. The abelian Lie algebra
of dimension n will be denoted by k0n . Furthermore, gl(m, k) (resp. sl(m, k))
stands for the general (resp. special) linear Lie algebra of all m × m matrices
(resp. all m × m matrices of trace 0) having the bracket [A, B] := AB − BA.
Representations of a Lie algebra g will be viewed as modules over g; more-
over, we shall work with both concepts of right and left g-modules. Explicitly, a
right g-module is a vector space V together with a bilinear map / : V ×g → V ,
called a right action of g on V , satisfying the following compatibility

x / [g, h] = (x / g) / h − (x / h) / g (0.4)

for all x ∈ V and g, h ∈ g. A left g-module is a vector space V together with

a bilinear map . : g × V → V , called a left action of g on V such that:

[g, h] . x = g . (h . x) − h . (g . x) (0.5)

for all g, h ∈ g and x ∈ V . Any right g-module is a left g-module via g . x :=

−x / g and vice versa, that is the category of right g-modules is isomorphic
to the category of left g-modules and both of them are isomorphic to the
category of representations of g. The category of right Lie g-modules will be
denoted by LMg .
A Lie algebra h is called self-dual (or metric)([183]) if there exists a
non-degenerate invariant bilinear form B : h × h → k, i.e., B([a, b], c) =
B(a, [b, c]), for all a, b, c ∈ h. Self-dual Lie algebras generalize finite-
dimensional complex semisimple Lie algebras (the second Cartan’s criterion
shows that any finite-dimensional complex semisimple Lie algebra is self-dual
since its Killing form is non-degenerate and invariant). Besides the mathemat-
ical interest in studying self-dual Lie algebras, they are also important and
have been intensively studied in physics [107, 197].
Der(g) denotes the Lie algebra of all derivations of g, that is all linear
maps D : g → g such that

D([g, h]) = [D(g), h] + [g, D(h)] (0.6)

for all g, h ∈ g. Der(g) is a Lie algebra with the bracket [D1 , D2 ] := D1 ◦ D2 −

D2 ◦ D1 and the map

ad : g → Der(g), ad(g) := [g, −] : g → g, h 7→ [g, h]

is called the adjoint representation of g. Then, Ker(ad) = Z(g), the center of

g, and Im(ad) is called the space of inner derivations of g and will be denoted
by Inn(g). Inn(g) is a Lie ideal in Der(g) and

Out(g) := Der(g)/Inn(g)
xvi Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

is the Lie algebra of outer derivations of g. If g is semisimple, then g is perfect,

Inn(g) = Der(g) and Z(g) = 0 ([138]). A Lie algebra h is called complete (see
[143, 216] for examples and structural results on this class of Lie algebras)
if h has a trivial center and any derivation is inner. A complete and perfect
Lie algebra is called sympathetic [48]: semisimple Lie algebras over a field
of characteristic zero are sympathetic and there exists a sympathetic non-
semisimple Lie algebra in dimension 25.
For a given Lie algebra g we denote by H(g) the holomorph Lie algebra
 = g × Der(g) endowed with the Lie bracket given by:
[216] of g, i.e., H(g)
[(g, ϕ), (h, ψ)] = [g, h] + ϕ(h) − ψ(g), [ϕ, ψ] , for all g, h ∈ g and ϕ, ψ ∈
Der(g).
For unexplained concepts pertaining to Lie algebra theory we refer to [138].
Leibniz algebras were introduced by Bloh [51] under the name of D-algebras
and rediscovered later on by Loday [166] as non-commutative generalizations
of Lie algebras. A Leibniz algebra is a vector space g, together with a bilinear
map [−, −] : g × g → g satisfying the Leibniz identity, that is:

[g, [h, l] ] = [ [g, h], l] − [ [g, l], h] (0.7)

for all g, h, l ∈ g. Any Lie algebra is a Leibniz algebra, and a Leibniz algebra
satisfying [g, g] = 0, for all g ∈ g is a Lie algebra. The typical example of a
Leibniz algebra is the following [166]: let g be a Lie algebra, (M, /) a right
g-module and µ : M → g a g-equivariant map, i.e., µ(m / g) = [µ(m), g],
for all m ∈ M and g ∈ g. Then M is a Leibniz algebra with the bracket
[m, n](/, µ) := m / µ(n), for all m, n ∈ M . Another important example was
constructed in [156]: if g is a Lie algebra, then g ⊗ g is a Leibniz algebra with
the bracket given by [x ⊗ y, a ⊗ b] := [x, [a, b]] ⊗ y + x ⊗ [y, [a, b]], for all x, y,
a, b ∈ g. For other interesting examples of Leibniz algebras we refer to [167].
A subspace I ≤ g of a Leibniz algebra g is called a two-sided ideal of g if
[x, g] ∈ I and [g, x] ∈ I, for all x ∈ I and g ∈ g. g is called perfect if [g, g] = g
and abelian if [g, g] = 0. By Z(g) we shall denote the center of g, that is the
two-sided ideal consisting of all g ∈ g such that [g, x] = [x, g] = 0, for all
x ∈ g. As in the case of Lie algebras, we denote by Der(g) the space of all
derivations of g, that is, all linear maps ∆ : g → g satisfying (0.6). For two
subspaces A and B of a Leibniz algebra g we denote by [A, B] the vector
space generated by all brackets [a, b], for any a ∈ A and b ∈ B. In particular,
g0 := [g, g] is called the derived subalgebra of g. A Leibniz or a Lie algebra g
is called metabelian if g0 is an abelian subalgebra of g, i.e., [ [g, g], [g, g] ] = 0.
An algebra A is called a Frobenius algebra if A ∼ = A∗ as right A-modules,
where A is viewed as a right A-module via (a · a)(b) := a∗ (ab), for all
∗ ∗

a∗ ∈ A∗ and a, b ∈ A. For the basic theory of Frobenius algebras we re-

fer to [145]. The Lie algebra counterpart of Frobenius algebras was studied
under different names such as self-dual, metric or Lie algebras having a non-
degenerate invariant bilinear form. Throughout we will call them Frobenius
 Generalities: Basic notions and notation xvii

Lie algebras: a Frobenius Lie algebra is a Lie algebra g such that g ∼ = g∗ as

∗
right Lie g-modules, where g and g are right Lie g-modules
via the canon-
ical actions: b ( a := [b, a] and a∗ x a (b) := a∗ [a, b] , for all a, b ∈ g

and a∗ ∈ g∗ . We can easily see that a Lie algebra g is Frobenius if and only
if there exists a non-degenerate invariant bilinear form B : g × g → k, i.e.,
B([a, b], c) = B(a, [b, c]), for all a, b, c ∈ g. In light of this reformulation, the
second Cartan’s criterion shows that any finite-dimensional complex semisim-
ple Lie algebra is Frobenius since its Killing form is non-degenerate and in-
variant. Besides the mathematical interest in studying Frobenius Lie algebras
[147, 183], they are also important and have been intensively studied in physics
[107, 197], in particular for the construction of Wess-Zumino-Novikov-Witten
models. The property of being Frobenius reflects a certain natural symmetry:
for instance, a functor F : C → D is called Frobenius [65] if F has the same
left and right adjoint functor. This idea will be used in Section 5.1 where we
introduce the notion of Frobenius Jacobi algebras.
A Poisson algebra is a triple A = (A, mA , [−, −]), where (A, mA ) is a (not
necessarily unital) commutative algebra, (A, [−, −]) is a Lie algebra such that
the Leibniz law
[ab, c] = a [b, c] + [a, c] b
holds for any a, b, c ∈ A. For further details concerning the study of Poisson
algebras arising from differential geometry see [159] and the references therein.
If a Poisson algebra A has a unit 1A , then by taking a = b = 1A in the Leibniz
law we obtain that [1A , c] = [c, 1A ] = 0, for all c ∈ A. Any non-unital Poisson
algebra embeds into a unital Poisson algebra.
A (right) Poisson A-module [169, 232] is a vector space V equipped with
two bilinear maps / : V × A → V and (: V × A → V such that (V, /) is a
right A-module, (V, () is a right Lie A-module satisfying the following two
compatibility conditions for any a, b ∈ A and x ∈ V :

x ( (ab) = (x ( a) / b + (x ( b) / a, x / [a, b] = (x / a) ( b − (x ( b) / a
(0.8)

We denote by PMA A the category of right Poisson A-modules having as mor-

phisms all linear maps which are compatible with both actions.
A Jacobi algebra is a quadruple A = (A, mA , 1A , [−, −]), where
(A, mA , 1A ) is a unital algebra, (A, [−, −]) is a Lie algebra such that for
any a, b, c ∈ A:
[ab, c] = a [b, c] + [a, c] b − ab [1A , c] (0.9)
Any unital Poisson algebra is a Jacobi algebra. Any algebra A is a Jacobi
algebra with the trivial bracket [a, b] = 0, for all a, b ∈ A; such a Jacobi algebra
will be called abelian and will be denoted by A0 . A morphism between two
Jacobi (resp. Poisson) algebras A and B is a linear map ϕ : A → B which is
both a morphism of algebras as well as a morphism of Lie algebras. We denote
xviii Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

by k Jac (resp. k Poss) the category of Jacobi (resp. unitary Poisson) algebras
over a field k. A Jacobi ideal of a Jacobi algebra A is a linear subspace I which
is both an ideal with respect to the associative product as well as a Lie ideal
of A. If I is a Jacobi ideal of A then A/I inherits a Jacobi algebra structure
in the obvious way.
Chapter 1
Extending structures: The group case

The present chapter is the starting point for a study concerning what we have
called the extending structures problem or the ES problem for short. At the
level of groups the ES problem has a very natural statement:
Let H be a group and E a set such that H ⊆ E. Describe and classify up
to an isomorphism that stabilizes H the set of all group structures · that can
be defined on E such that H is a subgroup of (E, ·).
In other words, the ES problem is trying to provide an answer to the very
natural question: to what extent a group structure on H can be extended
beyond H to a bigger set which contains H as a subset in such a way that H
would become a subgroup within the new structure. The ES problem general-
izes and unifies two famous problems in the theory of groups which served as
model for our approach: the extension problem of Hölder [133] and the factor-
ization problem of Ore [192]. Let us explain this briefly. Consider two groups
H and G. The extension problem of Hölder consists of describing and classify-
ing all groups E containing H as a normal subgroup such that E/H ∼ = G. An
important step related to the extension problem was made by Schreier: any
extension E of G by H is equivalent to a crossed product extension (see The-
orem 1.1.6 below). For more details and references on the extension problem
we refer to the monographs [2], [210]. The factorization problem is a “dual”
of the extension problem and it was formulated by Ore [192]. It consists of
describing and classifying up to an isomorphism all groups E that factorize
through two given groups H and G: i.e., E contains H and G as subgroups
such that E = HG and H ∩ G = {1}. The dual version of Schreier’s theorem
was proven by Takeuchi [224]: the bicrossed product associated to a matched
pair of groups (H, G, /, .) was constructed and it was proven that a group E
factorizes through H and G if and only if E is isomorphic to a bicrossed prod-
uct H ./ G (see Proposition 1.1.9). The factorization problem is even more
difficult than the more popular extension problem and little progress has been
made since then. For instance, in the case of two cyclic groups H and G, not
both finite, the problem was started by L. Rédei in [208] and finished by P.M.
Cohn in [80]. If H and G are both finite cyclic groups the problem seems to be
still open, even though J. Douglas [95] has devoted four papers to the subject.
The case of two cyclic groups, one of them being of prime order, was solved
in [11]. The bicrossed product, also known as the knit product or Zappa-Szep
product in the theory of groups, appeared for the first time in a paper by
Zappa [231] and it was rediscovered later on by Szep [221].

1
2 Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

As the next section will highlight, in the construction of a crossed product

we use a weak action α : G → Aut (H) together with an α-cocycle f : G×G →
H, while the construction of a bicrossed product involves two compatible
actions . : G × H → H and / : G × H → G. Even if the starting points
are different, the two constructions have something in common: the crossed
product structure as well as the bicrossed product structure are defined on
the same set, namely H × G and H ∼ = (H, 1) is a subgroup in both the
crossed as well as the bicrossed product. Furthermore, H ∼ = (H, 1) is a normal
subgroup in the crossed product. Conversely, any group structure on a set
E containing H as a normal subgroup can be reconstructed from H and the
quotient E/H as a crossed product (see Theorem 1.1.6 for details). Now, if we
drop the normality assumption on H the construction cannot be performed
anymore and we have to come up with a new method of reconstructing a
group E from a given subgroup and another set of data. This is what we
do in Theorem 1.2.1, which is the first important result of this chapter. Let
H ≤ E be a subgroup of a group E. Using the axiom of choice, we can pick
a retraction p : E → H of the canonical inclusion i : H ,→ E which is left
H-‘linear’. Having this application we consider the pointed set S := p−1 (1),
the fiber of p in 1. The group H and the pointed set S are connected by four
maps arising from p: two actions . = .p : S × H → H, / = /p : S × H → S,
a cocycle f = fp : S × S → H and a multiplication ∗ = ∗p : S × S → S
constructed in Theorem 1.2.1. Using these maps, we shall prove that there
exists an isomorphism of groups E ∼ = (H × S, ·), where the multiplication · on
the set H × S is given by
 
(h1 , s1 ) · (h2 , s2 ) := h1 (s1 . h2 )f (s1 / h2 , s2 ), (s1 / h2 ) ∗ s2 (1.1)

for all h1 , h2 ∈ H and s1 , s2 ∈ S. In other words, even if we drop the

normality assumption, the group E can still be rebuilt from a subgroup H
and the fiber S of an H-linear retraction. Moreover, any group structure ·
that can be defined on a set E such that a given group H will be contained
as a subgroup has the form (1.1) for some system (S, ., /, f, ∗). This new
type of product will be called the unified product and it is easily seen that
both the crossed and the bicrossed product of groups are special cases of
it. In the next step we will perform the abstract construction of the unified
product H n S: it
is associated to a group H and a system of data Ω(H) =
(S, 1S , ∗), /, ., f called the extending datum of H. Theorem 1.2.5 establishes
the system of axioms that has to be satisfied by Ω(H) such that H × S with
the multiplication defined by (1.1) becomes a group
structure, i.e., it is a
unified product. In this case Ω(H) = (S, 1S , ∗), /, ., f will be called a group
extending structure of H. Based on Theorem 1.2.1 and Theorem 1.2.5 we
answer the description part of the ES problem in Corollary 1.2.7. The answer
to the classification part of the ES problem is given in Theorem 1.2.16: the
set of all group structures · that can be defined on E such that H ≤ (E, ·) are
classified up to an isomorphism of groups ψ : (E, ·) → (E, ·0 ) that stabilizes
2
H by a cohomological type set Kn (H, (S, 1S )) which is explicitly constructed.
 Extending structures: The group case 3

As a special case, a more restrictive version of the classification is given in

Corollary 1.2.19, which is a general Schreier theorem for unified products.
This time all unified products H n S are classified up to an isomorphism of
2
groups that stabilizes both H and S by a set Hn (H, (S, 1S ), /) which plays for
the ES problem the same role as the second cohomology group from Hölder’s
extension problem. An explicit example is given in Proposition 1.2.22 where
all groups that contain H as a subgroup of index 2 are classified up to an
isomorphism that stabilizes H.

1.1 Crossed product and bicrossed product of groups

We start by setting up the notation used throughout. Let (S, 1S ) be a
pointed set, i.e., S is a non-empty set and 1S ∈ S is a fixed element in S. The
group structures on a set H will be denoted using multiplicative notation and
the unit element will be denoted by 1H or only 1 when there is no danger of
confusion. Aut (H) denotes the group of automorphisms of a group H and |S|
the cardinal of a set S. A map r : S → H is called unitary if r(1S ) = 1H . S
is called a right H-set if there exists a right action / : S × H → S of H on S,
i.e.,
s / (h1 h2 ) = (s / h1 ) / h2 and s / 1H = s (1.2)
for all s ∈ S, h1 , h2 ∈ H. Left H-sets are defined in an analogous manner.
The action / : S × H → S is called the trivial action if s / h = s, for all s ∈ S
and h ∈ H. Similarly the maps . : S × H → H and f : S × S → H are called
trivial maps if s . h = h and respectively f (s1 , s2 ) = 1H , for all s, s1 , s2 ∈ S
and h ∈ H. If G is a group and α : G → Aut (H) is a map we use the similar
notation α(g)(h) = g . h, for all g ∈ G and h ∈ H.

Crossed product of groups

We recall briefly the construction of the crossed product of groups, the
main tool for studying the extension problem.
Let H and G be two given groups. An extension of G by H is a triple
(E, i, π), where E is a group, i : H → E and π : E → G are group homomor-
phisms which fit into a short exact sequence of groups

1 /H i /E π /G /1

Two such extensions (E, i, π) and (E 0 , i0 , π 0 ) of G by H are called equivalent

if there exists a group (iso)morphism θ : E 0 → E such that the following
4 Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

diagram is commutative

i0 / E0 π0 /G
H
Id θ Id
  
H
i /E π /G

It can be easily proved that we have defined an equivalence relation on the

class of all extensions of G by H. The extension problem asks for the explicit
description of all equivalence classes of this equivalence.
To start with, we introduce the following concept:

Definition 1.1.1 A crossed system of groups is a quadruple (H, G, α, f ),

where H and G are two groups, α : G → Aut (H) and f : G × G → H
are two maps such that the following compatibility conditions hold:

g1 . (g2 . h) = f (g1 , g2 ) (g1 g2 ) . h f (g1 , g2 )−1

(1.3)


f (g1 , g2 ) f (g1 g2 , g3 ) = g1 . f (g2 , g3 ) f (g1 , g2 g3 ) (1.4)

for all g1 , g2 , g3 ∈ G and h ∈ H. The crossed system Γ = (H, G, α, f ) is called

normalized if f (1, 1) = 1. The map α : G → Aut (H) is called a weak action
and f : G × G → H is called an α-cocycle.

We should point out that in the classical group theory terminology, a pair
(α, f ) which fulfills the conditions in Definition 1.1.1 is called a factor set
([2], [210]). The term “crossed system” is borrowed from Hopf algebra theory
where we have a similar construction which generalizes the crossed product of
groups.
Now we give some useful formulas for a crossed system.

Lemma 1.1.2 Let (H, G, α, f ) be a crossed system. Then

f (g, 1) = g . f (1, 1) (1.5)

1 . h = f (1, 1) h f (1, 1)−1 (1.6)
f (1, g) = f (1, 1) (1.7)

for any g ∈ G and h ∈ H. In particular, if (H, G, α, f ) is a normalized crossed

system then
f (1, g) = f (g, 1) = 1 and 1.h=h (1.8)
for any g ∈ G and h ∈ H.

Proof: The condition (1.4) for g2 = g3 = 1 and g1 = g gives (1.5). Now if

we set g1 = g2 = 1 in (1.3) and take into account that α(1) is surjective we
obtain (1.6). If we set g1 = g2 = 1 and g3 = g in (1.4) and take into account
(1.6) we obtain (1.7). 
 Extending structures: The group case 5

Let H and G be groups, α : G → Aut (H) and f : G × G → H two maps.

Let H#fα G := H × G as a set with a binary operation defined by the formula:


(h1 , g1 ) · (h2 , g2 ) := h1 (g1 . h2 )f (g1 , g2 ), g1 g2 (1.9)

for all h1 , h2 ∈ H, g1 , g2 ∈ G. The following theorem gives the construction

of the crossed product of groups.

Theorem 1.1.3 Let H and G be groups, α : G → Aut (H) and f : G×G → H

two maps. The following statements are equivalent:
1. The multiplication on H#fα G given by (1.9) is associative.
2. (H, G, α, f ) is a crossed system.
In this case H#fα G, · is a group with the unit 1H#fα G = f (1, 1)−1 , 1 called

the crossed product of H and G associated to the crossed system (H, G, α, f ).

Proof: For h1 , h2 , h3 ∈ H and g1 , g2 , g3 ∈ G we have

[(h1 , g1 )·(h2 , g2 )]·(h3 , g3 ) = (h1 (g1 .h2 )f (g1 , g2 )((g1 g2 ) . h3 )f (g1 g2 , g3 ), g1 g2 g3 )

and

(h1 , g1 ) · [(h2 , g2 ) · (h3 , g3 )] = (h1 (g1 . h2 )

g1 . (g2 . h3 ) g1 . f (g2 , g3 ) f (g1 , g2 g3 ), g1 g2 g3 )

Hence, the multiplication given by (1.9) is associative if and only if

f (g1 , g2 )((g1 g2 ) . h3 )f (g1 g2 , g3 ) = g1 . (g2 . h3 ) g1 . f (g2 , g3 ) f (g1 , g2 g3 )
(1.10)
for all g1 , g2 , g3 ∈ G and h3 ∈ H. We shall prove now that (1.10) holds if and
only if (1.3) and (1.4) holds. Assume first that (1.3) and (1.4) holds. Then

(1.3)

f (g1 , g2 ) (g1 g2 ) . h3 f (g1 g2 , g3 ) = g1 . (g2 . h3 ) f (g1 , g2 )f (g1 g2 , g3 )
(1.4)


= g1 . (g2 . h3 ) g1 . f (g2 , g3 ) f (g1 , g2 g3 )

i.e., (1.10) holds. Conversely, assume that (1.10) holds. After we specialize
h3 = 1 in (1.10) we obtain (1.4). Now,
  (1.10)

g1 . (g2 . h) f (g1 , g2 ) = f (g1 , g2 ) (g1 g2 ) . h f (g1 g2 , g3 )
[(g1 . f (g2 , g3 ))f (g1 , g2 g3 )]−1 f (g1 , g2 )
(1.4)
f (g1 , g2 ) (g1 g2 ) . h f (g1 g2 , g3 )f (g1 g2 , g3 )−1


=
f (g1 , g2 )−1 f (g1 , g2 )


= f (g1 , g2 ) (g1 g2 ) . h
6 Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

i.e., (1.3) holds; hence the first part of the theorem is proved. We
assume now
that (H, G, α, f ) is a crossed system and we prove that H#fα G, · is a group.
For h ∈ H and g ∈ G we have
 
(h, g) · (f (1, 1)−1 , 1) = h g . (f (1, 1)−1 ) f (g, 1), g

(1.5)
 
= h(g . (f (1, 1)−1 ) (g . f (1, 1)), g
 
= h(g . (f (1, 1)−1 f (1, 1))), g
= (h(g . 1), g) = (h, g)
and
(f (1, 1)−1 , 1) · (h, g) f (1, 1)−1 (1 . h)f (1, g), g


=
(1.6)
f (1, 1)−1 f (1, 1)hf (1, 1)−1 f (1, g), g


=
(1.7)
hf (1, 1)−1 f (1, 1), g = (h, g)


=

i.e., (f (1, 1)−1 , 1) is the unit of H#fα G, · . Let now (h, g) ∈ H#fα G. Then

it is easy to see that

(h, g)−1 = f (1, 1)−1 f (g −1 , g)−1 (g −1 . h−1 ), g −1

is a left inverse of (h, g). Thus H#fα G is a monoid and any element of it has
a left inverse. Then H#fα G is a group and we are done. 
Note that a crossed product with f the trivial cocycle (that is f (g1 , g2 ) =
1H , for all g1 , g2 ∈ G) is just the semidirect product H nα G of H and G.
Example 1.1.4 Let C2 (resp. C4 ) be the cyclic group of order 2 (resp. 4)
generated by a (resp. b) and define
α : C2 → Aut (C4 ), α(1) = IdC4 , α(a)(x) = x−1
for all x ∈ C4 and
f : C2 × C2 → C4 , f (1, 1) = f (1, a) = f (a, 1) = 1, f (a, a) = b
Then we can easily prove that (C4 , C2 , α, f ) is a normalized crossed system
and C4 #fα C2 ∼
= Q, the quaternion group Q of order 8.
Any crossed product (H#fα G, iH , πG ) of groups gives a canonical extension
of G by H as the next result shows.
Corollary 1.1.5 Let (H, G, α, f ) be a crossed system. Then

1 /H iH
/ H#fα G πG
/G /1 (1.11)

where iH (h) := hf (1, 1)−1 , 1 and πG (h, g) := g for all h ∈ H and g ∈ G is

an exact sequence of groups, i.e., (H#fα G, iH , πG ) is an extension of G by H.

 Extending structures: The group case 7

Proof: Straightforward. 

The famous Schreier’s theorem states the converse of Corollary 1.1.5: any
extension E of a group G by a group H is equivalent to a crossed product
extension.

Theorem 1.1.6 Let (E, i, π) be an extension of a group G by a group H, i.e.,

there exists an exact sequence of groups 1 /H i /E π /G /1.
Then there exists (H, G, α, f ) a normalized crossed system and an isomor-
phism of groups θ : H#fα G → E such that the following diagram

H
iH
/ H#fα G πG
/G (1.12)
Id θ Id
  
H
i /E π /G

is commutative.

Proof: We shall identify H ∼ = i(H) E E. The crossed system is constructed

as follows: let s : G → E be a section of π : E → G such that s(1) = 1 and
define α and f by the formulas:

α : G → Aut (H), α(g)(h) := s(g)hs(g)−1 (1.13)

f : G × G → H, f (g1 , g2 ) := s(g1 )s(g2 )s(g1 g2 )−1 (1.14)

for all g, g1 , g2 ∈ G and h ∈ H. Then, by a long but straightforward compu-
tation we can show that (H, G, α, f ) is a normalized crossed system and

θ : H#fα G → E, θ(h, g) := i(h)s(g)

is an isomorphism of groups and
the diagram is commutative: π θ(h, g) =
π(i(h))π(s(g)) = g = IdG πG (h, g) , for all h ∈ H and g ∈ G. 

Theorem 1.1.6 allows for a computational reformulation of Hölder’s ex-

tension problem as follows: Let H and G be two fixed groups. Describe all
normalized crossed systems (H, G, α, f ) and classify up to isomorphism all
crossed products H#fα G.
The description of all extensions of a group by a group (or, equivalently, of
all normalized crossed systems between two fixed groups) has been a central
problem in group theory during the last century. For more detail we refer to
[2], [210].

Bicrossed product of groups

We recall now, following [224], the construction of the bicrossed product of
two groups, which is the main toll for the study of the factorization problem.
8 Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

Definition 1.1.7 A matched pair of groups is a quadruple (A, H, ., /), where

A and H are groups, . : H × A → A is a left action of the group H on the
set A, / : H × A → H is a right action of the group A on the set H satisfying
the following compatibilities for any a, b ∈ A, h, g ∈ H:

h . (ab) = (h . a)((h / a) . b) (1.15)

(hg) / a = (h / (g . a))(g / a) (1.16)

If (A, H, ., /) is a matched pair then the following normalizing conditions

hold for any a ∈ A and h ∈ H:

1 . a = a, h / 1 = h, h . 1 = 1, 1/a=1 (1.17)

Let . : H × A → A, / : H × A → H be two maps and A ./ H := A × H

with the binary operation defined by the formula:


(a, h) · (b, g) := a(h . b), (h / b)g (1.18)

for all a, b ∈ A, h, g ∈ H.

Proposition 1.1.8 Let A and H be groups and . : H×A → A, / : H×A → H

two maps. Then A ./ H is a group with unit (1, 1) if and only if (A, H, ., /) is
a matched pair of groups. In this case A ./ H is called the bicrossed product
of A and H.

Proof: As the proof is similar to the one given for Theorem 1.1.3, we leave
it to the reader; a detailed proof can be found in [224, Proposition 2.2.].
Furthermore, it can be obtained as a special case of Theorem 1.2.5. 

We point out that there are several other names used in the literature to
designate the bicrossed product such as: doublecross product, knit product or
Zappa-Szep product associated to the matched pair (H, G, ., /).
If A ./ H is a bicrossed product then iA : A → A ./ H, iA (a) = (a, 1)
and iH : H → A ./ H, iH (h) = (1, h) are morphisms of groups. A and H
will be viewed as subgroups of A ./ H via the identifications A ∼ = A × {1},
H∼ = {1} × H. If the right action / of a matched pair (A, H, ., /) is the trivial
action then the bicrossed product A ./ H is just the semidirect product
A n H of A and H. Thus, the bicrossed product is another generalization of
the semidirect product to the case when none of the factors is required to be
normal. The bicrossed product A ./ H factorizes through A ∼ = A × {1} and
H∼ = {1} × H as for any a ∈ A and h ∈ H we have that (a, h) = (a, 1) · (1, h).
Conversely, the main motivation for defining the bicrossed product of groups
is the following result which can be viewed as a dual to Schreier’s theorem
(Theorem 1.1.6).

Proposition 1.1.9 A group G factorizes through two subgroups A and H

(i.e., G contains A and H as subgroups such that G = AH and A ∩ H = 1)
 Extending structures: The group case 9

if and only if there exists a matched pair of groups (A, H, ., /) such that the
multiplication map

mG : A ./ H → G, mG (a, h) = ah

for all a ∈ A and h ∈ H is an isomorphism of groups.

Proof: We indicate only the construction of the matched pair (A, H, ., /)

associated to the factorization G = AH. Indeed, if G factorizes through A
and H then for any g ∈ G there exists a unique pair (a, h) ∈ A × H such
that g = ah. This allows us to attach to any (a, h) ∈ A × H a unique pair of
elements (h . a, h / a) ∈ A × H such that

h a = (h . a)(h / a) ∈ AH (1.19)

Then we can easily prove that (A, H, ., /) is a matched pair of groups and
mG : A ./ H → G is an isomorphism of groups. For more detail see [224,
Proposition 2.4]. 

1.2 Group extending structures and unified products

The abstract definition of the unified product of groups will arise from
the following elementary question subsequent to the ES problem: let H ≤ E
be a subgroup in E. Can we reconstruct the group structure on E from the
one of H and some extra set of datum? First we note that Schreier’s classical
construction from Theorem 1.1.6 cannot be used anymore. Thus we should
come up with a new method of reconstruction. The next theorem indicates
the way we can perform this reconstruction.

Theorem 1.2.1 Let H ≤ E be a subgroup of a group E. Then:

1. There exists a map p : E → H such that p(1) = 1 and for any h ∈ H,

x∈E
p(h x) = h p(x) (1.20)

2. For such a map p : E → H we define S = Sp := p−1 (1) = {x ∈

E | p(x) = 1}. Then the multiplication map

ϕ : H × S → E, ϕ(h, s) := hs (1.21)

for all h ∈ H and s ∈ S is bijective with the inverse given for any x ∈ E
by
ϕ−1 : E → H × S, ϕ−1 (x) = p(x), p(x)−1 x


10 Extending Structures: Fundamentals and Applications

3. For p and S as above there exist four maps . = .p : S × H → H,

/ = /p : S × H → S, f = fp : S × S → H and ∗ = ∗p : S × S → S given
by the formulas
s . h := p(sh), s / h := p(sh)−1 sh
f (s1 , s2 ) := p(s1 s2 ), s1 ∗ s2 := p(s1 s2 )−1 s1 s2
for all s, s1 , s2 ∈ S and h ∈ H. Using these maps, the unique group
structure 0 ·0 on the set H × S such that ϕ : (H × S, ·) → E is an
isomorphism of groups given by:
 
(h1 , s1 ) · (h2 , s2 ) := h1 (s1 . h2 )f (s1 / h2 , s2 ), (s1 / h2 ) ∗ s2 (1.22)

for all h1 , h2 ∈ H and s1 , s2 ∈ S.

Proof: (1) Using the axiom of choice we can fix Γ = (xi )i∈I ⊂ E to be
a system of representatives for the right congruence modulo H in E such
that 1 ∈ Γ. Then for any x ∈ E there exists an unique hx ∈ H and an
unique xi0 ∈ Γ such that x = hx xi0 . Thus, there exists a well-defined map
p : E → H given by the formula p(x) := hx , for all x ∈ E. As 1 ∈ Γ we have
that p(1) = 1. Moreover, for any h ∈ H and x ∈ E we have that hx = hhx xi0 .
Thus p(hx) = hhx = hp(x), as needed.
(2) We note that p(x)−1 x ∈ S as p p(x)−1 x = p(x)−1 p(x) = 1, for all

x ∈ E. The rest is straightforward.

(3) First we note that / and ∗ are well-defined maps. Next, we can easily
prove that the following two formulas hold:
p(s1 h2 s2 ) = (s1 . h2 )f (s1 / h2 , s2 ) (1.23)
(s1 / h2 ) ∗ s2 = p(s1 h2 s2 )−1 s1 h2 s2 (1.24)
for all s1 , s2 ∈ S and h2 ∈ H. Indeed,


(s1 . h2 )f (s1 / h2 , s2 ) = p(s1 h2 ) p (s1 / h2 )s2
p(s1 h2 ) p p(s1 h2 )−1 s1 h2 s2


=
(1.20)
= p(s1 h2 s2 )
Similarly, we can prove that (1.24) holds. Now, ϕ : H × S → E is a bijection
between the set H × S and the group E. Thus, there exists a unique group
structure · on the set H × S such that ϕ is an isomorphism of groups. This
group structure is obtained by transferring the group structure from E via
the bijection ϕ, i.e., is given by:
ϕ−1 ϕ(h1 , s1 )ϕ(h2 , s2 ) = ϕ−1 (h1 s1 h2 s2 )


(h1 , s1 ) · (h2 , s2 ) =
p(h1 s1 h2 s2 ), p(h1 s1 h2 s2 )−1 h1 s1 h2 s2


=
(1.20)
h1 p(s1 h2 s2 ), p(s1 h2 s2 )−1 s1 h2 s2


=
(1.23),(1.24)
 
= h1 (s1 . h2 )f (s1 / h2 , s2 ), (s1 / h2 ) ∗ s2
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