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Maintenance Training Organisation Part -147

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MODULE 04
Electronic Fundamentals
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for Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Category B2

www.aviotraceswiss.com
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Cat. B2 - Table of Contents

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Table of Contents

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4.1 Semiconductors ....................................................................................................................... 3
4.1.1.A.1 Diodes symbols .......................................................................................................... 3
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4.1.1.A.2 Diodes characteristics and properties ....................................................................... 5

4.1.1.A.3 Diodes in series and parallel ...................................................................................... 9
4.1.1.A.4 Main characteristics and use of silicon controlled rectifiers (thyristors), light
emitting diodes, photo conductive diodes, varistors, rectifier diodes ................................... 14
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4.1.1.A.5 Diodes functional testing ......................................................................................... 21
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4.1.1.B.1 Materials, electron configuration, electrical properties .......................................... 25

4.1.1.B.2 P and N type materials: impurities effects on conduction, majority and minority
charge carriers......................................................................................................................... 28
4.1.1.B.3 PN junction in a semiconductor, development of an electrical potential across a PN
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junction in unbiased, forward biased and reverse biased conditions .................................... 31
4.1.1.B.4 Diodes parameters: peak inverse voltage, maximum forward current, temperature
................................................................................................................................................. 35
4.1.1.B.5 Diodes use and functioning in the following circuits: clippers, clampers, full and half
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wave rectifiers and bridge rectifiers ....................................................................................... 41
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4.1.1.B.6 Detailed operation and characteristics of the following devices: Schottky diodes,
varactor diodes and Zener diodes........................................................................................... 55
4.1.2.A.1 Introduction to transistors and transistors symbols................................................ 60
4.1.2.A.2 Components description and orientation................................................................ 63
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4.1.2.A.3 Transistors characteristics and properties............................................................... 65
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4.1.2.B.1 PNP and NPN transistors functioning ...................................................................... 70

4.1.2.B.2 Base, collector and emitter configurations .............................................................. 81
4.1.2.B.3 Transistors functional testing................................................................................... 85
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4.1.2.B.4 Basic overview of other transistor types ................................................................. 87

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4.1.2.B.5 Transistors application: classes of amplifiers (A, B, C) ........................................... 100
4.1.2.B.6 Simple circuits including bias, decoupling and feedback ....................................... 101
4.1.2.B.7 Multistage circuit principles: cascade and push-pull amplifiers, oscillators,

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multivibrators, flip-flop circuits ............................................................................................. 110
4.1.3.B.1 Common logic circuits description and operation ................................................. 126
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4.1.3.B.2 Introduction to the operational amplifier.............................................................. 136
4.1.3.B.3 Operation of the operational amplifier ................................................................. 144
4.1.3.B.4 Applications of the operational amplifier .............................................................. 151

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4.2 Printed circuit boards .......................................................................................................... 158
4.2.1 Printed circuit boards description and use .................................................................. 158
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4.3 Servomechanisms ............................................................................................................... 166

4.3.B.1 Servos: open and closed loop systems, feedback, null, damping, frequency response
............................................................................................................................................... 166
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4.3.B.2 Introduction to the synchro: construction, operation and types of synchro systems
............................................................................................................................................... 178
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4.3.B.3 Synchros defects ....................................................................................................... 200

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4.1 Semiconductors

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4.1.1.A.1 Diode symbols
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The diode is an electronic passive component. One of its characteristics is that it can have high
or low resistance, according to the voltage polarity applied to its terminals. This property is

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used in many electronic applications, such as voltage rectifiers or voltage stabilizers. The image
below represents the graphic symbol of the diode.
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Fig. 1.1 – Diode symbol

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In this picture the triangle indicates the diode positive terminal, which is called anode, while
the vertical line on the vertex of the triangle indicates the negative terminal, the cathode. The
arrow under the diode symbol represents the direction of the current flow, when the diode
conducts.
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There are many types of diodes. Below are some o f their graphic symbols:

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Fig. 1.2 – Other diode symbols

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The symbol “a” represents a Schottky diode. The symbol “b” shows a varicap diode, also called
“varactor”, while symbols “c” and “d” represent respectively a led and a photo-diode. As you
can see, the part of the symbol that changes is the negative terminal which identifies the diode
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4.1.1.A.2 Diode characteristics and properties

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The diode is made of a semiconductor crystal, generally silicon.
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Fig. 1.3 – Silicon crystal lattice

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The reason why it can change its resistance according to the voltage polarity applied, is that it
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is not a pure silicon crystal. In fact, in its chemical structure, there is a lot of impurities that,
unlike silicon, have three or five valence electrons on their outer shell.
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By impurities with three valence electrons are called P-type materials and impurities with five
valence electrons are called N-type materials.
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Fig. 1.4 – Impurities in a silicon crystal

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If you insert these types of impurities in a silicon crystal the result is an excess of electrons on
one side of the crystal and a lack on the other side. The side in which there is N-type material

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becomes a negative zone, while the side with P-type material becomes a positive zone.
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Fig. 1.5 – P and N type materials

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The positive zone is called anode and marked with a triangle; the negative zone is called
cathode and marked with a line perpendicular to the circuit line.

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Fig. 1.6 – PN junction (diode)

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The current amplitude depends on the diode polarization. That is, if the negative part of the
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circuit is connected to the positive part of the diode, there is no conduction. In the opposite
case, with a voltage value higher than a threshold voltage (Vs), it is possible that lot of
electrons move through the crystal creating a current flow. This phenomenon is shown on the
following diagram which represents the diode characteristics.
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Fig. 1.7 – Characteristic curve of a diode

The maximum value of negative voltage that can be applied to a diode is known as breakdown
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value (Vz). At this value the characteristic curve becomes vertical and the breakage of the
crystal occurs.

4.1.1.A.3 Diodes in series and parallel

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Thanks to its properties, the diode can be used like a passive switch that works in relation to
the applied voltage polarity. This feature can be used in ACcircuit in order to rectify a current
wave or limit its peak value.
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Diodes in series
To use the diode as a rectifier, you must connect it in series with the output branch of the
circuit. To understand how this is achieved, look at the circuit below where the diode is

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connected in series.
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Fig. 1.8 – Diode in series

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If in the above circuit the input voltage Vi is lower than the reference voltage Vr, the diode
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cannot conduct and so the output Vo is steadly equal to Vr.

When the input voltage value goes over the reference value, the diode becomes directly
polarized and the output voltage will be almost equal to Vi.
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The circuit operation explained above is represented in the following diagram:

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Fig. 1.9 – Input VS Output

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Diodes in parallel
To limit the voltage peak value, the diode must be connected in parallel with the output
terminals, as shown in image 1.10:

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Fig. 1.10 – Diode in parallel

In order to understand how the diode works you have to take into account that it is in a state
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of direct polarization only when the input voltage Vi is higher than the reference voltage Vr,
established by the reference battery connected in series with the diode. In this way, the input
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current flows through the diode which due to its low resistance behaves like a short circuit. In
this case the output voltage is almost equal to the reference voltage Vr.

𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟 → 𝑉0 ≅ 𝑉𝑟
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If the input voltage Vi is lower than the reference voltage Vr, the diode does not conduct
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current and behaves like an open circuit in series with the reference battery Vr. In this case all
the input current flows through the output terminals and provokes the output voltage V0 to be
exactly equal to the input voltage.
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𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟 → 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖
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The functioning of the entire circuit can be summarized by this diagram representing the trend
of the output voltage in relation to the input one:

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Fig. 1.11 – Input VS Output

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In image 1.11 you can see how a circuit with a diode connected in parallel with the output
branch is able to cut the voltage peak of a sinusoidal wave. Obviously, the value over which it
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is possible to cut the wave depends on the value given by the reference battery. We call this
kind of circuit clipper.
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4.1.1.A.4 Main characteristics and use of silicon controlled rectifiers
(thyristors), light emitting diodes, photo conductive diodes, varistors,
rectifier diodes

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Rectifier circuit
When in a circuit with diode in series, as shown below, there is no reference battery, the
reference voltage value is zero. In this configuration the circuit is called voltage rectifier.

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Fig. 1.12 – Half wave rectifier

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Looking at the circuit you see that the voltage wave can be transmitted only if positive, in fact
when it is negative its value is lower than the reference one which, as stated above, appears
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null in this kind of circuit.

To rectify the entire sinusoidal wave, you just have to put another diode able to conducts only
when the input voltage value is negative. You can do this by connecting the other diode in
opposition with the first one, as shown in Fig. 1.13:
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For this kind of rectifier the output voltage is represented by this diagram:
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Fig. 1.14 – Output of a full wave rectifier

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Thyristors
A thyristor is a controlled silicon device. It works like a diode controlled by a current impulse. It

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is made of a silicon crystal doped alternatively with P and N-type materials.
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Fig. 1.15 - Thyristor

The thyristor is composed by three terminals: anode and cathode, as in a diode, plus a third
terminal, called gate. Since this device conducts only if an electric current flows through the
gate, the gate itself is considered as the device control terminal. sw
The thyristor symbol is shown in the next page:
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Fig. 1.16 – Thyristor symbol

Light emitting diode (LED)

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Fig. 1.17 – LED

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LED is the acronym for light emitting diode, a junction electronic device realized with particular
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kinds of semiconductor materials able to emit light when a current flows in them. Generally, in
a directly polarized diode a current flows due to electrons moving from N to P zone and holes
moving from P to N zone. When this happens, there is a recombination of electrons and holes
near the junction. In a normal silicon diode the result is the emission of thermal energy, while
in the case of leds you have the emission of light energy. The light wave length, responsible for
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the led color, depends on the compound used to create the led junction as well as on the

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semiconductor doping. The light intensity increases with direct current and decreases with
temperature. To create a good lightness you will be looking for current values ranging from 5
to 20 milliampere. The maximum reverse voltage, for this kind of diode, is smaller than the
normal diodes reverse voltage and it is in the range of 3-5 volts. Thanks to their switching

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speed, great endurance and small dimension leds are used as display devices.
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Fig. 1.18 – Example of a LED lamp
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Photo conductive diode

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Fig. 1.19 – Photo-diode

A kind of diode working in a state of reverse polarization is the photo-diode. When the light
hits the reverse biased photo-diode, it creates a lot of free charge carriers, causing a tangible
value of reverse current. This current depends on the light intensity and on the wave length.
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Since the photo-diode converts a light signal into an electrical one, it is used as an optical
sensor.
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Varistor (VDR)
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Fig. 1.20 – VDR symbol

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The varistor is an electronic device generally used to protect another device against an
unexpected voltage peak. You can consider it as a variable resistor that reduces its resistance
value when voltage increases. It can be said that the varistor is a voltage depended resistor, in
fact it is also referred to with the acronym VDR. If the VDR is connected in parallel to the

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device to be preserved, it lets current flowing through the device until the voltage exceeds the
threshold value. At this point, the VDR assumes a low resistance value and let current passes
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almost entirely through its branch protecting the device itself.

The functioning of a varistor is shown by its characteristic curve:

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Fig. 1.21 – VDR characteristic curve

Varistor curve is a symmetric curve and looks like the curves of two diodes in a state of reverse
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polarization. For this reason, its electrical symbol has the shape of two opposite diodes.

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4.1.1.A.5 Diodes functional testing

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When in a diode you are not able to identify the cathode and the anode and there is not a
diode data sheet, you can use a multimeter to perform a diode functional test. The
multimeters are divided in two main groups: digital and analog multimeters.
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Fig. 1.22 – Multimeters

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A multimeter is a device able to measure different electrical parameter, including current
intensity, voltage and resistance. The digital multimeter shows the numerical value of the
electrical parameter you are mesuring in accordance with the range selected by the rotative
selector. The analog multimeter presents multiple scales. On the left hand side of the dial

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there are the minimum possible values of current intensity and voltage and the maximum
values of resistance (you can think of an open circuit with no current intensity and an almost
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infinite resistance values). Vice versa, on the right end side you find the maximum values of
current intensity and voltage and the minimum resistance values (you can imagine a short
circuit situation with very high current intensity and low resistance values).

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Fig. 1.23 – Analog multimeter scale

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Now let’s understand how we can perform a diode functional test using a digital multimeter.
Connect the multimeter probes to the diode terminals and put the selector in the diode testing
mode. A 0.601 VDC (corresponding to the threshold value) means that you have connected the

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positive multimeter probe to the anode and the negative one to the cathode (Fig 1.24a). In this
case you can hear an audible tone. Conversely a -OL- VDC reading (open circuit) means that
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the positive probe is connected to the cathode and the negative one to the anode (Fig 1.24b).

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Fig. 1.24 – Test of a diode with digital multimeter
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If you are using an analog multimeter, connect the multimeter probes to the diode. If the dial
shows high resistance / low voltage values, the positive probe is connected to the anode and

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the negative one to the cathode (Fig. 1.25a). On the contrary, when the dial shows low
resistance / high voltage values, the positive probe is connected to the cathode while the
negative one to the anode (Fig. 1.25b).
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Fig. 1.25 – Test of a diode with analog multimeter
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A multimeter can also be used to check for possible diode damages. In fact, if in both cases you
register a high resistance value, it means that the diode is interrupted. If not, the diode is in
short-circuit state.
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4.1.1.B.1 Materials, electron configuration, electrical properties

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The materials most commonly used to realize semiconductor components are silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge) and in case of specific applications, the gallium arsenide.
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As we know, the properties of materials depend on atomic structure, electronic disposition
and chemical bonds. What we must remember is that the electrical properties are related to
the quantity of electrons in the last shell of atomic structure. This shell is called valence shell
and electrons on it are valence electrons. These valence electrons are much more subjected to
the influence of surrounded atoms than those near the nucleus, this is due to the fact that

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internal electrons are more strongly bonded to the nucleus.
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Fig. 1.26 – Structure of the atom
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An atom of pure semiconductors shares four valence electrons with other four atoms in the
nearby.
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So, the atoms appeared arranged in geometric structure (the crystalline grid) forming a square
based pyramid:

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Fig. 1.27 – Geometric structure of semiconductor crystal

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At the vertices of the pyramid there are the semiconductor atoms, for example atoms of
silicon, while the sides represent the chemical bonds between two atoms sharing one of their
valence electrons. These chemical bonds are covalent bonds. The electrons of the
semiconductor atoms are strongly bonded to the crystalline grid and they cannot move
through the material. Thus, at low temperature these types of materials do not behave as
good conductors but as insulating materials. sw
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How to create conductivity in a pure semiconductor

There are some methods to create a sort of conductivity in a semiconductor. One of these is to
supply the material with heat. The obtained energy is in fact able to break a covalent bond in
the crystalline grid of the semiconductor and as a result one or more electrons become free to
move through the crystalline grid. When this happens the chemical bond becomes incomplete
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and a hole is created in it.
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Fig. 1.28 – Silicon crystalline grid

A hole represents the lack of an electron in the covalent bond. This missing electron becomes a
free charge in the material. The presence of the holes in the crystal is very important because
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it allows another electron to take the place of the first one in the incomplete bond. Obviously,
this change of place of the electron in the crystalline grid produces another hole. It follows that
the movement of the holes is opposite to the movement of the electrons and the former ones
can thus be considered as positive charges. In a pure semiconductor the number of the holes
equals the number of electrons; at room temperature this type of material will have a weak
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conductivity.
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4.1.1.B.2 P and N type materials: impurities effects on conduction, majority and
minority charge carriers

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To increase the conductivity of semiconductors and be able to use these materials for
electronic applications, you can use a more efficient method than supplying heat to a
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semiconductor. This method is called doping of semiconductor. It consists of doping the
semiconductor through the introduction of other types of atoms in the crystalline grid. The
atoms used for this purpose are trivalent or pentavalent atoms, i.e. atoms which have three or
five valence electrons on their external shells.

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Fig. 1.29 – Introduction of impurities in a semiconductor

So, if you use silicon (that is tetravalent) and add a pentavalent element, you create an excess
of electrons. This results in more free charges able to move through the material. While, if you
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add trivalent atoms to silicon, you will have more holes than electrons on the crystalline grid
because there are lot of incomplete covalent bonds.

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Fig. 1.30 – Example of P-type and N-type materials in a semiconductor crystal

The material to whom you add pentavalent atoms becomes a N-type material. In a N-type
material the conductivity is mainly due to the movement of electrons. Electrons are the
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majority charge carriers, while holes are the minority charge carriers.
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Fig. 1.31 – N-type material in the silicon crystalline grid

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The material to whom you add trivalent atoms becomes a P-type material. In a P-type material
the conductivity is mainly due to the movement of the holes. To be precise, are the electrons
that actually move through the crystal to complete the covalent bonds which present holes.
This creates the illusion of holes moving in a direction opposite to the movement of electrons.
Unlike the N-type materials, in this case the holes are the majority charge carriers and the
electrons the minority charge carriers.
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Fig. 1.32 - P-type material in the silicon crystalline grid

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4.1.1.B.3 PN junction in a semiconductor, development of an electrical
potential across a PN junction in unbiased, forward biased and reverse
biased conditions

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PN junction
By inserting P-type impurities in a side of semiconductor crystal and N-type in the other side,
you create a region in the middle of the crystal named PN junction.

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Fig. 1.33 – PN junction (P and N materials in the same crystal)

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The presence of holes in excess in P-side together with an excess of electrons in N-side causes
an interaction between them in the junction zone. At the junction level, some electrons move
from the N-side to the P-side and join the holes already present in P-side. This electrons
movement leaves the area near the junction without charge carriers on both sides. It creates in
this way a positive charge in N-side and a negative charge in P-side at the level of the junction.
This happens because N-side loses some of its electrons and becomes positive, while P-side
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sees an increase of electrons and becomes negative. The area in which this exchange takes
place is called space charge region.
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Fig. 1.34 – Space charge region in the PN junction

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In this space charge region, the presence of positive charges in N-side and negative ones in P-
side creates an electrical field directed from N-side to P-side. The electrical field opposes the
movement of majority charge carriers (i.e. holes in P-side and electrons in N-side) and favors
the movement of minority charge carriers. In a PN junction we can thus find two types of
current: the current due to majority charge carriers and that due to minority ones.
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Junction polarization
If you connect a semiconductor crystal to a battery, it creates an electric current whose
intensity depends on the polarity and intensity of the voltage applied to the semiconductor.
When the N-side of the junction is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and the P-
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side to the negative one, the junction can be considered in a state of reverse polarization.
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Fig. 1.35 – PN junction reverse biased

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In this state electrons in N-side move through the crystal towards the positive terminal of the
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battery, while holes in P-side go to the negative terminal. The result is a reduction of charge
carriers near the PN junction and an increase of the space charge region. As the electrical field
intensity across the junction increases it opposes stronger majority charge carriers so that the
current flowing through the doped semiconductor is provoked by minority charge carriers and
presents a very low, almost null, intensity.
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On the contrary, when the N-side is connected to the negative terminal of a battery and P-side
to the positive one, the PN junction can be considered in a state of direct polarization.

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Fig. 1.36 - PN junction directly biased

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When this happens, the few electrons in P-side move to the positive terminal of the battery. As
a consequence, more holes are created in P-side. In fact, electrons moving to the positive

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terminal leave their position in the grid structure creating an empty space in the chemical
bond and forming in this way a hole. The result is a reduction of the space charge region and
consequently a reduction in the electric field intensity itself. The majority charge carriers easily
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go through the junction and the current intensity in the semiconductor increases. You can thus
see that, unlike the case of reverse polarization, here the current is mainly due to the majority
charge carriers.

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ce

sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

tra

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4.1.1.B.4 Diodes parameters: peak inverse voltage, maximum forward
current, temperature

_S
The diode is made of a simple PN junction and it is thus an electronic passive component. One
sw
of its characteristics is that it can have high or low resistance according to the voltage polarity
applied to its terminals. This property is employed in many electronic applications such as
voltage rectifiers or voltage stabilizers. There are different types of diodes, among them we
have: led, photo-diode and Zener diode.
For what concerns its structure, we have seen that the diode is simply a semiconductor crystal

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doped with P and N elements, therefore it can be considered as a semiconductor crystal
having PN junction. The P-side and the N-side of the junction are called anode and cathode
ce

and represent the diode terminals.

sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.37 Diode representation

Av

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To understand how a diode works, you have to observe its characteristic curve. This curve
represents the current trend flowing in a diode in relation to the voltage applied between the
anode and the cathode.

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce
Fig. 1.38 –Diode characteristic curve

Observing the curve it is easy to see why the diode is a non-linear component. In fact, in the
region where the voltage is positive the curve presents an exponential trend and is thus non-
sw
linear. As you can see, in the direct polarization zone the current is almost null with its trend
tra

appearing flat when the voltage intensity ranges between 0 and the threshold value. The
threshold value for silicon diodes is about 0.5 – 0.6 V. Beyond this value the intensity of the
current increases exponentially in relation to the voltage increase. In a reverse polarization
zone, instead, the voltage is negative. In that curve region the intensity value of the current is
almost null up to the breakdown voltage value, i.e. the voltage value in which the junction
breaks. At that value, because of the high voltage level, the strong electrical field breaks a lot
ce
of covalent bonds and many electrons become free to move through the crystal. The result is
io

the presence of electrons flowing among the crystal; this phenomenon creates an acceleration
of charges known as thermal effect. When the voltage is close to the breakdown value, the
current intensity decreases quickly with a vertical trend.
Av

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Directly polarized diodes
In a directly polarized diode the current flow is due to the majority charge carriers and it
increases very quickly as the voltage increases. The exponential law below represents the

_S
relation between direct current Id and voltage Vd:

𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1)
sw
n = emission coefficient. A normal value of this coefficient is between 1 and 2

VT = thermal voltage, that is equal to (K*T)/q, in which K is the Boltzmann parameter and T is

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the temperature in the absolute scale

q = electron charge
ce

IS = reverse polarization current

When a diode works, you can ignore the term -1 and rewrite the law as follow:
sw 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 )
tra

This law is represented by the right part of a diode characteristic curve:

ce

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

tra

Fig. 1.39 – Positive side of the diode curve

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In the previous diagram the current value is not tangible and almost null until it reaches the Vy
value, about 0.5 V. We take this value as the diode threshold value. Because of its exponential
characteristic, the voltage between diode terminals does not see relevant changes of value

_S
and remains stable between 0.6 – 0.8 V, normally 0.7 V.
sw
Thermal effects
If you consider the equation presented above, which describes a diode behavior when directly
polarized, you notice that there are two possible effects of temperature variation. The first one
is that reverse current Is increases as temperature increases provoking an increase of the

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diode Id current too. The second one concerns the thermal voltage VT, from which the diode
current depends: it increases when temperature rises, while the Id current decrease as
ce

temperature rises. The macro effect of this temperature rise is an increase of diode direct Id
current explained as follows: in polarizing a diode with a constant current value, a temperature
rise of one Celsius degree makes diode voltage Vd decrease of 2mV. We can summarize this
phenomenon using the chart below:
sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.40 – Thermal effect on the operation of the diode

ce
io

Reverse biased diodes

If the diode is in a state of reverse polarization and you increase diode voltage until a certain
value, a breakdown can occur. When this is the case, reverse current Id quickly increases and
Av

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becomes much higher than Is current. The value at which a breakdown occurs is called
breakdown value.

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce
Fig. 1.41 – Negative side of the diode curve

As you can see, at the breakdown value the diode behavior is equal to that of a voltage
generator because it maintains the same voltage Vz value whatever the reverse current value
is. sw
tra

There are two different effects able to cause a diode breakdown:

 Zener effect: it is due to the electrical field rise occurring in the space charge region. It
mainly happens when there is a high doping level. When the breakdown voltage is
applied to the diode terminals, the electric field becomes so high that breaks covalent
ce
bonds freeing electrons that by leaving their positions create holes. This provokes a
io

bad reverse current increase. Generally, diodes in which breakdown occurs because of
Zener effect have a breakdown voltage value that does not exceed the 5 – 6V. In these
types of diodes breakdown voltage decreases as temperature increases.

 Avalanche effect: it occurs when the few free charge carriers in the space charge
Av

tra

region gain a lot of kinetic energy. If one of these charge carriers knocks against

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crystalline grid, the crash causes the break of a covalent bond with an electron
becoming able to move and gaining therefore kinetic energy. In this way, an
avalanche-like propagation of free charges movement occurs. This causes the

_S
breakdown of the diode, which is associated with the dangerous increase of reverse
current. If the breakdown is due to the avalanche effect, the diode has a breakdown
voltage value over 6 – 7 Volts and a positive temperature coefficient that means
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voltage VZ increases as temperature increases.

It has to be noticed that the breakdown is not always a destructive phenomenon. In fact, if you
limit the reverse current amplitude preventing in this way the lost power to increase over the

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tolerable value, the diode can work normally in the breakdown region (Zener diode).
ce

sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

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4.1.1.B.5 Diodes use and functioning in the following circuits: clippers,
clampers, full and half wave rectifiers and bridge rectifiers

_S
The diode as a circuit component
sw

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ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.42 – Diode curve VS load line of the circuit

sw
Now, we will see how the diode works in an electrical circuit. If you consider a circuit with a
tra

diode connected in series and a load represented by a resistance, it is possible to analyze its
functioning by applying a constant voltage signal, represented by a constant voltage generator,
as the circuit input. We can now write the second Kirchhoff’s law about the mesh. This law
explains the relation occurring among voltages across all circuit components in a mesh. If
applied at the circuit presented above, the law is as follows:
ce
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑖 ∙ 𝑅𝐿
io

In this equation V is the voltage across the diode, Vi the voltage applied to the input circuit and
the product of i by RL is the voltage across the resistance according to the Ohm’s law. As we
know, a straight line in a Cartesian plane where the axis of ordinates shows the current and
Av

the axis of abscissas shows the voltage represents the mathematic equation. This straight line
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is called load line. The load line intersects the axis of current at a value Vi, divided by RL, and
the voltage axis at a value Vi. Now, if you draw the characteristic curve of the diode in the
same Cartesian plane, you will obtained an intersection point between the load line and the

_S
characteristic curve. This point is called working point of the diode and represents the voltage
value and the diode current in a circuit. By increasing the input voltage value of the circuit, you
can see that the load line moves up, that is due to the intersection of the current axis moving
sw
up as well, while the intersection of the voltage axis moves right. This let the work point of the
diode move on the curve where new positions of the point represent new working values of
the diode.

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Schematic simplifications
When we want to study a diode operation in an electrical circuit, generally we do not use the
ce

characteristic curve seen in the previous paragraph, this because that curve is not easy to
identify in simple diodes applications. There are in fact some easier ways to represent the
diode each of them having a corresponding characteristic curve. These possible
representations are: the diode used as a switch, the diode used as a battery with a voltage
sw
value of Vf and the diode used as a battery with a voltage value Vy in series with a resistor.
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.43 – Schematic simplifications of the diode operation

Av

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The easier way to study the diode operation is to represent it as a simple switch. In this
representation you can consider the diode as an open switch when it is in reverse polarization
and a close one when it is in a state of direct polarization. The characteristic curve used to

_S
explain this simplified scheme is a line always null in the reverse polarization zone (Fig 1.42a).
When the diode is directly polarized the line becomes vertical and coincident to the axis of
ordinates. However, with this method you will not register the voltage decrease across the
sw
diode. To do so, you have to change the close switch with a battery of Vf voltage around 0.7 –
0.8 V. You obtain a system where the characteristic curve is null until it reaches the Vf value
and becomes vertical (Fig 1.42b). This means that when the diode is directly polarized the
voltage value will be the same whatever the current value is. While, if you want to consider the

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voltage increase across the diode as well as the current increase, you will represent the state
of direct polarization as a battery in series with a resistor. Now the voltage value of the battery
ce

corresponds exactly to the threshold value of the diode. Beyond this voltage value the curve
becomes a straight line with a slope value of 1 divided by the resistance (Fig 1.42c).

AC diode application
sw
tra

Now we will consider the use of the diode characteristic curve to see how the diode modifies
an input voltage signal. For that purpose, you have to consider as input voltage a variable
signal that keeps the diode always in a state of direct polarization. This state can be created by
employing a constant voltage generator connected in series to an alternator that gives as
output a voltage wave with amplitude smaller than the constant voltage amplitude. Below is
ce
the total voltage input signal:

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 + 𝑉𝑣𝑎𝑟 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 + 𝑉 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓)

Vi is the total signal, Vconst is the constant voltage amplitude (bigger than the threshold value)
sw
and V is the amplitude of the sine wave generated by the alternator. As stated above, in order
to identify the diode work point you need to consider the characteristic curve in the voltage
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current plane:
ce
io
Av

tra

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_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.44 – Operation of the diode with alternative current

You have to draw three load lines in the plane. The middle line represents work conditions
with average value of voltage, the upper one represents work conditions with maximum
ce
voltage value and the lower one work conditions with the minimum value. At this point you
can use the equation to find the intersection points between the load lines and the axis. The
intersection points of the middle load line will be Vconst and Vconst / R where R represents the
course of the load resistance. In the upper line the intersection points will be (Vconst + V), and
(Vconst + V)/R, while in lower you will have (Vconst - V), and (Vconst - V)/R. The three load lines
sw
intersect the characteristic curve in three different points that are the working points of the
tra

diode (Q, Q1 and Q2). Now, if you project these points on the current and voltage axis, you
obtain respectively the current and voltage wave across the diode. Considering the amplitude
of these waves, a negligible voltage decrease across the diode is registered, as it is the case in a
state of direct polarization.
ce
io
Av

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_S
Clipper circuit
Thanks to its properties, the diode can be used as a passive switch that works depending on
sw
the applied voltage polarity. This feature is useful in AC circuit in order to rectify a current
wave or limit its peak value.

To limit the voltage peak value the diode must be connected in parallel with the output
terminals, as shown in the image below:

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.45 – Simple clipper circuit

Let’s consider this limiter circuit in which the diode is connected to the output branch. In this
situation the limiter circuit can transmit the input voltage values under a particular reference
ce
value cutting in this way the values above it.
io

In fact, when the input voltage Vin is lower than the reference value Vr, the diode is in a state of
reverse polarization and the value of output voltage is exactly Vin. This means that the input
voltage wave is reproduced on the output terminals of the limiter circuit. Therefore you will
have:
Av

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𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛

If on the contrary the input voltage Vin is higher than the reference value Vr, the diode is

_S
directly polarized. In this case, since the diode behavior is the same of a short circuit and the
voltage of the output branch is Vr, the output voltage will be circa Vr.
sw
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≅ 𝑉𝑟

To better understand the functioning of this circuit, you can imagine the diode as a battery VY
in series with a resistor Rf. The relation between input and output voltage is expressed in the

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following equation:

𝑅𝑓
ce

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌 + (𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝑌 ) ∙
(𝑅 + 𝑅𝑓 )

In the next page it is shown the operation of the limiter circuit with the trans-characteristic
curve in the Vin – Vout plane:
sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.46 – Input VS output of the clipper circuit

Av

tra

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Looking at the curve you notice that when the input voltage is above the reference value it is
not completely cut but only strongly attenuated. In fact, the slope of the curve above the
reference value is not null and appears equal to:

_S
𝑅𝑓
(𝑅 + 𝑅𝑓 )
sw
This kind of limiter circuit is named clipper.

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Rectifier circuits
The rectifier circuit converts a voltage wave with an average value of 0 into an always-positive
voltage wave with an average value diverse from 0. These circuits are the main components in
ce

DC power supply construction. In these kinds of applications the input wave is the voltage that
comes from the secondary of the transformer and the output wave is an always-positive
voltage that will be equalized by a capacitive filter to obtain a constant voltage value. There
are three types of rectifier circuits: one diode rectifier, two diodes rectifier and the Graetz
bridge rectifier.
sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.47 – Half wave rectifier

ce
io

The one diode rectifier circuit is the same as the limiter circuit with diode connected in series.
The only difference is that in the rectifier circuit there is not a Vr battery providing the
reference value. The value of reference voltage for that circuit is thus zero and it transmits only
positive values of the input voltage wave to the output terminals. For this reason, the one
diode rectifier is also called half wave rectifier.
Av

tra

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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.48 – Full wave rectifier

The two-diodes rectifier is used with a transformer in which the secondary has a central pin to
split the secondary voltage in two equal parts. In this way the two-diodes rectifier can be
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considered as two one-diode rectifiers joint together. In fact, when the voltage wave is positive
the diode D1 is directly polarized, while the diode D2 is in a state of reverse polarization.
Instead, when the voltage is negative, the diode D1 does not conduct, while the diode D2 is
directly polarized. As a result, on the output terminals of that circuit you find a voltage wave
whose negative parts have been turned upside down to become positive. We thus call this
sw
kind of rectifier full wave rectifier.
tra

ce
io
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_S
sw

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ce

Fig. 1.49 – Graetz bridge circuit

sw
tra

The Graetz bridge rectifier is a full wave rectifier too. In this kind of circuit the diodes
disposition is the same of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. In the Graetz bridge rectifier during a
half-voltage wave there are only two opposite diodes directly polarized. As the voltage inverts
its polarity the conducting diode will change as well. You can notice that in this case the output
voltage is the same of the two-diodes rectifier.
ce

Rectifier with capacitive filter

The pulsing voltage that comes from the rectifier circuit is always equalized by a capacitive
filter. A capacitive filter is made of a capacitor connected in parallel to the load at the level of
sw
the output branch of the rectifier circuit, as you can see in the following image:
tra

ce
io
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_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.50 – Rectifier circuit with capacitive filter

In order to understand the circuit operation it is helpful to consider what happens when the
capacitor is connected to the terminals of a half wave rectifier. During the first quarter of the
sw
voltage wave the diode is directly polarized and so the capacitor can charge itself. As the
tra

voltage begins to decrease, the capacitor discharges on the load until the next positive half
wave, when it restarts to charge. The continuous charge and discharge of the capacitor
permits to equalize a variable voltage signal. Obviously, it is possible to improve the
equalization by increasing the time constant of the capacitive filter. You can do this by
choosing a capacitor with a higher capacitance. In this case the capacitor discharges slowly and
the output voltage signal seems flatter than before. The circuit operation just described is
ce

applied also to full wave rectifiers. For this type of rectifier circuit the discharge time is smaller
than the half wave time and this fact provides you with a better equalization. To quantifiy the
ripple of a unipolar signal we must take into account the ripple factor. The ripple factor is the
percentage ratio of the RMS (root square mean) voltage value to the average value of the
sw
signal. For example, the ripple factor for a half wave rectifier is 121 percent, while for a full
tra

wave rectifier is 48 percent. It follows that by connecting a capacitive filter to the output
terminals of a full wave rectifier you obtain a good equalized voltage signal.

Clamper circuits
A clamping circuit (also known as clamper) will bind the upper or lower extreme of a waveform
ce
to a fixed DC voltage level. These circuits are also known as DC voltage restorers. Clampers can
io

be constructed with both positive and negative polarity as well as in biased and unbiased
version. When unbiased, clamping circuits will fix the voltage lower limit (or upper limit, in the
case of negative clampers) to 0 Volts.
Av

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_S
sw

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ce

Fig. 1.51 – Positive unbiased clamper

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.52 – Negative unbiased clamper

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

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Fig. 1.53 – Positive biased clamper

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Now, let’s try to explain the operation of a clamper circuit considering the negative unbiased
circuit version.

_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.54 – Example of negative unbiased clamper circuit

sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.55 – Clamper outputs

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In this negative clamper, the input voltage is V(4) (green wave) and the output voltage is V(1)
(red wave). The clamp voltage is 0 V, if you ignore diode drop (more exactly 0.7 V with Silicon
diode drop). The positive peak of V(1) is clamped to the 0 V (0.7 V) clamp level. That is why on

_S
the first positive half cycle the diode conducts charging in this way the capacitor left end to +5
V (4.3 V). Then there are -5 V (-4.3 V) on the right end, this is represented by signal V(1,4) in
the previous image. On the negative half cycle the diode does not conduct and the negative
sw
pick of the input wave (-5 V) added to the voltage of the right end of the capacitor generates a
total negative pick of about -10 V (-9,3 V) at the circuit node 1. The diode only conducts on
successive positive excursions of source V(4), obtained by restoring the right end voltage on
the capacitor at the value 4,3 V and establishing an output voltage of 0,7 V, i.e. the work

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voltage value of the Si diode.

If the diode polarity is reversed, the circuit behaves in the opposite way.
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.56 - Example of positive unbiased clamper circuit

sw
For this kind of circuit the output voltage is the blue wave represented in the image above
tra

marked as V(2). The diode conducts on the first negative half cycle establishing an output
voltage of -0,7 V and charging the right end of the capacitor with +4,3 V. This voltage value will
be added to the positive pick of input wave in the next positive half cycle. In this way the
negative pick of output wave is clamped to 0 V (-0,7 V) and the positive pick is almost equal to
+10 V.
ce
io
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_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.57 - Example of positive biased clamper circuit

Obviously, connecting a DC voltage source in series with the diode means that the entire
output wave moves up or down (according to the DC voltage polarity) until it reaches a
sw
constant value established by the DC generator. For example, the circuit above has an output
tra

voltage wave with a negative pick clamped to 4,3 V (obtained by the difference between DC
voltage and the diode working voltage).
ce

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

tra

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4.1.1.B.6 Detailed operation and characteristics of the following
devices: Schottky diodes, varactor diodes and Zener diodes

_S
Schottky diode
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.58 – Schottky diode symbol

The Schottky diode is a special type of diode with a very low forward voltage drop. A normal
ce
diode has 0.7 – 1.7 Volts drops, while the Schottky diode voltage has a drop of approximately
0.15 – 0.45 Volts. Unlike a conventional diode, which employs a semiconductor-semiconductor
junction, the Schottky one uses a metal-semiconductor junction.

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

Fig. 1.59 – Example of structure of the Schottky diode

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A metal-semiconductor junction creates a potential barrier named Schottky barrier. The main
features of this barrier are very fast switching time and low forward voltage drop. The most
important difference between normal PN diode and Schottky diode is related to the reverse

_S
recovery time when the diode switches from non-conducting to conducting state and vice
versa. In a PN diode the reverse recovery time can be in the order of hundreds of nanoseconds
and less than 100 nanoseconds for fast diodes, for Schottky diodes instead the switching time
sw
is about 100 picoseconds for the small signal diodes and up to tens of nanoseconds for special
high-capacity power diodes. It is often said that the Schottky diode is a majority carrier
semiconductor device. This means that if the semiconductor body is doped N-type, only the N-
type carriers, that are the mobile electrons, play a significant role in a normal device operation.

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The majority carriers are quickly injected into the conduction band of the metal contact placed
on the other side of the diode to become free moving electrons. Therefore, no slow and
ce

random recombination of N-type and P-type carriers is involved and this diode can cease
conduction faster than an ordinary PN rectifier diode. This is another reason why Schottky
diodes are useful in switch-mode power converters. The most evident limitations of Schottky
diodes are the relatively low reverse voltage rating, for silicon-metal Schottky diodes, (50
Voltss and below) together with a relatively high reverse leakage current. The reverse leakage
sw
current, which increases with temperature, leads to a thermal instability issue. These problems
tra

lead reverse voltage to be under the actual rating, however, the diodes technology is
improving with the voltage ratings now at 200 Voltss.

Varicap diode (varactor)

ce

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.60 – Electric field in a reverse biased diode

As stated before, a PN junction when reverse biased creates a strong electric field that
opposes the majority charge carriers’ movement. This has a negative effect on the electrical
Av

tra

conduction in normal diode operation. However, this behavior turns out to be useful if you

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want to take an advantage of the capacitive effects deriving from electric field created by
reverse polarization of the PN junction. Particular kinds of diodes called varicap diodes are
used for this purpose.

_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.61 – Varicap symbol

sw
tra

The varicap diodes are not used as normal silicon diodes but as variable capacitors, which
change their capacitance in relation to reverse voltage. This is way the varicap diode symbol
appears like a diode in series with a variable capacitor. Varicap diodes can have a capacitance
ranging between few picofarad and hundreds of picofarad.
ce

Zener diode

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.62 – Zener diode symbol

Zener diodes are a particular type of diodes designed to be able to work in breakdown zones.
Their main characteristic is to have a particularly steady reverse breakdown voltage called
Av

tra

Zener voltage and indicated as Vz.

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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.63 – Zener diode curve

ce
At VZ value the characteristic curve of the Zener diode becomes vertical and that means that a
current variation does not cause any variation of voltage. Since in breakdown zone this type of
diode keeps the voltage value equal to VZ , it is used as a voltage stabilizer.

The Zener voltage value depends on the material resistivity and you can set it by controlling
sw
the semiconductor doping. In this way it is possible to create a Zener voltage included between
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few Volts and hundreds of Volts. VZ value depends on the working temperature too. It is
because of this that among the diode main data you find the temperature coefficient
representing the relation between VZ variation and temperature variation. This coefficient is
negative for values of VZ below 5 Volts and positive for value over 6 Volts.

Now we will consider the Zener diode used as a voltage stabilizer. In this application the Zener
ce
diode is connected in parallel to the load on the output branch of the circuit.
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sw

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ce

sw
Fig. 1.64 – Zener diode as stabilizer
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Obviously, anode and cathode are arranged to make the Zener diode polarized in reverse
direction. In such a system if there is any variation in the load current on the output branch the
Zener diode, which continues to work at VZ voltage value, stabilizes the load voltage at Zener
value. Therefore, the value of VZ must be chosen according to the working voltage that you
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want to obtain. You need to choose a value of resistance R able to create a current allowing
the diode to work in breakdown zone.

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4.1.2.A.1 Introduction to transistors and transistors symbols

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The first solid-state device discussed in the previous pages was the two-element
semiconductor diode. The next device that we are going to introduce not only has one more
element than the diode but it can as well amplify signals. Semiconductor devices that have-
sw
three or more elements are called transistor. The term transistor comes from the words
TRANSfer and resISTOR. The term describes the operation of the transistor i.e. the transfer of
an input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. Basically, the
transistor is a solid-state device able to amplify by controlling the flow of charge carriers

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through its semiconductor materials.
The transistor was invented in 1948 in the Bell Labs using the germanium as a semiconductor
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material. The development of semiconductor technologies run very fast and nowadays it is
possible to include in a chip a lot of electronic devices.
There are many different types of transistors but their basic theory of operation is almost the
same. In this chapter we will deal with two types of transistors: bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
and field effect transistor (FET).
sw
Two main currents characterized the BJT, in fact the operation of this device involves two
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types of charge carriers: positive and negative.

On the other hand the current of the FET device is mainly due to one type of charge carrier:
negative or positive.
In the following image you can find the most used transistor symbols:
ce

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tra

ce
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Fig. 1.65 – BJT symbols

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sw

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ce

sw Fig. 1.66 – FET symbols

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ce

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ce
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Fig. 1.67 – Depletion MOS symbols

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sw

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ce

sw
Fig. 1.68 - Symbol of the enhancement MOS transistor
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The first two symbols represent a BJT in NPN and PNP version, while the second two show a
FET with negative and positive channel. The lasts symbols referred to a particular kind of FET
named MOSFET represented in depletion and enhancement mode respectively.
ce

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4.1.2.A.2 Components description and orientation

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There are different types of transistor and a lot of constructive technologies but their
functioning and their basic theory of operation are the same.
The theory we will be using to explain the operation of a transistor is the same theory used
sw
earlier with the PN-junction diode except for the fact that in this case two junctions are
required to build up the three elements of a transistor.
The three elements of the two-junctions transistor are: (1) the EMITTER, which emits minority
charge carriers (electrons for PNP or holes for NPN), (2) the BASE, which controls the flow of

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charge carriers and (3) the COLLECTOR, which collects the charge carriers.
ce

sw
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ce

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ce
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Fig. 1.69 – BJT structure and symbol

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The picture above shows how a bipolar junction transistor is made of a silicon crystal with
three layers P and N alternatively doped. Transistors are classified as either NPN or PNP
according to the arrangement of their N and P materials. Their names, “NPN” or “PNP”, imply

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their basic construction and chemical treatment. That is, a NPN transistor is formed by
introducing a thin region of P-type material between two regions of N-type material. On the
other hand, a PNP transistor is formed by introducing a thin region of N-type material between
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two regions of P-type material. As shown in picture 1.69 transistors constructed in this manner
have two PN junctions. The first PN junction is placed between the emitter and the base, the
second one between the collector and the base. Thus, in a BJT, there are two PN junctions that
are the base-emitter junction and the base-collector junction indicated by the symbols JE and JC.

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The two junctions share one section of semiconductor material so that the transistor actually
consists of three elements.
ce

Since the majority and minority charge carriers are different for N and P materials, it stands to
reason that the internal operation of the NPN and PNP transistors will also be different.
The previous picture shows also the two basic types of transistors along with their circuit
symbols. It should be noticed that the two symbols are different: the vertical line represents
the base, the angular line with the arrow on it is the emitter, while the other angular line
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represents the collector. The direction of the arrow on the emitter distinguishes the NPN from
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the PNP transistor. If the arrow points in, the transistor is a PNP. On the other hand, if the
arrow points out, the transistor is an NPN. Another aspect you should keep in mind is that the
arrow always points from the P to N sections and always indicates the current flow direction.
ce

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4.1.2.A.3 Transistors characteristics and properties

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The bipolar junction transistor is called in this way because its operation involves the
conduction of two charge carriers in the same crystal: electrons and holes.
The BJT has a particular characteristic: it is able to control with a very low input current a
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higher output current. This characteristic makes the BJT useful as a current or voltage amplifier
and as a current controlled switch.
The BJT is made using silicon as semiconductor material. Although there are a lot of
constructive technologies the operation remains unchanged in all cases.

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ce

sw
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ce

sw
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Fig. 1.70 – Examples of BJT

The following image represents an example of a real BJT structure:

ce
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sw

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ce

Fig. 1.71 – BJT planar structure

This is an NPN BJT realized in planar technology. This kind of structure is a non-symmetric one.
In fact, the emitter is situated in the most internal and doped zone of the transistor. The base
sw
terminal is very thin and less doped in comparison with the emitter and collector. The collector
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represents the most extended zone of the transistor and has a doping value ranging between
base and emitter.

Current flow in a BJT

Although the NPN transistor is more used than the PNP, we will take as an example a PNP
ce
transistor. This choice is due to the fact that in a PNP transistor the holes flow equals the
conventional current flow and this allows us to better understand how current flows in the
device.

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sw
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Fig. 1.72 – Current in a PNP transistor

In a BJT the JE junction is the control junction device. The polarization of JE with a positive
voltage VEB creates a direct current flow mainly due to the holes (emitter majority charge
carriers) moving through the junction to the base region. In this region the holes become
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minority charge carriers because the base is N doped. In the base region a little holes
percentage, about 1%, links with free electrons. This recombination creates the base current IB
that has obviously a much lower value than the emitter current IC. Thanks to the base thinness,
most of the holes go to the JC junction that is reverse polarized by the voltage VBC. In this way,
sw
holes can easily move up to the collector. This can happen because the electric field in a
reverse biased junction allows the movement of minority charge carriers that are holes in the
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base region. Collector current IC is thus made of a big percentage of emitter current IE (99%).
However, in the collector you can find another current component with a very low value: it is
the reverse current of the JC junction, called ICBO. This current comes from the base and it is
due to the minority charge carriers (holes).
Obviously, in a NPN transistor the operation is the same with the only difference that the
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current flows in the opposite direction.
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BJT characteristic curve

You can analyze more precisely the BJT operations if you consider relations and characteristic
curves that connect currents with voltages in input (IB - VBE) and output (IC - VCE).
Av

First of all let's consider the input characteristic curve:

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Fig. 1.73 – Input curve of a BJT

ce

This curve represents the input current flow IB in function of the voltage VBE, given constant
values of VCE. Considering the relation between the current and the voltage of the directly
polarized junction JE, the pattern is essentially similar to that of a diode with a threshold
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voltage VY = 0.5 Volts and an operating voltage VBE ranging between 0.6 and 0.8 Volts,
according to the value of IB. In general terms VBE can have the conventional value of 0.7 Volts.
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Unlike common diodes, the polarization of the JE junction with a very high inverse voltage
should be avoided. In fact, its breaking voltage VEBO is quite low, ranging in the region of 7
Volts.

The output characteristic represents the input current trend IC as VCE varies, given constant
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values of IB.
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Fig. 1.74 – Output curve of a BJT

ce

Had the gain hFE = IC/IB been kept constant, curves would have shown a horizontal and
equidistant trend, for equal variations of IB.
Curves actually tend to thicken in the upper and bottom part of the diagram; this is due to the
sw
fact that hFE tends to decrease both in the case of high and low currents.
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For values of IC in the order of ICbo, hFE registers values close to the unit.
Moreover curves present a little slope that shows how hFE increases with VCE, given a constant
IB. This behavior, known as Early’s effect, can be explained as follows: the increase of VCE and
consequently of the reverse polarization of the JC junction causes an expansion of the
transition zone, inside the little doped base; this results in the width reduction of the base
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zone, where recombinations occur and thus in an increase of the hFE.
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4.1.2.B.1 PNP and NPN transistors functioning

NPN transistor operation

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Just as in the case of the PN junction diode, the N material hosting the two end sections of the
NPN transistor contains a number of free electrons, while the center P section contains an
sw
excess number of holes. The action at each junction between these sections is the same as
that previously described for the diode, that is: depletion regions develop and the junction
barrier appears.

To use the transistor as an amplifier, some external bias voltage must modify each of these

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junctions. For the transistor to work in this capacity, the first PN junction (emitter-base
junction) is biased in the forward or low-resistance direction. At the same time the second PN
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junction (base-collector junction) is biased in the reverse or high- resistance direction. A simple
way to remember how to properly bias a transistor is to observe the NPN or PNP elements that
make up the transistor itself. The letters of these elements indicate which polarity voltage has
to be used for a correct bias.
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ce

sw
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ce
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Fig. 1.75 – NPN transistor

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 The emitter, which is the first letter in the NPN sequence, is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery while the base, which is the second letter (NPN), is connected
to the positive terminal.

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 However, since the second PN junction is required to be reverse biased for proper
transistor operation, the collector must be connected to a polarity voltage (positive)
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opposite to that indicated by its letter designation (NPN). The voltage on the collector
must also be more positive than the base, as shown below.

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ce

sw
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ce

sw
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Fig. 1.76 – Bias circuit of a NPN transistor

NPN forward-biased junction

An important aspect not necessarily mentioned during the explanation of the diode, is the fact
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that the N material on one side of the forward-biased junction is more heavily doped than the
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P material. This results in the majority carriers electrons from the N material carrying more
current across the junction than the majority carriers holes from the P material. Therefore,
conduction through the forward-biased junction is mainly activated by majority carriers
electrons from the N material (emitter).
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sw

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ce

Fig. 1.77 – NPN forward biased junction

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With the emitter-to-base junction in the picture biased in the forward direction, electrons
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leave the negative terminal of the battery and enter the N material (emitter). Since electrons
are majority charge carriers in the N material they easily pass through the emitter, cross over
the junction and combine with holes in the P material (base). For each electron that fills a hole
in the P material another electron will leave the P material (creating a new hole) and enter the
positive terminal of the battery.
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NPN reverse-biased junction

The second PN junction (base-to-collector) or reverse-biased junction, as it is usually called,
blocks the majority charge carriers from crossing the junction.
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Fig. 1.78 – NPN reverse biased junction

ce

However, as mentioned before there is a very small current that does pass through this
junction. This current is called minority current or reverse current. As you may remember, this
current was produced by the electron-hole pairs. The minority charge carriers for the reverse-
biased PN junction are the electrons in the P material and the holes in the N material. These
sw
minority charge carriers actually conduct the current for the reverse-biased junction when
electrons from the P material enter the N material and holes from the N material enter the P
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material. They are, however, the minority current electrons that play the most important part
in the operation of the NPN transistor.

NPN junction interaction

Now, let’s consider what happens when we place the two junctions of the NPN transistor in
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operation at the same time. For a better understanding of how the two junctions work
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together refer to the following picture:

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ce

Fig. 1.79 – NPN junction interaction

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The bias batteries in this picture have been labeled VCC for the collector voltage supply, and VBB
for the base voltage supply. You can notice that the base supply battery is quite small, usually
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1 Volt or less, as indicated by the number of cells in the battery. Instead, the collector supply is
generally much higher than the base supply and it is normally in the region of 6 Volts.
The current flow in the external circuit is always due to the movement of free electrons.
Therefore, electrons flow from the negative terminals of the supply batteries to the N-type
emitter. This combined movement of electrons is known as emitter current IE. Since electrons
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are the majority charge carriers in the N material, they will move through the N material
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emitter up to the emitter-base junction. With this junction forward biased electrons continue
until they reach the base region. Once the electrons are in the base, which is a P-type material,
they become minority charge carriers. Some of the electrons that move into the base
recombine with available holes. For each electron that recombines another electron moves
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out through the base terminal as base current IB (creating a new hole for an eventual
combination) and returns to the positive terminal of the base supply battery VBB.
The electrons that recombine are lost as far as the collector is concerned. Therefore, in order

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to make the transistor more efficient the base region is made very thin and lightly doped. This
reduces the opportunity for an electron to recombine with a hole and be lost. Most of the
electrons that move into the base region come under the influence of the large collector
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reverse bias. This bias acts as forward bias for the minority charge carriers (electrons) in the
base and as such accelerates them through the base-collector junction and into the collector
region. Since the collector is made of an N-type material, the electrons that reach the collector
become majority charge carriers. Once in the collector, the electrons easily move through the

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N material and return to the positive terminal of the collector supply battery VCC as collector
current IC.
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We can summarize this by saying that the total current flow in the NPN transistor passes
through the emitter lead. In terms of percentage IE is 100 percent. On the other hand, since
the base is very thin and lightly doped, a smaller percentage of the total current (emitter
current) will flow in the base circuit rather than in the collector circuit, usually no more than 2
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to 5 percent of the total current IB. The remaining 95 to 98 percent is collector current IC. A
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very basic relationship exists between these two currents:

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

In simple terms, this means that the emitter current is separated into base and collector
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current. Since the amount of current leaving the emitter is only a function of the emitter-base
bias and because the collector receives most of this current, a small variation in emitter-base
bias will have a far greater effect on the magnitude of collector current rather than on base
current. In conclusion the relatively small emitter-base bias controls the relatively large
emitter-to-collector current. sw
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PNP transistor operation

The PNP transistor works essentially in the same way as the NPN transistor. However, since the
emitter, base and collector in the PNP transistor are made of materials different from those
used in the NPN transistor, different current carriers flow in the PNP unit. The majority charge
carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. This is in contrast with the NPN transistor where the
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majority charge carriers are electrons. For the PNP transistor to support this different type of
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current (holes flow) the bias batteries are reversed.

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ce

Fig. 1.80 - Bias circuit of a PNP transistor

The first letter (P) in the PNP sequence indicates the polarity of the voltage required for the
emitter (positive), while the second letter (N) indicates the polarity of the base voltage
(negative). Since the base-collector junction is always reverse biased, the opposite polarity
sw
voltage (negative) must be used for the collector. Thus, the base of the PNP transistor must be
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negative with respect to the emitter and the collector must be more negative than the base.
Remember that just as in the case of the NPN transistor, this difference in supply voltage is
necessary to have a current flow going from the emitter to the collector. Although holes flow is
the predominant type of current flow in the PNP transistor, holes flow only takes place within
the transistor itself, while electrons flow in the external circuit. However, it is the internal
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holes flow that leads to electrons flow in the external wires connected to the transistor.
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PNP forward-biased junction

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ce

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ce

Fig. 1.81 - PNP forward biased junction

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In the bias setup shown above the positive terminal of the battery repels the emitter holes
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toward the base, while the negative terminal drives the base electrons toward the emitter.
When an emitter hole and a base electron meet, they combine. For each electron that
combines with a hole, another electron leaves the negative terminal of the battery and enters
the base. At the same time an electron leaves the emitter creating a new hole and enters the
positive terminal of the battery. This movement of electrons into the base and out of the
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emitter constitutes the base current IB flow and the path these electrons take is referred to as
the emitter-base circuit.
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PNP reverse-biased junction

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ce

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ce

Fig. 1.82 - PNP reverse biased junction

In the reverse-biased junction, the negative voltage on the collector and the positive voltage
sw
on the base block the majority charge carriers from crossing the junction. However, the
negative collector voltage itself acts as forward bias for the minority charge carriers in the base
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(holes), which cross the junction and enter the collector. The minority charge carriers in the
collector (electrons) are sensitive to the forward bias, i.e. the positive base voltage, and move
into the base. Electrons that flow from the negative terminal of the battery fill the holes in the
collector. At the same time other electrons in the base break their covalent bonds and enter
the positive terminal of the battery. Although there is only a minority current flow in the
ce
reverse-biased junction, it remains very small because of the limited number of minority
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charge carriers.
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PNP junction interaction
The interaction between the forward and reverse biased junctions in a PNP transistor is very
similar to that in an NPN transistor, except for the fact that in the PNP transistor the majority

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charge carriers are holes.
sw

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ce

sw
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ce

sw
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Fig. 1.83 - PNP junction interaction

In the PNP transistor shown in this picture the positive voltage on the emitter repels the holes
toward the base. Once in the base the holes combine with base electrons. Again, take into
ce
account that the base region is made very thin to prevent the recombination of holes with
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electrons. Therefore, over 90 percent of the holes that enter the base becomes attracted to
the large negative collector voltage and passes right through the base. However, for each
electron and hole that combine in the base region another electron leaves the negative
terminal of the base battery VBB and enters the base as base current IB. At the same time, as an
electron leaves the negative terminal of the battery another electron leaves the emitter as IE
Av

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(creating a new hole) and enters the positive terminal of VBB. Meanwhile, in the collector

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circuit electrons from the collector battery VCC enter the collector as Ic and combine with the
holes in excess from the base. For each hole that is neutralized in the collector by an electron
another electron leaves the emitter and starts its way back to the positive terminal of VCC.

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Although the current flow in the external circuit of the PNP transistor has an opposite direction
in relation to that of the NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers always flow from the
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emitter to the collector. This flow of majority charge carriers also results in the formation of
two individual current loops within each transistor. One loop is the base-current path and the
other one is the collector-current path. The combination of the current in both these loops (IB +
IC) results in the total transistor current (IE). The most important thing to remember about the

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two different types of transistors is that the emitter-base voltage of the PNP transistor has the
same controlling effect on collector current as that of the NPN transistor. In simple words, an
ce

increase in the forward bias voltage of a transistor reduces the emitter-base junction barrier.
This action allows more charge carriers to reach the collector causing an increase in current
flow from the emitter to the collector and through the external circuit. Conversely, a decrease
in the forward bias voltage reduces collector current.
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4.1.2.B.2 Base, collector and emitter configurations

Common base configuration

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A bipolar junction transistor may be used in one of the following configuration: COMMON
BASE, COMMON EMITTER and COMMON COLLECTOR.
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The name of these configurations depends on the transistor terminal grounded and in
common to the input and the output branches. Anyone of these configurations is
characterized by an input resistance different from the output one and by a voltage, a current
and a power gain.

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We will start by explaining the main features of the common base configuration.
ce

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ce

sw
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Fig. 1.84 – Common base configuration

ce
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Common base configuration permits a high voltage gain, however, it is characterized by a low
current gain. In fact, current gain is calculated as Io / Ii, which is the ratio of collector and
emitter current (α = Ic / Ie). As said before, the collector current is about 99% of the emitter
current, so the gain is inferior to one.
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To find the voltage gain you must find the ratio Vo / Vi. To do that, you have to identify the
input and output circuit resistances. The input resistance of the circuit is the resistance of the
forward biased base-emitter junction (re), which is very low, almost null. While the output

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resistance is equal to the parallel between the base-collector junction resistance and the load.
Since base-collector junction is reverse biased, its resistance is high. For this reason, the
equivalent resistance is equal to the load resistance. Then, if we consider collector current
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almost equal to the emitter one, the voltage gain in a common base configuration is the ratio
AV = RL / re which unlike the current gain is more than one.

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Common emitter configuration
The circuit configuration of common emitter allows to obtain a great current gain and a
relevant AV voltage gain. The current gain of this circuit configuration is indicated by the letter
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beta (β) and corresponds to the ratio of the collector current IC to the base one IB.

𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
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ce

sw
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ce
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Fig. 1.85 – Common emitter configuration

As the current IC is bigger than IB (for example if α = 0.98, β= 49), it is clear that the current gain
Av

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β of common emitter configuration is greater than the gain of the base configuration α.

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To evaluate the voltage gain AV it is useful to calculate in advance the input and output
resistances Ri and Ro. Using the same level of approximations employed for the common base
configuration, the input resistance Ri corresponds in this case to the emitter dynamic

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resistance Re multiplied by the current gain:

𝑅𝑖 = 𝛽 ∙ 𝑅𝑒
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The input resistance of this configuration results β times bigger than the common base
configuration. This can be deduced if you think that in common emitter configuration in equal
circumstances the base current IB flows about β times smaller than the IE one, which flows in

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the common base configuration.
The output resistance RO corresponds to the parallel of the transistor resistance RCE (reverse
ce

collector-base junction resistance plus the direct junction base emitter one) and the load
resistance RL. The reverse junction resistance is predominant. As seen in the case of the
common base configuration, the output resistance Ro is almost equal to RL:

𝑅𝑜 ≅ 𝑅𝐿
sw
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The voltage gain AV can be determined in this case by calculating the input and output voltages
Vi and Vo of the circuit:

𝑉𝑖 = 𝐼𝐵 ∙ 𝛽 ∙ 𝑅𝑒
ce
Since IB ∙ β = IC, it follows

𝑉𝑖 = 𝐼𝐶 ∙ 𝑅𝑒 (input voltage)

𝑉𝑂 = 𝐼𝐶 ∙ 𝑅𝐿 (output voltage) sw
tra

Consequently, the gain expression of the AV voltage is:

𝑉𝑂 𝐼𝐶 ∙ 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉 = = =
𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝐶 ∙ 𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒

The circuit configuration of common emitter is the most used in practical applications as it
ce
permits the maximum power amplification.
io

This last one corresponds in fact to the product of voltage gain AV to the current gain β.
Av

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Common collector configuration
The common collector configuration is the least used because it has a voltage gain Av, which is
always less than the unit. This configuration produces instead a good current amplification.

_S
The current gain of this circuit configuration is usually indicated with gamma (γ).
In a DC circuit the current gain γ corresponds to the ratio of the emitter current IE to the base
one IB:
sw
𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
𝐼𝐵

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.86 – Common collector configuration

To determine the voltage gain AV it is opportune to refer to a simple amplification circuit and
start by calculating input and output resistances Ri and Ro. The input resistance Ri in this case
ce
is:
io

𝑅𝑖 = 𝛾 ∙ (𝑅𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿 )

The current gain γ has increased for the same reasons that were true in the case of the
common emitter configuration but, in this specific case, the current IB is influenced by the load
Av

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resistance RL. In this configuration the output resistance corresponds approximately to the
load resistance RL too.
The voltage gain AV for this configuration is as follows:

_S
𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑅𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿
sw
Av is always slightly less than the unit; in fact, in percentage the output voltage value of the
emitter is slightly less than the input one, that is the base one. This fact is due to the voltage
drop occurring across the emitter junction.

iss
With this configuration the power gain is lower than that of the common emitter configuration
and for this reason the common collector configuration is used only for some applications.
ce

4.1.2.B.3 Transistors functional testing

sw
tra

To use a transistor in a circuit you need to exactly identify its base, collector and emitter. Since
this kind of device does not often show any indication about the position of its terminals, you
have to look up into the constructor catalogue. In the following image some kind of transistors
are represented together with indications regarding their terminals:
ce

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.87 – Types of dispositions of BJT terminals

You can see that terminals position does not respect a certain low.
Av

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If you do not have any indication about the position of base, collector and emitter of the
transistor and you do not know if it is a NPN or PNP transistor, you can use a multimeter in
order to identify the base of the device. However, after this operation you still do not know

_S
exactly which one of the other two terminals is the emitter and which one the collector. As you
can see from the image, the multimeter is the same device used for diodes functional test:
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.88 - Multimeter

ce

In a NPN transistor, for example, the base will be the terminal in which, by connecting the
multimeter positive probe, you can find a low resistance when you connect the other probe to
each one of the other two transistor terminals. Obviously, for a PNP transistor you can perform
sw
the same test by connecting the multimeter negative probe to the base.
tra

By using a tester is also possible to verify whether the transistor works correctly of not, that is
if it is short-circuited or interrupted.
For example, a PNP transistor works normally if connecting the multimeter negative probe to
the base and the positive one to the other two terminals, you find a low resistance value. In
fact, if you invert the tester probes polarity, you will always find a high resistance value.
However, if during the two tests (direct polarity and reverse polarity) you always register a low
ce
resistance value, it means that there is a short circuit inside the transistor. While, if in both
io

tests you find a high resistance value, it means that the transistor is interrupted.
To verify the condition of a transistor you must also verify that between collector and emitter
there is always a high resistance; if this is not the case, it means that there is a short circuit.
Av

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4.1.2.B.4 Basic overview of other transistor types

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Field effect transistors
The bipolar junction transistors already seen so far are called BJT transistor, this because their
operation is based on the combination of both types of electrical charges: electrons and holes.
sw
There are other types of transistors (called unipolar transistors) where only electrons or holes
flow. The junction field effect transistor, broadly called FET transistor, was the first field effect
transistor on the market (at the beginning of the 60's); another field effect transistor was then
developed, the MOS.

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FET transistors base their operation on the semiconductors ability to modify the number of
electrical charges in movement under the effect of a transversal electrical field. In this way, it is
ce

possible to vary the current conductance (which is the reverse of the resistance) in the output
circuit by applying a voltage to the input circuit of the device.
An important difference between BJT and FET transistors is that the formers are current
guided devices, while the latters are voltage guided. In fact, they present a high input
resistance, in the region of tens or hundreds of Ohms and so they do not absorb relevant
sw
current values on their input circuit.
tra

These devices are commonly used to amplify voltage signals.

Types and configurations of FET transistors

We can say that the FET transistor (image in the next page) consists of a doped semiconductor
bar with N or P charges in which a more doped area with opposite charges, respectively P
ce

positive or N negative, is inserted.

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ce
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Av

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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.89 – FET transistor

To complete the FET realization three electrodes are connected: source (S), drain (D) and gate
(G). The conductor part, placed under and between the electrodes S and D, is called channel.
ce

Inside the channel flows an output or drain current ID of the field effect transistor. The
electrode gate G is also called control electrode because if you apply a potential difference
between it and ground, the spatial load zone of the PN junction modifies itself provoking a
variation in the inside part of the channel. The result is a variation in the channel conductivity.
sw
There are two types of FET transistors: negative channel or n-FET and positive channel or p-
FET. In p-FET transistors the direction of the drain current ID and that of the polarization
tra

voltage between drain and source and between gate and source is reversed in respect to n-FET
ones.
Moreover, in p-FET the drain current ID in the channel is due to the movement of the holes,
while in n-FET it is due to the electrons flow.
ce
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Av

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As in the case of BJT transistors, also FET transistor can be employed in three different
configurations: common source, common drain and common gate.

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.90 – Circuit configurations of FET transistor

ce

The denomination depends on the electrode connected to ground and in common to the input
and output circuits of the device. The most convenient configuration of the FET is the common
source, comparable to that of the common emitter in the BJT.
sw
This configuration provides a great gain of AV voltage without absorbing any current in the
input circuit of the device, if you ignore that of the polarization net.
tra

From now on, a part from very few particular cases, we will always employ this configuration.

FET transistor operation

The description of the FET operation is easier to understand if you image a situation where the
zone below the gate electrode (G) has been split in two. This, in order to make the control
ce
action (the potential difference applied to G that affects on the channel conductivity) more
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intuitive.
Av

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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.91 – n FET and p FET

In an n-FET between the N and P region you will have the creation of a barrier of potential, like
in a normal PN junction.
ce

The depletion region is wider in the channel because the doping in N zone is inferior to that in
P zone; this means that an asymmetric PN junction has been created.

sw
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ce
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Av

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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.92 – Space charge region in a FET

As the depletion region is characterized by the absence of free charges and presents only ions,
the current conduction between source and drain can only take place through the remaining
ce

channel region.
If you apply a small voltage of reverse polarization VGS between the source and the drain, the
depletion region increases in dimensions reducing the conduction zone. By increasing the
voltage VGS, the channel narrows even more, up to be null for a specific value of gate-source
sw
voltage and the FET cuts off. In this situation the current circulation is not possible anymore
between the drain and the source. The value of VGS voltage at which the transistor cuts off is
tra

indicated as channel pinch-off voltage, using the symbol VP. In fact, the channel has a
resistance that depends on its width and this one is in function of the VGS voltage applied
within the source and the gate. It is clear that by varying VGS, the channel resistance, the FET
output resistance and the current can be varied as well. The voltage amplification can be
obtained using a FET. In fact, as the VGS voltage applied to the device input makes the ID
ce
current that flows at the output vary, the current ID affects the potential difference at load RL
io

ends.
If you set the voltage between the gate and the source equal to zero by directly connecting G
and S and you apply a VDS voltage between drain and source, the depletion region warps and
widens close to the drain terminal. Progressively increasing the VDS value, the depletion region
Av

increases and the channel becomes even thinner, up to its saturation.

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The ID current initially increases quite proportionally to the voltage VDS because the channel
opposes a resistance almost constant for low values of VDS. However, if you start from the
voltage value of drain-source that determines the channel pinch off, every further VDS voltage

_S
increase does not provoke a relevant variation in the ID current value.
sw
FET characteristic curve
The trend of the ID as VDS varies is represented by the characteristic curve.

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.93 – FET characteristic curve

sw
tra

In this curve you can detect two values of VDC voltage which are typical of field-effect
transistors: V’DS and the break down voltage.
The V’DS corresponds to the channel pitch-off voltage. For values of VDS > V’DS the ID current
increases only a little in comparison to the one of V’DS voltage, usually indicated by the symbol
ce
IDSS, (for VGS= 0). The break down voltage BVGDS is the voltage value VDS at which the gate-drain
io

junction breakdown occurs (BVGDS should not be overpassed to avoid a damage in the FET). If
you now inversely polarize the gate-source junction using a VGS voltage, you obtain a new ID
characteristic, function of VDS, placed under the voltage relative VGS = 0.
Av

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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.94 - Modification of the FET curve in function of VGS voltage

At further values of reverse voltage VDS with an even more increasing absolute values, a series
sw
of characteristics of the drain can be obtained, all of them placed under the voltage relative to
tra

VGS = 0.
The FET behavior is due to the fact that the absolute value of the voltage VGS, which inversely
polarizes the gate PN junction, increases together with the emptying zone of the channel
provoking a decrease in the channel width. The device cuts off with a voltage VDS and
consequently with a lower voltage.
ce
MOS transistors
io

The MOS technology devices are a particular category of field-effect transistors whose
importance is in continuous increase. These transistors also called MOSFET (Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors) may be considered as junction FETs with gate
electrode (G) having a small capacitor in series.
Av

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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.95 - MOSFET

An important characteristic of the MOS transistor is its very high input resistance.
MOS transistors, like junction FET, are unipolar devices; in fact, only one type of charge flows
ce
inside them: electrons or holes.
There are two kinds of MOS transistors: the depletion-mode transistors and the enhancement-
mode transistors. Both categories can have negative n-MOS channel or positive p-MOS
channel.
The depletion-mode MOS operates in a way similar to the junction FET. It employs a reverse
sw
polarization input voltage VGS, even if it can operate with a lower direct polarization voltage VGS
tra

as well.
This MOS type has a good conductivity of the channel for VGS = 0, as in junction FET. This
conductivity decreases for growing values of reverse VGS applied, up to the device cut off, for
VGS = VP. While, by applying a low value of direct polarization voltage VGS, the channel
conductivity is greater than the one for VGS = 0.
ce
To make the enhancement-mode MOS able to conduct, it is necessary to polarize it by means
of a certain value of direct voltage VGS, called threshold voltage. As in junction FET, in MOS
io

transistors the gain is expressed through the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage of
the device.
Av

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Depletion-mode MOS transistors
This type of MOS transistors present, a part from three electrodes, source (S), gate (G) and
drain (D) - as seen for FET - a fourth electrode called bulk gate (BG). It is placed in the silicon

_S
substrate and usually connected to the source electrode inside the device.
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.96 – Depletion mode MOS transistor

sw
Please note that on the silicon external surface, between drain and source, there is a layer of
tra

dioxide of silicon (SiO2). This element is a good insulator and makes the gate electrode isolated
if compared to the substrate to which it is capacitive coupled. For this reason, the input
resistance is very high. By applying a polarization voltage VGS between the gate and the drain, it
is possible to influence the movement of the charge carriers (electrons or holes according to
the device type) along the channel represented by the semiconductor part and under the gate
ce
that joins the two zones of N type (n-MOS) and P type (p-MOS).
io

In a depletion-mode n-MOS the two not powered N type areas are connected together
through a thin N type channel placed under the capacitance gate. In this device once a positive
voltage between the drain and the source is applied, current ID flows through the channel
without having a voltage applied to the gate (VGS = 0). In a depletion-mode n-MOS the current
Av

tra

flowing through the channel consists of a flow of electrons that can be interrupted only by

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applying a voltage VGS to the gate. In this case, the voltage should be opposite in direction to
the one applied between the drain and the source. The more the reverse voltage VGS
increases, the more the channel resistance increases, up to a specific point where the

_S
transistor has a cut-off and consequently the current ID is null.
The operation of the depletion-mode p-MOS is similar to the n-MOS one. In fact, the two areas
under the oxide layer and the channel are of P-type in this kind of transistor, while the silicon
sw
sub layer is of N-type. Consequently, polarization voltages VGS and VDS as well as the shunt
current ID result opposite to the n-MOS ones.
Another difference between n-MOSes is that in p-MOS the current ID flowing in the channel is
due to the holes movement, while in n-MOS it corresponds to the electrons flow.

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Enhancement-mode MOS
ce

In enhancement-mode MOS there is again the presence of a thin layer of dioxide of silicon
(SiO2) on the external surface of the silicon over the channel between source and drain
electrodes. It isolates the gate electrode from the substrate, so that by applying a polarization
voltage between the source and gate electrode it is possible to affect the current flowing
through the channel.
sw
In enhancement-mode MOS in the absence of the polarization voltage between the gate and
tra

the source electrode (VGS = 0), the induced conductivity of the channel is null. For this reason
current ID cannot flow. The channel conductivity is enough to make the current ID flow only
after a threshold voltage of direct polarization VGS. Once the threshold has been overpassed,
the channel conductibility increases at the increase of the polarization voltage VGS, up to a
maximum value.
ce

sw
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ce
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_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.97 – Enhancement mode MOS transistor

ce

To explain the operation we will take into account an n-MOS; however, you should keep in
mind that the operation of a p-MOS is equal but opposite.
An enhancement-mode n-MOS is built up by creating two areas of N type silicon in a P type
sw
silicon substrate. The external connections consisting of source and drain electrodes are made
directly on the external surfaces of the two areas. The source is connected to the substrate
tra

through a metallic connection, the bulk gate. The region of the semiconductor between the
two N areas, near the external surface of the substrate, is the channel of the MOS. If not
powered, VGS = 0, the source and the substrate connected to each other have null potential,
while a positive polarization voltage is applied between the drain and the source. In these
conditions, between the source and the substrate there is no current flow, while between the
ce
drain and the source there is only a little reverse current of the junction localized between the
io

N zone of the drain and the substrate. In absence of voltage applied to the gate, the area
under the gate is of P type and contains most of the holes. Only few electrons can be attracted
by the positive potential of the drain.
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When we apply a positive potential to the gate, the electric field originated near the gate
attracts a lot of electrons, which place themselves along a thin layer of the semiconductor
surface under the gate.

_S
In these conditions, the transistors surface is called inverted due to the presence of negative
charges (electrons) in a region normally of P type. The polarity inversion of the surface below
the gate creates an uninterrupted channel between the source (S) and the drain (D) with a
sw
consequent flow of electrons. This flow represents the drain current ID between electrodes D
and S. In order to create the ID current flow it is always necessary that the direct polarization
voltage VGS remains higher than the threshold value of the device.

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C-MOS (Complementary MOS)
A particular device consisting of MOS technology is the complementary MOS, commonly called
ce

C-MOS. This device has two transistors on the same silicon board: one of n-MOS and one of p-
MOS.
sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.98 – C-MOS

Nowadays, the C-MOS technology is widely used in the production of integrated circuits.
Integrated C-MOS circuits have some advantages if compared to bipolar integrated circuits,
Av

among them a very low consumption, less than integrated circuits of MOS type. Remember
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that C-MOS devices are less sensitive to external disturbances than MOS. As in the case of
bipolar transistors, for C-MOS too the physical dimensions have a relevant importance. In
particular, in a MOS the thickness of the layer of the dioxide of silicon (SiO2) below the gate

_S
electrode and the distance between the source and drain regions are critical dimensions. The
main characteristics common to different types of MOS transistors are: very high input
resistance, simplification of the employed circuits, low sensibility to external disturbances, low
sw
inner noise and possibility to obtain a high voltage gain AV.

iss
ce

sw
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ce

sw
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ce
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4.1.2.B.5 Transistors applications: classes of amplifiers (A, B, C)

_S
The difference between different power amplifiers functioning classes lies in the time interval
of an input signal during which the signal itself is amplified by a single transistor.
There are the three main amplifiers power classes:
sw
 Class A (amplifying over the whole input period, 360°)
 Class B (amplifying half of the input period, 180°)
 Class C (amplifying less than 50% of the input signal, < 180°).

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.99 – Classes of amplifiers

There is also an intermediate class of amplifiers, indicated with AB, able to amplify the output
signal for a period ranging from 180° to 360°.
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4.1.2.B.6 Simple circuits including bias, decoupling and feedback

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Transistor bias circuit
To work as an amplifier the transistor must have the emitter-base junction forward biased and
the collector-base junction reverse biased. Therefore, the transistor is crossed by a DC current
sw
that is added to the input signal to be amplified.
The DC polarization voltage is generated not by a battery but by a dedicated device able to
rectifier the AC current, called power supply or feeder.
To understand how the transistor can be biased you can consider the common emitter

iss
configuration and then find out the working point of the transistor.
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.100 – Transistor bias circuit

sw
tra

The image above represents a NPN transistor. In order to find the working point of this kind of
transistor you have to look at the output characteristic curve. From this curve you see that if
the base current IB is null, the collector current IC becomes almost equal to ICEO that is the
interdiction current of the common emitter configuration. Thus, the output voltage becomes:
ce
io

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝑎𝑙2 − 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 ∙ 𝑅𝐿

As the ICEO current is too low, the output voltage VCE is almost equal to Val2. In these conditions
the working point of the transistor is equal to the point D, as represented above.
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While, if you polarize the base-emitter junction thanks to the voltage Val1 so that the current IB
is not null (for example 20µA), the current IC increases making the voltage drop across the load
higher than before. This makes the output voltage VCE decrease.

_S
Increasing the current IB (this can be made by modifying RB value by a variable resistor), IC
increases until the value for which the voltage drops and becomes almost equal to Val2. In this
way VCE becomes too low and the working point moves till the point B. Another increase of the
sw
current IB does not influence IC and you have thus reached the transistor saturation zone.
Studying the output curve represented above, you can realize that when E and A are the
intersection points between the load line and the axis, a change in the current IB moves the
working point on the line EA. Once you know the value of Val2 and RL you are able to draw the

iss
load line. In fact Val2 is the value of the intersection with the abscissas axis, while the ratio
Val2 / RL is the intersection value on the ordinate axis.
ce

If the Val2 value changes and the value of RL remains constant, the load line moves up or down;
while if the RL value changes and the Val2 value is maintained, the load line only changes its
slope.
Generally, the working point is chosen in the middle of the load line, for example close to C
point on the previous diagram. This because if an alternative signal is added at the input
sw
terminal of the amplifier, its maximum and minimum peaks must be contained in the load line
tra

between the points B and D, otherwise the output signal could be distorted.
For the transistor to work well the input signal must be chosen with a peak to peak value lower
than BD level because BD is only a theoretical value.
Choosing the working point of a transistor means setting DC current and letting it flow through
the transistor when no signal is applied on base circuit ends. These values of DC current and
ce
voltage are named rest values.

Transistor amplifier feedback

The process of sending part of the output signal of an amplifier back to the input of the
amplifier is called FEEDBACK.
sw
There are two types of feedback in amplifiers: POSITIVE FEEDBACK, also called REGENERATIVE
tra

FEEDBACK and NEGATIVE FEEDBACK, also called DEGENERATIVE FEEDBACK.

The feedbacks are classified according to whether their signal is in phase or out of phase with
the input signal.
Positive feedback occurs when the feedback signal is in phase with the input signal. The
following image shows a block diagram of an amplifier with positive feedback. Notice that the
ce
feedback signal is in phase with the input signal. This means that the feedback signal will add
io

to or "regenerate" the input signal. The result is an amplitude output signal larger than without
the feedback.
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_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.101 – Amplifier positive feedback

The next picture, instead, is a block diagram of an amplifier with negative feedback. In this
case, the feedback signal is out of phase with the input signal. This means that the feedback
ce
signal will subtract from or "degenerate" the input signal. This results in a lower amplitude
output signal.

sw
tra

ce
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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.102 – Amplifier negative feedback

Positive feedback
ce
As we have seen, positive feedback is accomplished by adding part of the output signal in
phase with the input signal. In a common-base transistor amplifier it is fairly simple to provide
positive feedback. Since the input and output signals are in phase, you need only to couple
part of the output signal back to the input.
sw
tra

ce
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_S
sw

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ce

sw
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ce

Fig. 1.103 – Positive feedback in a common base transistor amplifier

The feedback network in this amplifier is made of R2 and C2. The value of C2 should be large
so that the capacitive reactance (XC) will be low and the capacitor will couple the signal easily.
sw
The resistive value of R2 should be large in order to limit the amount of feedback signal and to
ensure that the majority of the output signal goes on to the next stage through C3
tra

A more used configuration for transistor amplifiers is the common-emitter configuration.

Positive feedback is a little more difficult to obtain with this configuration because the input
and output signals are 180° out of phase. Positive feedback can be accomplished by feeding a
portion of the output signal of the second stage back to the input of the first stage. This
ce
arrangement is shown in the following image.
io
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_S
sw

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ce

sw
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ce

Fig. 1.104 – Positive feedback in a common emitter amplifier

The picture shows that each stage of amplification has a 180° phase shift. This means that the
sw
output signal of Q2 will be in phase with the input signal of Q1. A portion of the output signal
of Q2 is coupled back to the input of Q1 through the feedback network of C3 and R3. R3 should
tra

have a large resistance to limit the amount of signal through the feedback network. C3 should
have a large capacitance so that the capacitive reactance XC is low and the capacitor will couple
the signal easily.

An emitter resistor (R2) has been placed in the circuit below to provide proper biasing and
ce
temperature stability.
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_S
sw

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ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.105 – Resistor connected to the emitter

An undesired effect of this resistor is the development of a signal at the emitter in phase with
sw
the input signal on the base. This signal is caused by the changing current through the emitter
resistor (R2) as the current through the transistor changes. You might think that this signal on
tra

the emitter is a form of positive feedback, since it is in phase with the input signal but the
emitter signal is actually a negative feedback. Current through the transistor is controlled by
the base-to-emitter bias. If both base and emitter become more positive by the same amount
at the same time, current will not increase. It is the difference between base and emitter
voltages that controls the current flow through the transistor.
ce
You must find a way to remove the signal from the emitter in order to eliminate this negative
io

feedback caused by the emitter resistor. If the signal could be coupled to ground (decoupled)
the emitter of the transistor would be unaffected. That is exactly what is usually done. A
DECOUPLING CAPACITOR (C3 in view B) is placed between the emitter of Q1 and grounded
(across the emitter resistor).
Av

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_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.106 – Decoupling capacitor

sw
This capacitor should have a high capacitance so that it will pass the signal to ground easily.
tra

The decoupling capacitor (C3) should have the same features as the coupling capacitors (C1
and C2) of the circuit. Decoupling capacitors are also called bypass capacitors.

Negative feedback
Negative feedback is accomplished by adding part of the output signal out of phase with the
ce
input signal. You have seen that an emitter resistor in a common-emitter transistor amplifier
io

will develop a negative feedback signal. Other methods of providing negative feedback are
similar to those methods used to provide positive feedback. The only difference lies in the
phase relation of the feedback signal and the input signal. The following picture shows
negative feedback in a common-emitter transistor amplifier.
Av

tra

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iss

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.107 – Negative feedback in a common emitter amplifier

sw
The feedback network of C2 and R2 couples part of the output signal of Q1 back to the input.
tra

Since the output signal is 180° out of phase with the input signal, negative feedback is
produced.
ce
io
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tra

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4.1.2.B.7 Multistage circuit principles: cascade and push-pull
amplifiers, oscillators, multivibrators, flip-flop circuits

_S
Cascade amplifier
In the great majority of applications a single amplifier stage is not sufficient in order to
sw
guarantee the request gain. You thus need more than one amplifier stage. These must
be connected in series as a cascade amplifier (the second stage following the first, the
third following the second one, etc.).
The most important coupling circuits used to connect many amplifier stages are:

iss
 RC coupling circuit (resistor, capacitor).
ce

 LC coupling circuit (inductor, capacitor).

 Transformer coupling circuit.
 Direct coupling circuit.
sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

ce
io
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RC coupling circuit

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw Fig. 1.108 - RC coupling circuit

tra

The image above represents an RC coupling circuit in which the coupling between the first and
the second stage is realized by a capacitor C connected between the output terminal of the
first stage and the input terminal of the second one.
The capacitor is used to allow the amplified signal to be transferred to the second amplifier
stage and to not allow DC bias current to pass until the second stage. For this reason, when
there is a capacitor between two amplifier stages, each of them must be biased independently.
ce

Amplifiers that use RC coupling system are largely employed for low frequencies ranges
because of their simplicity and their possibility to give a constant gain in a wide range of
frequencies.
sw
tra

ce
io
Av

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LC coupling circuit

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw Fig. 1.109 – LC coupling circuit

tra

The picture above represents two amplifier stages coupled with inductors and capacitors. As
you can notice, the resistor RC1 and RC2 used in the previous circuit scheme are here replaced
with the inductor L1 and L2.
These inductors are usually made by a ferrite nucleus to increase their inductive value.
Amplifiers that are coupled by LC circuits are sometimes used in small frequency band. Since
ce
there are capacitors also in these kinds of amplifier, each stage must be polarized
independently.

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

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Transformer coupling circuit

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
Fig. 1.110 – Transformer coupling circuit
tra

This image represents a transformer coupling circuit. Like the capacitor, the transformer
represents a wall for the DC bias current, thus again each amplifier stage must be biased
independently. Transformer coupling circuits were more used in the past in radio receiver
devices. Today RC coupling circuits are preferred due their simplicity and good frequency
response.
ce

sw
tra

ce
io
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Direct coupling circuit

_S
sw

iss
ce

swFig. 1.111 – Direct coupling circuit

tra

Resistive coupling circuit between two amplifiers stages is also named direct coupling circuit.
Amplifier with this kind of coupling circuit is able to amplify both AC signal and DC signal.
This kind of amplifier is used to realize devices that work in the integrated circuits, such as
operational amplifier.
Obviously, as you can imagine, an advantage of this kind of coupling circuit is that we can
commonly polarize all the amplifier stages because there are no capacitors or transformer that
ce

stops DC current. This characteristic makes them useful in integrated circuits.

sw
tra

ce
io
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Push-pull amplifier

To realize a good push-pull amplifier you have to choose two transistors with almost the same
working features.

_S
There are two kinds of push-pull amplifiers:
 Transformer and single-ended push-pull.
sw
 Complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier.
The transistors of the first category are either NPN or PNP, while the second category is
divided in PNP type and NPN type transistors.
To understand the operation of the push-pull amplifier we will take as an example the

iss
transformer configuration represented in the following circuit:
ce

sw
tra

ce

sw
Fig. 1.112 – Push-pull amplifier circuit
tra

It is possible to make a transformer push-pull amplifier that works in class A using two
amplifier working in class B coupled in opposition of phase. In the circuit above the bias circuits
are not represented to simplify the scheme.
During the operation of the amplifier, when an input AC signal is applied, each transistors
conduct during one half period. In this way in the nucleus of the transformer, where the center
ce
pin divides the primary winding in two equal parts, a flow takes place and therefore creates an
io

output VU with the same trend of the input.

Av

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_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
Fig. 1.113 – Operation of a push-pull amplifier
tra

The circuit scheme in Fig. 1.113 explains the alternative conduction of the transistors T1 and
T2. In this way we can better understand how we obtain an output wave having a sine trend as
input signal.
It is useful to observe that the maximum value of voltage applied to the ends of transistor that
does not conduct is two times the voltage Val. In fact, when T1 conducts and T2 does not
ce

conduct there is a voltage equal to Val applied to T1 terminals. Due to the primary winding of
the transformer, this voltage appears with an opposite polarity also across T2 terminals.
Therefore, it creates a reverse voltage equal to 2 times Val that is applied to the ends of the
non-conducting transistor.
sw
To prevent transistors damages, the breakdown voltage VCEO must be higher than 2 times Val.
tra

ce
io
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Oscillators
An oscillator is a circuit able to create a signal with a particular frequency. A simple oscillator
that creates a sine wave could be an ideal LC circuit in which there is only a capacitor and an

_S
inductor without losses. This ideal circuit is represented below:
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.114 – Ideal and real oscillator circuits

In this picture T1 and T2 are two switches. If you charge the capacitor with voltage V generated
sw
by a battery, it stores electro-static energy equal to:
tra

1
𝑊𝐶 = ∙ 𝐶 ∙ 𝑉2
2

Since there are not power losses, this energy does not change during its operation. When you
open T1 and close T2, the capacitor begins to discharge itself. The current cannot reach its
ce
maximum value immediately because of the presence of the inductor so its current amplitude
io

increases gradually. While the current is flowing through the inductor, a magnetic field takes
place and the inductor stores an electromagnetic energy. When the capacitor finishes to
discharge itself, the voltage across its terminal run to zero. This means that the inductor has
converted all the electrostatic energy into electromagnetic energy. When this happens the
Av

tra

current value is at its maximum.

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In this situation the inductor begins to discharge the electromagnetic energy stored, making
the current flows in the opposite direction. In this way the capacitor begins to charge itself
again assuming an opposite polarity. When the inductor has given all of its energy, the current

_S
is null, while the capacitor voltage assumes its maximum value again but unlike in the previous
situation it presents an opposite polarity. Then the cycle repeats itself but with reverse current
and voltage. Thanks to the lack of losses the process repeats itself indefinitely. The output
sw
voltage law for the LC circuit is:

𝑣 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒(𝜔𝑡)

iss
This is a sine trend with constant amplitude value. The current has the same trend; however,
its phase in relation to the voltage has a 90°offset.
ce

The frequency 𝑓0 of the LC circuit depends on the capacitor C and of the inductance L values.

1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋 ∙ √𝐿𝐶
sw
As shown, 𝑓0 is equal to the resonance frequency of the circuit.
tra

However, each type of capacitor or inductor has got some loss, which can be represented by
the resistances RC and RL.
Because of these losses, represented by the voltage drops across the resistors, the amplitude
of the signal oscillation begins to decrease cycle by cycle.
Only if these losses can be balanced with a signal in phase with the voltage and with the same
ce
frequency of the circuit own frequency 𝑓0, the LC real circuit will be an oscillator. This can be
obtained by using active devices.

Dynamic circuit
Generally speaking, an oscillator circuit can be represented as a dynamic circuit having three
sw
impedances, each of which is connected to two transistor terminals (base-emitter, base-
tra

collector, collector-emitter).
ce
io
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_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.115 – Dynamic circuit

sw
tra

To set the value of the frequency you must chose an appropriate value of impedances Z1, Z2,
Z3, so that the oscillation occurs as you want.
All transistor oscillators need a DC current that feeds the device and do not need input signal.
In fact this signal is selected by the circuit from the frequency band of the noise always present
in an electronic device.
ce
Although this signal has a very low value, its amplitude is sufficient as it is in resonance
conditions. In fact in these conditions the circuit gain tends to be very high.
The oscillator circuit can be made in various constructive solutions, usually using inductive and
capacitive resonance circuit. Two of these types of oscillator are the Harley oscillator and the
Colpitts oscillator. sw
tra

Hartley oscillator
The Hartley oscillator can be realized with a bipolar junction transistor, two inductors and a
capacitor as represented in the following picture:
ce
io
Av

tra

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_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.116 - Hartley oscillator circuits

sw
If you want to create an oscillating signal with a frequency 𝑓0, you have to choose the values of
tra

inductors and capacitor that make the circuit resounds with that value of frequency. Then you
have to compare the total inductive reactance XL with the capacitive reactance XC and be sure
that they are equal.

For example, if:

ce

𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = 𝐿

You can find the value of the capacitor C2: sw

1
tra

𝐶2 =
2 ∙ 𝜔02 ∙ 𝐿

And the frequency is:

1
𝑓0 =
ce
2𝜋 ∙ √𝐿𝐶2
io
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tra

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Colpitts oscillator
This type of oscillator has two capacitors and one inductor as shown in the following circuit.

_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.117 – Colpitts oscillator circuits

ce
As in the case of the Hartley oscillator you have to find the C1 and C3 values for the capacitors
and the L2 value for the inductor in order to obtain a certain value of the frequency 𝑓0.

In this circuit the total capacitance is:

𝐶0 =
𝐶1 ∙ 𝐶3
𝐶1 + 𝐶3
sw
tra

Then, comparing the inductive reactance with the capacitive reactance you have:

1
ce
𝜔0 𝐿2 =
𝜔0 𝐶0
io

Choosing C1=C3=C:

2
𝐿2 =
𝜔02 𝐶
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Finally you can evaluate 0 and f0 :

_S
2 1.41 1.41
𝜔0 = √ = → 𝑓0 =
sw
𝐿2 𝐶 √𝐿2 𝐶 2𝜋 ∙ √𝐿2 𝐶

Monostable multivibrator

iss
The monostable multivibrator is a device with two possible states: a completely stable state
and an almost stable state. Giving a command impulse (for example using a trigger) this
monostable device goes from the stable state to the almost stable one and after a certain time
ce

returns to the stable state. Through a command impulse it thus creates another impulse that
persists for a period of time in accordance with the circuit parameters. For this reason, this
device is also named one shot. Thanks to its properties, particularly the fact that the output
impulse defines a time window, it may be used as a timing circuit.
sw
A monostable multivibrator can be realized by using unstable feedback circuits where there is
tra

a capacitor to stop DC current. Removing the capacitor in the following circuit, this circuit
becomes an open loop one and each of its devices can be interdict or active. If the first
hypothesis occurs, when the capacitor is applied, the circuit works as monostable. Now, if you
apply to the circuit an impulse with tangible amplitude, the working point of the devices
moves to the opposite state; so that the device that did not conduct now conducts and vice
versa. Since this is not a stable state, it is conserved until an impulse is applied. An example of
ce

monostable circuit is shown in the following picture:

sw
tra

ce
io
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_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.118 - Monostable multivibrator circuit

ce

The stable state, in the picture above, is obtained when the transistor T2 conducts and the
transistor T1 is interdict. When it happens it means that the transistor T2 is in saturation
condition. At t0 an impulse is applied to the base of the transistor T1 and this makes this
sw
transistor conducts. Consequently, if transistor T1 conducts, the transistor T2 is interdict and
then if the resistance RC is very low, the voltage between the emitter and the collector of T2 is
tra

equal to VCC. In this state that is almost stable the transistor T1 is in saturation condition.
How we can observe from previous picture, at t1+ the signal does not immediately return to
the starting values. Therefore, there is a transient state named recovery time that depends on
the capacitor and resistor parameters.
ce
𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 4 ∙ 𝜏 ′
io

with:

𝜏 ′ = 𝑅𝐶 ∙ 𝐶
Av

Normally this recovery time must be lower than the impulse duration.
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Bistable multivibrator (or flip-flop or latch)
The bistable multivibrator is a circuit that has two stable states and in each of them can remain

_S
for an indefinite period. Since the possible state are only two, the device is mainly used as a
component of a binary memory cell. This device is also named flip-flop or latch.
sw
The simplest flip-flop is made of two silicon bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), coupled by a
resistor in the common emitter configuration.

iss
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.119 – Flip-flop circuit

sw
tra

A simple command circuit may be obtained with two input resistances connected to the
transistors base as represented in the following picture:
ce
io
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_S
sw

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.120 - Command circuit of a flip-flop

The next table represents the possible values for the output signal in relation to the input:
ce

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

tra

Fig. 1.121 Input VS output in a flip-flop circuit

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4.1.3.B.1 Common logic circuits description and operation

_S
The logic gate is an easy electronic circuit, which allows executing elementary Boolean
sw
operation. George Boole defined what Boolean operations and the mathematical logic are in
1854.

A logic gate can be presented by a simple graphic symbol, for example a rectangle and it is
characterized by a certain input and output number.

iss
The input can be identified as: input terminals, logic terminal or simply input. The output is
generally identified as: output terminal, logic output or simply output. All these terms are
ce

equal.

The principal logic gates we will consider are:



The NOT gate
The AND gate
sw
tra

 The OR gate
 The NAND gate
 The NOR gate

Logic input and logic output have only two possible status: high or low.
ce

The following explanation is based on a positive logic. This means that the high logic status or 1
corresponds to the presence of electricity, while the low logic status or 0 corresponds to the
absence of electricity.

The NOT gate sw

The NOT gate is considered to be the simplest one. It consists of one input and one output.
tra

Conventionally the input is identified with the letter A and the output with the letter S.
ce
io
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Fig. 1.122 - NOT gate

_S
The NOT gate produces an inversion or negation of the input signal. An inverted logic state is
generally symbolized by a bar on top of it, which corresponds to the NOT gate output signal.
sw
On one hand, you can assume that the input signal A is high or corresponding to 1. It is
important to remember that, conventionally, the high logic status corresponds to the presence
of voltage applied to the terminal at the gate input. The logic gate inverts or denies the input
and will produce a low logic status or 0 at the output. This means that at the output terminal

iss
of the gate there is no electrical voltage.

On the other hand, if you assume that the input signal A is low or corresponding to 0, the logic
ce

gate inverts or denies the input and it will produce a high logic status. This means that at the
output terminal of the gate there will be electricity.

You can represent schematically a NOT gate by using a simple electrical circuit.
sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.123 - NOT gate circuit

The battery provides the voltage to the circuit. The switch position is equivalent to the logic
gate input: open switch/low input, closed switch/high input. The lamp status is equivalent to
the output signal: lamp on/high output, lamp off/low output. It is important to keep in mind
ce
that the switch is equivalent to the input logic signal A and the lamp is equivalent to the output
io

logic signal S.

When the switch is open, i.e. the signal is low, the lamp is fed by a current that runs from the
battery and through the resistor R. In this condition the lamp is on. The input logic signal (low
Av

status or 0) is thus denied or inverted and produces the lamp lighting (high status or 1).
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When the switch is closed, i.e. the signal is high, the lamp is not fed by the battery and is off.
The high input signal is denied or inverted and the lamp power off.

Generally, all logic gates are followed by their relative table or truth table. This table relates all

_S
possible input logic signals to the relative output logic signals of a logic gate. Since the possible
input logic signals are essentially two: 0 (low) and 1 (high), the truth table of the NOT logic
sw
gate consists of two rows and two columns.

iss
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.124 - Truth table of the NOT gate

The AND gate

ce

The AND gate has at least two logic inputs A and B and only one output S.

sw
tra

ce
io

Fig. 1.125 - AND gate

The AND gate produces a multiplication of the input signals. Conventionally, the logic product
of two values corresponds to 1 only if the two inputs are 1 too.
Av

tra

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The mathematical expression defining the logic product is:

𝐴∙𝐵 =𝑆

_S
The AND gate can be represented using a simple electrical circuit.
sw

iss
ce

sw Fig. 1.126 - AND gate circuit

tra

The battery provides power to the circuit. The switches position, A and B, is equivalent to the
input logic signals: open switch/low, closed switch /high. The lamp status is equivalent to the
output logic signal: lamp on/output high and lamp off/output low. If you analyze the circuit, it
appears evident that the lamp is on only when both switches are closed.

This means that:

ce

𝐴 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 1

Also AND gate can be followed by the truth table.

sw
tra

ce
io
Av

tra

Fig. 1.127 - Truth table of the AND gate

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The AND logic gate can have two or more inputs. However, the operating principle still remains
the same also with three logic inputs: A, B and C.

_S
The related electrical circuit has an additional switch in series to the lamp corresponding to the
input C. The relative truth table has an additional column, which corresponds to the input C
sw
and has many rows representing the several possible combinations of input values.

The OR gate
The OR logic gate has at least two inputs, A and B, and only one output S. It produces the sum

iss
of the input signals.
ce

sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.128 - OR gate

The mathematical expression defining the logic sum is:

𝐴+𝐵 =𝑆
sw
tra

Also in the case of the OR gate, you can use a simple electrical circuit as a mean of
representation. The circuit has essentially two switches in parallel: A and B. If you look at the
circuit, it appears evident that the lamp is on when at least one switch is on.
ce
io
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_S
sw

iss
Fig. 1.129 - OR gate circuit
ce

The OR gate can be followed by its truth table too and can have more than two inputs.
sw
tra

ce

Fig. 1.130 - Truth table of the OR gate

sw
tra

The principle of operation still remains the same. The related electrical circuit has an additional
switch corresponding to the input C. The relative truth table has an additional column
corresponding to the input C. The lamp is off only when all switches are open. The truth table
value, corresponding to the output S is 0 only when all inputs are 0.
ce
The NAND gate
io

The NAND logic gate has at least two inputs, A and B, and only one output S. It can thus be
seen as the composition of a gate AND and a gate NOT. The mathematical expression to define
it is:
Av

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𝑛𝑜𝑡 (𝐴 ∙ 𝐵) = 𝑆

_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.131 - NAND gate

The circuit corresponding to a NAND gate is essentially characterized by two switches, A and B,
connected in parallel to the lamp S but in series one to the other.
sw
tra

By studying the circuit it clearly appears that the lamp is off only when both switches are
closed.
ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.132 - NAND gate circuit

ce
Examine now in detail the truth table of NAND gate.
io
Av

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iss

_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.133 - Truth table of NAND gate

The NAND gate can have two or more inputs. The operation still remains the same regardless
of the number of inputs.
sw
tra

In the case of three inputs the corresponding electrical circuit has an additional switch,
corresponding to the input C. And as a consequence, its truth table has an additional column
related to input C and many rows representing the several combinations of input values. The
lamp is off only when all switches are closed.
ce
The truth table value for the S output is 0 only when all inputs are 1.

The NOR gate

sw
The NOR logic gate has two logic inputs, A and B, and one output S. It can thus be seen as an
OR gate and a NOT gate put together. The mathematical expression which defines it is:
tra

𝑛𝑜𝑡 (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑆
ce
io
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_S
sw

iss
Fig. 1.134 - NOR gate
ce

The circuit corresponding to NOR gate is characterized by two switches, A and B, connected in
parallel to the lamp S.

If you look at the circuit, you can notice that the lamp is on only when both switches are off.
sw
tra

ce

sw
tra

Fig. 1.135 - NOR gate circuit

Now let’s examine more in details the NOR truth table. Remember that the output S is
opposite in respect to the OR gate.
ce
io
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iss

_S
sw

iss
ce

Fig. 1.136 - NOR truth table

The NOR gate can have more than two inputs. If we have three logic inputs, the operation
remains the same. In this case its electrical circuit has an additional switch, which corresponds
sw
to input C. The relative truth table as well has an additional column corresponding to input C
tra

and many rows for the several combinations of inputs values. The lamp is on only when all
switches are off.

The value of the truth table for the input S is 1 only when all inputs are 0.
ce

sw
tra

ce
io
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4.1.3.B.2 Introduction to the operational amplifier

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The operational amplifier (op-amp) is an amplifier designed to be used with other circuit
components to perform either computing functions (addition, subtraction) or some types of
transfer operation. Operational amplifiers are usually high-gain amplifiers with the amount of
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gain determined by feedback.
The following picture shows schematic symbols of an operational amplifier and its power
supply requirements.

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Fig. 1.137 – Operational amplifier

An operational amplifier is a special type of high-gain amplifier. A circuit can be classified as an

operational amplifier only if it has certain characteristics. The most important features of an
operational amplifier are:

 Very high gain

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 Very high input impedance

 Very low output impedance

Since no single amplifier stage can satisfy all these characteristics well enough, various
amplifier stages are connected together. The total circuit made of these individual stages is
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called operational amplifier. This circuit (the operational amplifier) can be composed of
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individual components (transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.); however, the most common
form of operational amplifier is an integrated circuit. The integrated circuit (chip) will contain
the various stages of an operational amplifier and can be treated and used as a single stage.
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Block diagram of the operational amplifier
The image below represents a block diagram of the operational amplifier. You can notice that
there are three stages within the operational amplifier.

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sw

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Fig. 1.138 - Block diagram of the operational amplifier

The input stage is a differential amplifier. The differential amplifier used as an input stage
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provides differential inputs. Special techniques are used to provide the high input impedance
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necessary for the operational amplifier.

The second stage is a high-gain voltage amplifier. This stage may be made of several
transistors to provide high gain. A typical operational amplifier could have a voltage gain of
200,000. Most of this gain comes from the voltage amplifier stage.
The final stage of the op-amp is an output amplifier. The output amplifier provides low output
impedance.
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There are two input terminals, called inverting input (indicated by -), not-inverting input
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(indicated by +) and an output terminal.

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sw

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Fig. 1.139 - Operational amplifier

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As you can see from the picture above, the relation between the output voltage and the input
voltage is:

𝑉𝑂 = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 ∙ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
sw
AOL is here the open-loop operational amplifier gain that is in absence of every external
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connection between output and input. It is common to indicate with Vi (differential input
voltage) the voltage between the inverting input and the not-inverting input, so that the
previous relation becomes:

𝑉𝑂 = −𝐴𝑂𝐿 ∙ 𝑉𝑖
ce
From this relation and from the circuit model of the amplifier it appears that Vo and Vi have an
io

inversion in the polarity.

This means that if Vi is for example a continuous positive signal, Vo is a continuous but negative
signal.
If Vi is a sine wave signal, Vo is sine wave, but shifted of 180°. If Vi is an increasing signal, Vo is a
Av

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decreasing one.

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Basic differential amplifier circuit
We have previously analyzed a block diagram of the operational amplifier and as said, its first
stage is a differential amplifier.

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The circuit represented below is known as differential amplifier and now we will see how it
works.
sw

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sw
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ce

Fig. 1.140 – Differential amplifier

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How you can see this kind of amplifier is a combination of a common-base and a common-
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emitter configuration into a single transistor amplifier. In fact, this circuit is the combination of
these two circuits:
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sw

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Fig. 1.141 – Common emitter and common base configuration
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Fig 1.141(A) shows a common emitter amplifier. The output signal is an amplified version of
the input signal and is 180° out of phase with the input signal.
Fig 1.141(B) represents a common base amplifier. In this circuit the output signal is an
amplified version of the input signal and is in phase with the input signal. In both circuits the
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output signal is controlled by the base-to-emitter bias. As this bias changes (because of the
input signal), the current through the transistor changes too. This causes a change in the
output signal developed across the collector load (R2).

Taking into consideration the differential amplifier you can see that the transistor has two
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inputs, the emitter and the base, and one output, the collector. It is important to keep in mind
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that the current through the transistor (and therefore the output signal) is controlled by the
base-to-emitter bias. In this circuit the combination of the two input signals controls the
output signal. In fact, it is the difference between the input signals that determines the base-
to-emitter bias.
ce
In order to examine the operation of a differential amplifier you can assume that the circuit
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has a gain of 10. This means that for each 1-Volt change in the base-to-emitter bias, there
would be a 10 Volts change in the output signal. Assume also that the input signals will peak at
1 Volt levels (+1 Volt for the positive peak and -1 Volt for the negative peak). The clue to
understand this circuit (or any transistor amplifier circuit) is to consider that the collector
current is controlled by the base-to-emitter bias. In other words, in this circuit the output
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signal (the voltage developed across R3) is determined by the difference between the base
voltage and the emitter voltage.
The next picture shows this two-input, single-output amplifier with input signals equal in

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amplitude and 180° out of phase. Input #1 has a positive alternation when input #2 has a
negative alternation and vice versa.
sw

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ce
Fig. 1.142 – Input and output of a differential amplifier

At time one (T1) the input #1 signal has reached +1 Volt and the input #2 signal has reached -1
Volt. This means an overall increase of 2 Volts in base-to-emitter bias. Since the gain of the
circuit is 10, the output signal has decreased by 20 Voltss. As you can see, the output signal has
sw
been determined by the difference between the two input signals. In fact, the base-to-emitter
bias can be found by subtracting the value of the input #2 signal from the value of input #1
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signal.

Mathematically:

𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 = (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 #1) − (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 #2)

ce
𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 = (+1𝑉) − (−1𝑉)
io

𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 = +2𝑉

Between time two (T2) and time three (T3) input #1 signal goes negative and input #2 signal
goes positive. At time three (T3), the value of the base-to-emitter bias is -2 Volts. Thus, the
output voltage is now equal to +20 Voltss.
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It follows that to find the output signal you multiply the difference between the two input
voltages by the gain of the amplifier.

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𝑉𝑂 = 𝐴 ∙ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
sw
This formula is similar to that used to represent the relationship between the inputs and the
output of an operational amplifier, the only difference is that the gain of the op-amp is given
here by all amplifier stages which compose it.

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As a result, the differential amplifier represents the first stage of an op-amp and its two input
terminals are the inverting input and not-inverting input of the op-amp.
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Feeding of the operational amplifier

sw
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Fig. 1.143 - Operational amplifier symbol

sw
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If you carefully observe the operational amplifier symbol, you will notice that it needs a double
source of feeding. In most cases a dual power supply is needed, in this case two equal voltages
of absolute value but opposite polarity are required. The two voltages are commonly indicated
by +V and -V.
Considering the relation between Vi and Vo you can deduce that if Vi is negative or positive,
ce
only a little Vi signal is required in order to make the output voltage have high positive or
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negative values, this because the AOL gain is very high, theoretically infinite.

𝑉𝑂 = −𝐴𝑂𝐿 ∙ 𝑉𝑖
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It is really important to underline that the output dynamic, i.e. the maximum range of Vo
voltage, is limited and depends on the feeding voltages. In fact, by observing the input VS
output voltages graphic characteristic, you see that the peak to peak output voltage has values

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similar to the ones of the voltage between feeding terminals.
To be precise, the Vo range is included between the positive saturation voltage Vsat and the
negative voltage - Vsat. These values differ from the feeding voltage of 1 or 2 Volts.
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Fig. 1.144 – Input VS output of the open loop operational amplifier

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4.1.3.B.3 Operation of the operational amplifier

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The operational amplifiers can have either a closed-loop or an open-loop configuration. The
operation (closed-loop or open-loop) is determined by whether or not a feedback is used.
Without feedback the operational amplifier has an open-loop operation. This open-loop
sw
configuration is effective only when the operational amplifier is used as a comparator (a circuit
which compares two input signals or compares an input signal to some fixed level of voltage).
The open-loop configuration is not practical for an amplifier because of the very high gain of
the operational amplifier that creates poor stability. Noise and other unwanted signals are so

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much amplified in open-loop configuration that this system is rarely employed. Most
operational amplifiers are in fact used with feedback (closed-loop configuration).
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Open-loop operational amplifier operation

The easiest way to use an operational amplifier in an open-loop configuration is to connect the
inverting input to ground, instead of a VS signal to the not-inverting input.
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ce

sw
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Fig. 1.145 – Operational amplifier as a comparator
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The output voltage is:

𝑉𝑂 = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 ∙ (𝑉+ − 𝑉− ) = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 ∙ 𝑉𝑆

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You can notice that the AOL gain is very high but the output dynamic of the operational
amplifier is always contained within +Vsat and -Vsat. It can thus be said that beyond a little
range of values, where V+ is nearly close to V-, if V+ is higher than V-, VO = Vsat, otherwise if V-

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is higher than V+, VO = -Vsat.
Observing the input-output characteristic of the circuit you notice that for VS < 0, VO = -Vsat,
while for VS > 0, VO = Vsat. Thus, you can deduce that the open-loop operational amplifier can
sw
be used as a gauge of voltage levels. This kind of circuit is a zero crossing detector of the input
signal able to supply a high level at output, when VS is more than zero and a low one, when VS
is lower than zero.

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Closed-loop operational amplifier
The open-loop operational amplifier does not present a linear behavior due to the high AOL
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gain that even for little values of input differential voltage causes the operational saturation.
This can be clearly seen in the input-output characteristic having a linear behavior only for VS
equal to zero. Moreover, AOL values have relevant dispersions and variations. Thus, the open-
loop configuration cannot be used to make amplifier circuits or in circuits operating more
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complex processing on input signals. In these cases, it is necessary to apply to the operational
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amplifier a negative feedback net, which allows to limit the total gain and makes the circuit
answer linear for relative wide range of the input signals, generally not depending on AOL
value.
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Fig. 1.146 – Closed loop operational amplifier

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This technique allows the creation of amplifiers with a stable and expected gain; in fact, it
essentially depends on a single passive element net external to the active device.

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We will examine common configurations of amplifiers by analyzing their operation and
obtaining for each of them the relation between input and output, that is the closed-loop gain
AV. To do this, it is necessary to specify some consequences of the operational amplifiers
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characteristics:
 As the input resistance Ri is very high, the current flowing through the operational
amplifier input is almost negligible
 As the open-loop gain AOL is always very high for every value of the output voltage in

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the linear zone, that is for -Vsat < Vo < Vsat, this implies that the voltage Vi between the
inverting input and the not-inverting one is very small and consequently negligible.
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In the linear operation zone the two inputs are essentially at the same potential. In other
words, a virtual short circuit exists between the inputs. In the linear zone the following
approximations are valid:

i+ = i- = 0
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And:

Vi = 0 for -Vsat < Vo < Vsat.

ce
Closed-loop circuits can have inverting or not-inverting configuration. Since the inverting
configuration is more often used than the not-inverting one, the inverting configuration will be
shown first.

Inverting configuration sw
picture 1.147 shows an operational amplifier in a closed-loop inverting configuration. Resistor
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Rf is used to feed part of the output signal back to the input of the operational amplifier.
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sw

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sw
Fig. 1.147 – Closed loop inverting configuration
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As you can see in this picture, the output signal is 180° out of phase with the input signal. The
feedback signal is a portion of the output signal and therefore, 180° out of phase with the
input signal too. Whenever the input signal goes positive, the output signal and the feedback
signal go negative. The result of this is that with this configuration the inverting input of the
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operational amplifier is always very close to 0 Voltss. In fact, with the not-inverting input
grounded the voltage at the inverting input of the operational amplifier is so small in
comparison to other voltages in the circuit that it is considered to be virtual ground.
(Remember, in a closed-loop operation the inverting and not-inverting inputs are at the same
potential.) sw
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The important aspect is that the inverting input of the operational amplifier shown in the
previous picture is at 0 Voltss and so it is virtual ground. Because the inverting input is at 0
Voltss, there will be no current flowing into the operational amplifier from the connection
point of R and Rf.
Given these conditions, the characteristics of this circuit are determined almost entirely by the
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values of R and Rf. The next picture should help you to understand how the values of the two
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resistors determine the circuit characteristics.

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sw

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sw
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Fig. 1.148 – Inverting amplifier

The input signal causes current to flow through R. Since the voltage at the inverting input of
the operational amplifier is at 0 Volts, the input current (i) is computed by:
ce
𝑉𝑆
𝑖=
𝑅

The output signal (which is opposite in phase to the input signal) causes the feedback current
(if) to flow through Rf. The left-hand side of Rf is at 0 Volts and the right-hand side is at Vo.
sw
Therefore, the feedback current is computed by:
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𝑉𝑜
𝑖𝑓 = −
𝑅𝑓

As if = i, it results that:
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𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑉 = =−
𝑉𝑆 𝑅

As you can see, the gain of the whole amplifier does not depend on AOL but on the relation
between Rf and R values.
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The sign - shows that the output polarity is inverted in respect to the input one. For this
reason, this amplifier is called inverting amplifier.

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Not-inverting configuration
The next picture shows a not-inverting configuration using an operational amplifier. The input
sw
signal (VS) is applied directly to the not-inverting input (+) of the operational amplifier.
Feedback is provided by coupling part of the output signal (VO) back to the inverting input (-) of
the operational amplifier. R and Rf act as voltage divider allowing only a part of the output
signal to be applied as feedback.

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sw
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Fig. 1.149 – Not-inverting amplifier

It should be noticed that the input signal, output signal, and feedback signal are all in phase
sw
(only the positive alternation of the signal is shown). It may appear as if the feedback is
regenerative (positive) because the feedback and input signals are in phase. However, the
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feedback is actually degenerative (negative) because the input signal is applied to the not-
inverting input and the feedback signal is applied to the inverting input (you must remember
that the operational amplifier will react to the difference between the two inputs).

The signal is applied to the not-inverting input, so that the gain AV of the amplifier is positive.
ce
The inverting input voltage can be expressed in function of the Vo, being i = ifo
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So you have:

𝑅
𝑉− = 𝑉𝑂 ∙
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅
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Considering the presence of the virtual short circuit among the input, you have:

𝑉− = 𝑉𝑆

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From which the gain is obtained:
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𝑉𝑂 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅) 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑉 = = =1+
𝑉𝑆 𝑅 𝑅

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4.1.3.B.4 Applications of the operational amplifier

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Operational amplifiers are used in so many different ways that it is impossible to describe all of
their applications. For this reason, in this chapter we will consider only some specific
application of the operational amplifier.
sw
We will start by taking into account the two most common applications of the operational
amplifier: the summing amplifier and the difference amplifier.

Summing amplifier (voltage adder)

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The following picture is a schematic representation of a two-input adder that uses an
operational amplifier. The output level is determined by putting the input signals together
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(although the output signal will be of opposite polarity if compared to the sum of the input
signals).
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sw
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Fig. 1.150 – Summing amplifier

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To explain how these kinds of amplifier work you can use the following hypothesis:

𝑉1 = 3 𝑉
𝑉2 = 4 𝑉
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𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑓 = 1 𝑘Ω
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If the signal on input number one (V1) is +3 Volts and the signal on input number two (V2) is +4
Volts, the output signal (Vo) should be -7 Volts. This because [(+3 V) + (+4 V)] = +7 V and the

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polarity of the sum is changed by the op-amp giving -7 V. With +3 Volts at V1 and 0 Voltss at
point A (which is virtual ground), the current through R1 must be 3 milliamperes.
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𝑉1 3𝑉
𝑖1 = = = 3 𝑚𝐴
𝑅1 1 𝑘Ω

Using the same process, with +4 Volts at V2 and 0 Voltss at point A the current through R2 must

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be 4 milliamperes. This means that a total current of 7 milliamperes is flowing from point A
through R1 and R2. If 7 milliamps are flowing from point A, then 7 milliamperes must be flowing
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into point A. The 7 milliamperes flowing into point A flow through Rf causing 7 Volts to be
developed across Rf. With point A at 0 Voltss and 7 Volts developed across Rf, the voltage
potential at Vo must be a -7 Volts.

The example has shown a particular case in which all resistors have the same value of
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resistance. For this reason we have now to provide a more general explanation.
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Considering the virtual ground present at the inverting terminal, you can say that the
resistance that affects the generator V1 is equal to R1. In the same way the resistance that
affects the generator V2, is equal to R2. You have:

𝑉1
𝑖1 =
𝑅1
ce

𝑉2
𝑖2 =
𝑅2

𝑖𝑓 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
sw
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And so:
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉𝑂 = −𝑅𝑓 ∙ 𝑖𝑓 = −𝑅𝑓 ∙ ( + )
𝑅1 𝑅2

In the previous example R1 = R2 = Rf. So, this equation becomes:

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𝑉𝑜 = −(𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )

Consider that you can apply any number of input signals but without overpassing the
maximum value of current that can be supplied.
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By getting the resistors in proportion, it is possible to obtain the average value of the input
voltage.
In fact, if R1 = R2 = 2Rf, you obtain:

_S
(𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
𝑉𝑜 = −
2
sw
In short, it is possible to amplify the input signals sum of an arbitrary factor by choosing
correctly the Rf value.

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Another type of adder is the not-inverting adder. The operation of this amplifier is the same of
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the inverting adder with the only difference that it has a positive gain.
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Fig. 1.151 – Not-inverting adder

In fact, since the current flowing in the not-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier can

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be considered null, the voltage V+ is obtained by considering the circuit included between the
two signal inputs, for example applying Millman's theorem.
sw
𝑉1 𝑉2
+ 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑉+ = 𝑅′ 𝑅′ =
1 1 2
+
𝑅′ 𝑅′

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𝑅𝑓
As 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉+ ∙ (1 + 𝑅
) with Rf = R, you have:
ce

𝑉𝑂 = 2 ∙ 𝑉+ = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

In order to obtain the sum of n signals, you must choose resistors R’ of same value and R equal
to:
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𝑅𝑓
𝑅=
(𝑛 − 1)

Difference amplifier (voltage subtractor)

ce

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Fig. 1.152 – Difference amplifier

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It is often necessary to calculate the difference between two signals, eventually amplified; for
example in the case you want to remove a component common to both signals. The

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differential amplifier circuit has this functionality:

𝑅𝑓
sw
𝑉𝑂 = ∙ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝑅

To check this relation you can apply the superposition principle. If you consider the short-
circuited generator V2, you have:

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𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉01 = 𝑉+ ∙ (1 + ) = 𝑉1 ∙ ∙ = 𝑉1 ∙
𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅 𝑅
ce

Then if you short-circuit the generator V1, the not-inverting input looks connected to ground,
this because there is no current flowing through the resistors connected to it. You thus obtain
the inverting amplifier configuration:
sw 𝑅𝑓
tra

𝑉02 = − 𝑉2 ∙
𝑅

Adding the two input effects, you have:

ce

𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02 = ∙ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝑅

Buffer (voltage follower) sw

A common problem is the attenuation of signals between two circuits, one having high output
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impedance and the other low input impedance. In this case it is generally necessary to insert a
buffer circuit, which works as an impedance adaptor, avoiding in this way the problem of
signals attenuation.
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_S
sw

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ce

sw Fig. 1.153 – Voltage follower

This circuit has unity gain, high input resistance and very low output resistance. The gain AV
can be easily found if you consider that thanks to the virtual short-circuit, voltage VS,
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coincident to V+ is equal to V-. Since V- is connected directly to the output, you have Vo = VS
and so AV = 1. This can be verified by considering the buffer as a particular case of not-inverting
amplifier. In fact, if in the equation Rf = 0, then AV = 1.
ce

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sw

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PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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4.2 Printed circuit boards

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4.2.1 Printed circuit boards description and use
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A Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is an electronic component that gives mechanical support and
electrical connection to other electronic components.

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The set of conductors connecting the circuit components is obtained by means of metallic
pathways placed on a flat insulating board, while the components are placed on the other side
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of the board.
The component terminals enter the board through holes and are then welded to the metallic
pathways, which usually end with a wider round or square shape in correspondence of the
welding spots.
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Fig. 2.1 - Example of Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

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Compared to wire-wrapped circuits, printed circuits have many advantages:
 Clear wiring
 Minimal amount of space

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 Simultaneous setting-up of the connections
 Uniform reproduction of the circuit structure
 Inexpensive for high volume production
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 High reliability
The insulating board can be made of cardboard, Bakelite™ cloth, silicon glass, polyester glass,
glass and epoxy resin, glass and melamine resin. The most common base is the phenol
stratified, which is made of cellulose layers soaked with phenol resin and allows only a little

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humidity absorption. The insulating board usually has a thickness of 0.8, 1.6, 2.4, 3.2 mm,
while the metallic pathways thickness varies from 25 to 75 μm depending on the flowing
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current. The metallic pathway width should be no less than 1 mm and should possibly reach
2mm. The distance among them should be at least 1 mm. The different production phases of a
printed circuit include the connection design, the copper insulating board preparation with
electrolytic copper, the connection set-up on the copper plated board, the assembling and the
component welding.
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When the circuit becomes complex, copper plated boards are used on both sides and metallic
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connections among components are made on both sides of the board.

The connections manufacturing process is performed by a chemical removal of exceeding
conductor material or by a deposition of a conductor on the insulating board using masking or
conducting tape galvanic deposition.
Printed circuit boards require to be tested after production. Once the board is finished, every
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circuit connection must be checked with an electrical test unit. This unit applies a small
voltage to every contact point and verifies that the same voltage is measured at other
connected contact points. When the PCB is completed and tested, the connection of
components gives a Printed Circuit Assembly (PCA).
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Tecnograph Process
A common method used to remove metal is the Tecnograph process. The original design is
photographically reduced to obtain a cliché used to print the circuit on a copper board by
means of grease ink. This reduction can be of 2 to 5 times in order to achieve a high precision.
A thin bitumen powder layer is then spread on the metal surface. The board is turned upside
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down to let the bitumen powder fall from the non-inked areas.
The board is then hit by infrared rays that melt the bitumen layer. This layer will protect the
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pathways areas from chemicals used to remove the unwanted copper.

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Photo-Print or Photo-Resist Process
The photo-print or photo-resist process is an engraving process. This method consists of
applying on the copper surface of the board a uniform photosensitive and chemicals resistant

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emulsion layer. The board is then dried with hot air or infrared rays. Then a photonegative of
the electrical circuit is applied on the photosensitive emulsion and exposed to an ultraviolet
light. After the exposition, the board is submerged in a solvent to remove all the emulsion
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areas not exposed to the ultraviolet rays. In this way the electric circuit results printed on the
board and the residual copper will be removed by an acid attack. Once this chemicals action is
completed, the copper stripes that constitute the electric circuit will be visible on the board.

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Fig. 2.2 - Photo-print process (A-Copper on plastic stratified board; B- photosensitive emulsion covering; C-photo
negative application and UV lamp; D-emulsion left on the copper; E-final result with copper stripes)
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Board manufacturing and component welding

For the component terminals to be fitted in place, the plastic stratified board with the printed
metallic circuit needs some mechanical processes such as cutting, side finishing and drilling.
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The electrical components must be placed on the board before proceeding with the printed
circuit welding. This process can be performed by welding every single contact or in case of
mass production by simultaneously welding all the components on the board. In the latter

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case, if some components do not need to be welded or if some parts of the board require
protection, it is possible to preserve such parts with varnishing or special tapes. A common
method for this kind of simultaneous welding consists in covering the board completely with a
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welding alloy.

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Fig. 2.3 – Method of simultaneous welding
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This alloy is pumped from a reservoir into a basin in order to reach the surface of the board
that slides horizontally at a constant speed of about 3-4 cm/s.
To make the component welding more effective, it is possible to cover with a metal the
internal surface of the holes in order to obtain a better tin adhesion.
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Fig. 2.4 – Metal stripes in the holes of the PCB

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Micro Modules
Micro modules consist of a set of simple thin ceramic boards, each of which including one or
two circuit components. These ceramic boards, when suitably connected to each other, permit

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to obtain the desired circuit.
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Fig. 2.5 - Micro modules

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As it can be seen in Fig.2.5, the ceramic boards have some notches for the welded connections.
The squared boards have sides of 7.6 to 7.9 mm and thickness of 0.25 mm. The boards are
piled up and electrically connected through vertical conductors fitted in the board notches. To
complete the assembly the external boards must have a side of 8.9 mm. A distance of some
millimeter tenths is allowed between the boards to improve the electrical uncoupling as well
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as to balance tolerances and to ease the resin absorption during the final part of the
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manufacturing process.
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Resistors
Resistors are made of metallic layers or vacuum deposition metal oxides. A particular solution
is realized through a board with two resistive stripes on both sides and by connecting in

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parallel or in series every single resistance. With this layout it is possible to obtain values
higher than ten-ohms with only one board. Some micro resistors are realized by drawing them
on boards using special inks with different resistivity values. After these operations, the boards
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are heated at 700°C to let the solvent evaporate and to fix the metallic layer.

Hexagonal Micro Modules

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Another method to realize micro modules consists in using hexagonal boards with 6 mm sides.
The hexagonal shape leads to some advantages:
 Like square boards, hexagonal boards permit to have the maximum amount of
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modules on plane plates, for example with a bee cell disposition.

 Compared to square boards hexagonal boards permit to reduce the number of
connection wires on each side. For example, in the case of 12 wires, squared boards
have 3 wires for each side, while hexagonal boards have only 2 wires.
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 Hexagonal boards have less sharpened corners and their almost round shape is an
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advantage for the manufacturing of some components, such as inductors.

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Fig. 2.7 - Hexagonal Micro Modules

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4.3 Servomechanisms

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4.3.B.1 Servos: open and closed loop systems, feedback, null, damping,
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frequency response

Servomechanisms, also called servo systems or servos, have countless applications in the

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operation of electrical and electronic equipment. When working with radar and antennas,
computing devices, ships communications systems, aircraft control systems and many other
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equipment, it is often necessary to operate a mechanical load that is remote from its source of
control. To obtain smooth, continuous, and accurate operation these loads are normally best
controlled by synchros.
A servo system uses a weak control signal to move large loads to a desired position with great
accuracy. The key words in this definition are move and great accuracy. Servos may be found
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in such varied applications from moving the rudder and in the elevator of a model airplane in
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radio-controlled flight to controlling the diving planes and in rudders of nuclear submarines.
Servos are powerful. They can move heavy loads and be remotely controlled with great
precision by synchro devices. They take many forms: servo systems are electromechanical,
electrohydraulic, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Whatever the form, a relatively weak signal that
represents a desired movement of the load is generated, controlled, amplified, and fed to a
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servo motor that moves the heavy load.

A control system is a group of components linked together to perform a specific purpose.

Generally speaking, a control system has a large power gain between input and output.
Control systems are broadly classified as either closed-loop or open-loop. Closed-loop control
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systems are the most commonly used in the Navy because they respond and move the loads
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they are controlling quicker and with greater accuracy than open-loop systems. The reason for
quicker response and greater accuracy is that an automatic feedback system informs the input
that the desired movement has taken place. Upon receipt of this feedback information, the
system stops the motor and the motion of the load ceases until another movement is ordered
by the input. They work in a way similar to the system controlling heating in many homes. The
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thermostat (input) calls for heat. The furnace (output) produces heat and distributes it. Some
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of the heat is "fed back" to the thermostat. When this "feedback" raises room temperature
according to the thermostat setting, the thermostat responds by shutting the system down
until heat is again required. In such a system the feedback path, input to output and back to
input, forms what is called a closed loop.
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Open-loop control systems are not as commonly used as closed-loop control systems as they
are less accurate. This because they do not have any feedback loop.

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Open loop control systems
An open-loop control system is only and directly controlled by an input signal. The basic units
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of this type of system consist only of an amplifier and a motor. The amplifier receives a low-
level input signal and amplifies it enough to drive the motor to perform the desired job. The
open-loop control system is shown in a basic block diagram form in the picture below:

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Fig. 3.1 - Block diagram of an open-loop control system

In this system the input is a signal that is fed to the amplifier. The output of the amplifier is
proportional to the amplitude of the input signal. The phase (AC system) or polarity (DC
system) of the input signal determines the direction towards which the motor shaft will turn.
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After amplification, the input signal is fed to the motor, which moves the output shaft (load) in
the direction corresponding the input signal. The motor will not stop driving the output shaft
until the input signal is reduced to zero or removed. This system usually requires an operator
who can control speed and direction of movement of the output by varying the input. The
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operator can control the input by either a mechanical or an electrical linkage.
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Closed loop control systems

A closed-loop control system is another name used to refer to a servo system. To be classified
as a servo a control system must be capable of performing the following tasks:
 Accepting an order that defines the desired result.
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 Determining the present conditions by some method of feedback.
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 Comparing the desired result with the present conditions and obtaining a difference or
an error signal.
 Issuing a correcting order (the error signal) that will properly change the existing
conditions to the desired result.
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 Obeying the correcting order.

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Operation of a basic position servo system
For a diagram of a basic position servo system refer to the next picture s, view (A), view (B),

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view (C) and view (D).
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Fig. 3.2 - Block diagram of a closed-loop servo system (view A)

As we have said, the closed-loop servo system is today the most commonly used in the Navy. It
is normally made of electromechanical parts and consists basically of a synchro-control system,
a servo amplifier, a servomotor and some form of feedback (response).
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Fig. 3.3 - Block diagram of a closed-loop servo system (views B, C and D)
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The synchro-control system provides a means of controlling the movement of the load, which
may be located in a remote space. The servo amplifier (SA) and servomotor (SM) are the parts
of the system in which power is actually developed in order to move the load.
The controlling signal from a control transformer (CT) is relatively weak, too weak to drive an
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electric motor directly. In views A to D of the block diagram let’s assume that the control signal
will be initiated by a hand crank input connected to the synchro transmitter (CX). The dials
located on the CX and the CT indicate the positions of the synchros rotors, while the dial on
the load indicates the position of the load. In view A the dials of both CX and load indicate that
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the load is in the desired position (0°). Since the load is where it should be, there will be no
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error signal at the servo amplifier input and no power to the servomotor.
In view B the rotor of the CX has been moved by the hand crank to 90°. (This indicates that the
load is ordered to be moved by 90°.) You can notice that the rotor of the CT is still at 0°. The CT
now develops a signal, called the error signal, which is proportional in amplitude to the
amount by which the CT rotor is out of correspondence with the CX rotor. The phase of the
error signal indicates the direction towards which the CT rotor must move in order to reduce
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the error signal to zero or to "null out." The error signal is then sent to the servo amplifier.
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In view C the error signal has been amplified by the servo amplifier and sent to the SM. The
motor starts to turn in the direction that will reduce the error signal.
This is due to a mechanical linkage attached to the SM which also moves the rotor of the CT.
This feedback causes the amplitude of the error signal to decrease slowing the speed at which
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the load is moving.

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In view D the servomotor has driven both the load and the rotor of the CT, so that the CT is
now in correspondence of the CX rotor. As a result, the error signal is reduced to zero. The load
stops at its new position. Note that in this servo system we moved a heavy load to a

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predetermined position by simply turning a hand crank. In response to the hand crank the
servo system performed a basic positioning function.
An example of the servo system just explained is shown in the following picture:
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Fig. 3.4 – Example of position servo system (control of a gun turret)
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The basic servo loop we have just explained using the block diagram, is that of an AC (alternate
current) position servo system. In the AC position servo system, the amplitude and phase of
the AC error signal determine the amount and direction by which the load will be driven.
In a DC (direct current) position servo system the amplitude and polarity of a DC error signal
are respectively used to determine the amount and direction by which the load will be driven.
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The next picture, view A, is a block diagram of a closed-loop DC position servo. Note the Greek
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letter sigma surrounded by a circle means summation.

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Fig. 3.5 - Block diagram of a closed-loop of a position servo (view A)
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View B shows a more in-depth illustration of view A. With the wiper arms of R1 and R4 at the
midpoint of travel, the voltage between the wiper arm and the ground is zero Volts. Therefore,
zero Volts would also be measured at the connection point between R2 and R3 , that is the
summation point. This means that the error signal is zero. With no input signal the amplifier
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output is zero; therefore, the motor shaft remains stationary.
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Fig. 3.6 - Block diagram of a closed-loop of a position servo (view B)

To help you in the understanding, you can imagine that the R1 wiper arm is mechanically
moved upward to a new position where a voltage between the wiper arm and the ground
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measures +10 Volts. Further measurements show zero Volts between the wiper arm of R4 and
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ground. Since R2 and R3 are of equal value, +5 Volts is measured between the sum point and
the ground, this because 5 Volts is dropped across each resistor. The +5 Volts at the sum point
is the "error" signal.
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Fig. 3.7 – Sum point (view A)
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Fig. 3.8 - Sum point (views B and C)

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As shown in the picture above (view A, view B, and view C), when no error is present, the
voltage at the sum point is zero Volts. This because the circuit composed of R1, R2, R 3, and R4 is
balanced. When the wiper of R1 is moved close to +45 Volts, the circuit becomes unbalanced

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as shown in view B. The left-hand side of R2 becomes positive. This fact causes a current to
flow from +45 Volts supply voltage through R3 and R2 to the +10 Volts point at the left side of
R2. Because R2 and R3 are of equal value, the voltage drops will be equal. Therefore, the
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voltage at the sum point will equal +5 Volts.
The +5 Volts error signal is fed into the amplifier. The amplified output starts driving the
motor. The mechanical feedback from the motor drives the R4 wiper arm down when the R1
wiper is moved up, as shown in view C. This causes the right-hand side of R3 to go negative.

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When the R4 wiper travels far enough toward negative, it causes the right-hand side of R3 to
equal the voltage of the left-hand side of R2 maintaining a negative polarity. The voltage at the
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sum point will be zero Volts again and the motor will stop. This is true because R2 and R3 have
an equal Ohm value and when the left-hand side equals +10 Volts, the right-hand side equals -
10 Volts. In this case the point between the two resistors registers zero Volt. When this occurs,
the output shaft will have positioned the load to the new position.
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Importance of the damping in a servo-system
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Remember that in a position servo an input order indicates a position where a load has to be
placed. You can consider the following image:
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Fig. 3.9 - Example of position servo system (control of a gun turret)

The load in this picture is a gun turret. The purpose of the system is the positioning of the gun
by means of an order from a remote hand crank. The load is mechanically coupled through a
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gear train to the rotor of a CT so that the turret position is always accurately represented by
the position of the CT rotor.
An order signaling the desired position of the gun turret is fed into the servo by positioning the
rotor of the CX with the hand crank. A corresponding signal immediately appears across the CT
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stator. This signal differs from the actual position of the gun turret causing a voltage error to
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be developed across the CT rotor.

The voltage error is fed from the CT rotor to the servo amplifier. At this point it is converted
into power with a polarity or phase relationship that drives the motor in the direction needed
to bring the load into the desired position. As the turret moves, the mechanical feedback turns
the CT rotor toward agreement with the CX rotor. As the load approaches the proper position,
less and less power is supplied to the motor because of the decreasing voltage error developed
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in the CT. When the electrical position of the CT rotor agrees with the position of the CX rotor,
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the voltage error reaches zero and power is removed from the motor.
In the actual system the heavy gun turret momentum tends to carry it past the desired
position. This overshoot causes the rotor of the CT to move out of correspondence with the CX
rotor. This in turn develops a new error signal opposite in polarity or phase to the original
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input one. The new error signal causes the turret to drive back toward the desired position but

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the turret momentum once again causes an overshoot, making the system drive in the
opposite direction. If this oscillation of the load around the desired position is allowed to go
unchecked, the result is a condition known as hunting.

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The following picture gives an idea of what happens when there is an oscillation around the
desired position (hunting):
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Fig. 3.10 - Oscillation around the desired position

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In most servos an electronic network known as an anti-hunt or damping system is used to

minimize this undesirable effect.

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The frequency response of a servo is the frequency range according to which the system is
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able to respond by moving the load. This is a characteristic of the system developed by
designers so that the system itself is able to respond to whatever frequencies are expected to
be present in the input signal for each particular application.

To understand this concept you can consider the actions of a servo while the input oscillates.
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When the input is constant, oscillations of the load are undesirable. When the input oscillates,
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the load must oscillate in a similar manner. Let's assume that an oscillating input signal is
applied to a servo. The load may behave in several ways. Ideally, it would respond in perfect
synchronization with the input. The amplitude and phase of the load are actually different
from those of the input signal, as represented in the following picture.
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Fig. 3.11 – Load response VS input order

Generally, servos are plagued by noise signals riding through the system and affecting the
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desired electrical signals. These noise signals cause roughness in the servo system and must be
eliminated to obtain a smooth servo operation. An example of a signal affected by noise is
represented in the following picture where noise is a totally random signal.

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Fig. 3.12 – Steady signal (red) and noise (blue)

By examining the different signals in a servo system, you can determine which frequencies are
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related to the required movement of the load and which ones come from noise sources, such
as static, motors, harmonics and mechanical resonances.
Filters in the signal circuit can be used to shunt some of the unwanted frequencies away from
the amplifier and allow only those frequencies that represent required load movement to
enter the amplifier. This can also be accomplished by designing the bandwidth of the servo
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amplifier to accept only the range of frequencies representing valid servo signals and reject all
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others. This provides a smooth servo response but has the drawback of reducing the amplifier
gain. A reduced amplifier bandwidth is another compromise to be accepted in order to achieve
an optimum servo operation.
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4.3.B.2 Introduction to the synchro: construction, operation and types
of synchro systems

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Synchros are primarily used because of their rapid and accurate transmission of information
between equipment and stations. Examples of such information are changes in course, speed,
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and range of targets or missiles, angular displacement (position) of ships rudder and changes
in the speed and depth of torpedoes. This information must be transmitted quickly and
accurately. Synchros can provide this speed and accuracy. They are reliable, adaptable, and
compact. The following picture shows a simple synchro system that can be used to transmit

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different data or information.
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Fig. 3.13 – Example of a simple synchro system
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In this system a single synchro transmitter furnishes information to two synchro receivers
located in distant spaces. An operator puts the information into the system by turning the
hand wheel. As the hand wheel turns, its attached gear rotates the transmitter shaft (which
has a dial attached to indicate the value of the transmitted information). As the synchro
transmitter shaft turns, it converts the mechanical input into an electrical signal, which is sent
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via interconnecting wiring to the two-synchro receivers. The receiver shafts rotate in response
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to the electrical signal from the transmitter. When these shafts turn, the dials attached to the
shafts indicate the transmitted information.
In addition to supplying data by positioning dials and pointers, synchros are also used as
control devices in servo systems. When the synchro and the servo are combined, they work as
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a team to move and position heavy loads.

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Synchro classification
Synchros work in teams. Two or more synchros interconnected electrically form a synchro
system. There are two general classifications of synchro systems:

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 Torque systems.
 Control systems.
Torque-synchro systems use torque synchros, while control-synchro systems use control
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synchros. The load dictates the type of synchro system and thus the type of synchro. Torque-
synchro systems are classified as "torque" because they are mainly based on the torque or
turning force required to move light loads such as dials, pointers or similar indicators. The
positioning of these devices requires a relatively low amount of torque. Control synchros

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instead are used in systems designed to move heavy loads such as gun directors, radar
antennas and missile launchers.
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In addition to the two general classifications, synchros are also grouped into seven basic
functional classes as shown in the following table:

FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION
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ABBREVIATION INPUT OUTPUT
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TX rotor mechanical TX stator induced voltage

Torque position; that energize TDX stator,
TX
transmitter TX rotor energized by TDR stator or rotor, or TR
AC source. stator.
CX rotor mechanical
CX stator induced voltage
Control position;
CX that energize CDX stator
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transmitter CX rotor energized by
or CT stator.
AC source.
TDX rotor voltage
TDX rotor mechanical
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Torque position;
sum or difference
differential TDX TDX stator energized
between rotor angle and
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transmitter by TX stator or TDX

angle represented by
rotor.
electrical input to TR,
TDR, or another TDX.
CDX rotor mechanical
Control Same as TDX except
position;
differential CDX output to CT or another
CDX stator energized
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transmitter CDX
by CX or CDX.
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TR rotor mechanical
TR stator energized by
position.
TX or TDX;
Torque receiver TR Note: TR rotor has a
TR rotor energized by
mechanical inertia
AC source.
damper.
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TDX rotor mechanical
position representing
algebraic sum or
TDR stator energized difference between rotor

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Torque
by TX or TDX; angle and angle
differential TDR
TDR rotor energized by represented by
receiver
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TX or TDX. by electrical inputs.
Note: TDR rotor has a
mechanical inertia
damper.
Error signal:

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CT rotor induced voltage
CT rotor mechanical
proportional to the sine
Control position;
CT of the angle between
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transformer CT stator energized by

rotor position and angle
CX or CDX.
represented by the
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Four of these classes are referred to torque type synchros, while three of them are referred to
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control type synchros. Each synchro is described in the table by name, abbreviation, input,
output, and the other synchro units that may be connected to it. Generally, torque and control
synchros may not be interchanged.
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Synchro construction
The following picture shows a cutaway view of a typical synchro:

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Fig. 3.14 - Cutaway view of a synchro

Each synchro contains a rotor, similar in appearance to the armature in a motor and a stator,
which corresponds to the field in a motor. The synchro stator is composed of three Y-
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connected windings with the correspondent terminals S1, S2 and S3. The rotor instead is
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composed of one single winding with correspondent terminals R1 and R2.

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Fig. 3.15 – Synchro symbol

As you can see in the picture, the rotor winding is free to turn inside the stator. The rotor is
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usually the primary winding and receives its voltage (excitation) from an external voltage
source. The stator receives its voltage from the rotor by magnetic coupling.

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There are two common types of synchro rotors in use:
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 Salient-pole rotor.
 Drum or wound rotor.
The salient-pole rotor has a single coil wound on a laminated core. The core is shaped like a
"dumb-bell" and recalls the letter “H".
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Fig. 3.16 - Salient-pole rotor

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This type of winding is frequently used in both transmitters and receivers.
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The drum or wound rotor has coils wound in slots in a laminated core as shown in the
following picture.
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Fig. 3.17 - Wound rotor

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This type of rotor is used in the majority of synchro control transformers and differential units
and occasionally in torque transmitters. It may be wound with a single length of wire or may
have a group of coils connected in series. The single continuous winding provides a distributed
winding effect to be used in transmitters. When the rotor is wound with a group of coils
connected in series, a concentrated winding effect is provided to be used in control
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transformers. When used in differential units, the rotor is wound with three coils whose
magnetic axes are 120° apart.
Both types of synchro rotors have their coils wound on laminated cores rigidly mounted on a
shaft. In order to enable the excitation voltage to be applied to the rotor winding, two slip
rings are mounted on one end of the shaft and insulated from the shaft to prevent short-
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circuits. An insulated terminal board mounted on the end of the cylindrical frame hosts the
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brushes, which slide on the slip rings. These brushes provide continuous electrical contact to
the rotor during its rotation. Also mounted on the rotor shaft are low-friction ball bearings,
which permit the rotor to turn easily.

Stator construction
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The stator of a synchro is a cylindrical structure of slotted laminations on which three Y-
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connected coils are wounded with their axes 120° apart. The following picture shows a typical
stator assembly consisting of laminated stator, stator windings and cylindrical frame. The
image also shows the stator lamination and the slots in which the windings are placed.
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Fig. 3.18 - Stator of a synchro

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Torque transmitter
The synchro transmitter converts the angular position of its rotor (mechanical input) into an
electrical output signal.
When a 115 AC Volts excitation voltage is applied to the rotor of a synchro transmitter, the
resultant current produces a magnetic field around the rotor winding.
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Fig. 3.19 – Schematic representation of a torque transmitter

The lines of force of this magnetic field are then cut by the coils of the three-stator windings.
Thanks to the transformer functioning principle, an induced voltage is created into the stator
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coils. The effective induced voltage in any stator coil depends on the angular position of that
coil axis with respect to the rotor axis. When the maximum effective coil voltage is known, the
effective induced voltage into a stator coil at any angular displacement can be determined.
The following picture illustrates a cross section of a synchro transmitter and shows the
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effective induced voltage in one stator coil as the rotor is turned to different positions.
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Fig. 3.20 - Induced voltage in one stator coil

Even if the turn ratios in synchros may vary widely depending on design and application, there
is commonly a 2.2:1 step-down between the rotor and a single coil voltage. Thus, when 115
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Volts are applied to the rotor, the highest value of effective induced voltage in any stator coil is
52 Volts. The maximum induced voltage occurs each time there is maximum magnetic coupling
between the rotor and the stator coils (views A, C and E). The effective induced voltage in the
secondary winding is approximately equal to the product of the effective voltage on the
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primary, the secondary-to-primary turns ratio and the magnetic coupling between primary and
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secondary. Therefore, since the primary voltage and the turn ratio are constant, it is commonly
said that the secondary voltage is related to the angle between the rotor and the stator (which
modifies the magnetic coupling between primary and secondary).
In conclusion, the synchro transmitter converts the angular position of its rotor into electrical
stator signals, which are sent through interconnecting wires to other synchro devices.
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Torque receiver
On an electrical point of view, synchro torque receivers, commonly called synchro receivers,
are identical to torque transmitters of the same size except for the addition of some form of
damping.
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Unlike the transmitter, the receiver input is the stator (electrical input) and the output is the
rotor (mechanical output). The synchro receiver function is to convert the electrical data
supplied to its stator from the transmitter, into a mechanical angular position through the

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movement of its rotor. This function is accomplished when the rotor is connected to the same
AC source as the transmitter and assumes a position determined by its interaction with the
magnetic field of the stator.
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When power is first applied to the system, the transmitter position changes quickly or if the
receiver is switched into the system, the receiver rotor turns accordingly to the position of the
transmitter rotor. This sudden motion can cause the rotor to oscillate (swing back and forth)
around the synchronous position. If the movement of the rotor is great enough, it may even

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spin. Some methods to prevent oscillations or spinning must be used. Any method that
accomplishes this task is called damping.
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There are two types of damping methods: electrical and mechanical. In small synchros the
electrical method is used more frequently than the mechanical one. This method uses an
additional winding placed in the synchro to postpone oscillations. In larger units a mechanical
device, known as an inertia damper, is more effective. Several types of the inertia damper are
in use.
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Fig. 3.21 - Torque receiver

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Torque synchro system
A torque transmitter (TX) and a torque receiver (TR) make up a simple torque-synchro system.

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On a basic point of view, the electrical construction of synchro transmitters and receivers is
similar but their intended functions are different. The rotor of a synchro transmitter is usually
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geared to a manual or mechanical input. This gearing may also drive a visual indicator showing
the value or quantity being transmitted. The rotor of the receiver synchronizes itself
electrically with the position of the rotor of the transmitter and responds thus to the quantity
being transmitted.

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Fig. 3.22 – Torque synchro system

As you can see, in this system the rotors are connected in parallel across the AC line. The
stators of both synchros have their leads connected S1 to S1, S2 to S2 and S3 to S3. In this way
the voltage in each of the transmitter stator coils opposes the voltage.
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When both transmitter and receiver rotors in a synchro system are either at zero degrees or
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displaced from zero by the same angle, a condition known as correspondence exists. In view A
of the previous picture the transmitter and receiver are shown in correspondence. In this
condition the rotor of the TR induces voltages in its stator coils (S2 = 52V; S1 and S3 = 26V)
which are equal to and opposite to the voltages induced into the TX stator coils (S2 = 52V; S1
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and S3 = 26V). This opposed voltages balance the system and no current runs between the
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stators. With zero current through the coils the receiver torque is zero and the system remains
in correspondence. The angle through which a transmitter rotor is mechanically rotated is
called signal.

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In view B of the same picture the signal is 60°. Now, consider what happens to the two
synchros in correspondence when this signal is generated. When the transmitter rotor is
turned, the rotor field turns as well and the magnetic coupling between the rotor and stator
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windings changes. This results in the transmitter S2 coil voltage decreasing to 26 Volts, the S3
coil voltage reversing direction and the S1 coil voltage increasing to 52 Volts. This imbalance in
voltages between the transmitter and receiver stators causes a current to flow through the
stator coils in the direction of the stronger voltages. The current flowed in the receiver

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produces a resultant magnetic field in the receiver stator in the same direction of the rotor
field in the transmitter. A force (torque) is now exerted on the receiver rotor by the interaction
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between its resultant stator field and the magnetic field around its rotor. This force causes the
rotor to turn by the same angle as the rotor of the transmitter.
As the receiver approaches correspondence, the stator voltages of the transmitter and the
receiver approach equality. This action decreases the stator currents and produces a
decreasing torque on the receiver. When the receiver and the transmitter are again in
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correspondence, as shown in view C, the stator voltages between the two synchros are equal
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and opposite (S1 = 52V; S2 and S3 = 26V), the rotor torque is zero and the rotors are displaced
from zero by the same angle (60°). This sequence of events causes transmitter and receiver to
stay in correspondence.
Generally, an alternate single-phase voltage generator energizes the rotor with standard
voltage and frequency supply according to the following values:
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 115 V at 60 Hz.
 115 V at 400 Hz.
 26 V at 400 Hz.

Torque differential synchro systems

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The operations on a synchro system are not always as simple as positioning the indicator of a
device in response to information received from a single source (transmitter). For example, an
error detector used in checking weapons equipment uses a synchro system to determine the
error in a gun position with respect to the positioning signal. To do this, the synchro system
must accept two signals, one containing the positioning signal and the other corresponding to
the actual position of the gun. The system must then compare the two signals and give an
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indication on a dial in order to show the difference between them, that is the error.
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Obviously, the simple synchro transmitter-receiver system discussed so far could not handle a
job of this sort. A different type of synchro is needed, one which can accept two signals
simultaneously, add or subtract them and provide an output proportional to their sum or
difference. Differential synchros are employed to perform all these functions. There are two
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 Differential transmitters.
 Differential receivers.
The differential transmitter (TDX) accepts one electrical input, one mechanical input and

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produces one electrical output. The differential receiver (TDR) accepts two electrical inputs
and produces one mechanical output.
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Fig. 3.23 - Differential transmitter and differential receiver

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Torque differential transmitter

In the torque differential transmitter both the rotor and the stator windings consist of three Y-
connected coils.
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Fig. 3.24 - Torque differential transmitter
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The stator is normally the primary and receives its input signal from a synchro transmitter. The
voltages appearing across the differential rotor terminals (R1, R2 and R3) are determined by
the magnetic field produced by the stator currents, the physical positioning of the rotor and
the step-up (turns ratio) between the stator and the rotor. The magnetic field created by the
stator currents assumes an angle corresponding to that of the magnetic field in the transmitter
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supplying the signal. The position of the rotor controls the amount of magnetic coupling taking
place between the stator magnetic field and the rotor and therefore, the amount of voltage
induced into the rotor windings. If the rotor position changes in response to a mechanical
input, then the voltages induced into its windings change too. Thus, the output voltage of the
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TDX varies as a result of either a change in the input stator voltage or a change in the
mechanical input of the rotor. This electrical output of the TDX may be either the sum or the
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difference of the two inputs depending on how the three units (the TX, the TDX and the TR) are
connected.
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Torque differential receiver

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Fig. 3.25 - Torque differential receiver

The torque differential transmitter (TDX) and the torque differential receiver (TDR) are
electrically identical. The only difference in their construction is that the receiver (TDR) has a
damper, which is used for the same purposes as the damper in the TR: it prevents the rotor
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from oscillating. The real difference lies in the application of the receiver. It provides the
mechanical output for a differential synchro system usually in the form of sum or difference of
two electrical inputs from synchro transmitters. As in the case of the TDX, the TDR addition or
subtraction function depends on the way in which the units in the system are connected.
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Example of TX-TDX-TR system operation (subtraction)

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Fig. 3.26 – TX-TDX-TR system 1

How you can see from the picture above, the differential stator is connected to the transmitter
stator, while the rotor is connected to the receiver stator. The role of the TDX is that of
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introducing in the transmission chain an angular datum that can be added or subtracted to the
input datum θ1, which is imposed to the transmitter. Hence, when the static equilibrium is
reached, you have: θO = θ1 ± θX, where θX is the angle of the TDX referred to its own electrical
zero.
The sign depends on the connections: if connectors with the same number are bounded
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together, the sign is -, while if you interchange the bonds between two connectors, the sign is
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+.
In the following example the sign is - (minus).
Assume that a 240° input is applied to the system, as indicated in the previous picture, by
turning the TX rotor into its 240° position. At this position the maximum voltage is induced into
the S1 winding of the TX and coupled to S1 of the TDX. Since the TDX rotor is at 0°, it passes
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this maximum voltage (via R1) along to the S1 winding of the TR. The stator magnetic field in
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the receiver now lines up in the direction of the S1 winding and causes the rotor to turn
counterclockwise to the 240° position. This illustrates an important aspect: whenever the TDX
rotor is at 0°, the TR rotor follows the TX rotor exactly. In the case under examination the
system has just solved the equation 240° - 0° = 240°.
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In the next example, the TX rotor is hold on at 0° and TDX rotor is turn to 120°, as illustrated in
the following picture:

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Fig. 3.27 - TX-TDX-TR system 2 (120° rotation of differential rotor)

In this situation, R1 of the TDX is aligned with S2 and it thus has a maximum induced voltage in
its winding. With R1 of the TDX connected to S1 of the TR, the TR stator magnetic field lines up
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in the direction of S1 and causes the TR rotor to turn clockwise to the 240° position. Given that
the TX is at 360° (equal to the 0° position) and subtracting the 120° displacement of the TDX
rotor, the difference is 240°. This is the position at which the TR rotor comes to rest. The
system has solved the equation 360° - 120° = 240°.
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Control synchro systems

Control synchros cannot move heavy loads. However, they are used to "control" servo
systems, which can perform the actual movement, as in the case of heavy radar antennas and
gun turrets.
There are three types of control synchros: the control transmitter (CX), the control transformer
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(CT) and the control differential trasmitter (CDX). The control transmitter (CX) and the control
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differential transmitter (CDX) are identical to the TX and the TDX.

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Control transformers
A control transformer is a synchro control device that accurately governs some type of power
amplifying device used for moving heavy equipment. The following picture shows a phantom

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view of a typical CT and its schematic symbols.
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Fig. 3.28 - Control transformer

The CT compares two signals: the electrical signal applied to its stator and the mechanical
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signal applied to its rotor. Its output is a difference signal able to control a power amplifying
device and thus the movement of heavy equipment.
The unit construction and physical characteristics of a control transformer are similar to those
of a control transmitter or torque receiver, except that the rotor is never connected to an AC
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supply and therefore, induces no voltages in the stator coils. As a result, the CT stator currents
are determined only by the voltages applied to the high-impedance stator windings. The rotor
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itself is wound, so that its position has a very little effect on the stator currents.
As a consequence, the CT rotor does not try to follow the magnetic field of its stator and must
be turned by some external force. The stator windings of the CT are considered to be the
primary windings and the rotor windings the secondary ones. The output, which is taken from
the R1 and R2 rotor terminals, is the induced voltage in the rotor windings. The phase and
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amplitude of the output voltage depend on the angular position of the rotor in respect to the
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magnetic field of the stator.

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Control synchro system operation
A control synchro system consists of a control transmitter and a control transformer.

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Fig. 3.29 - Control synchro system 1

In the previous picture the stator windings of the CX are connected to the stator windings of
the CT and both synchros are shown at 0° position. You can notice that at 0° the CT rotor is
perpendicular to its S2 winding. This seems to contradict what we have learned so far about
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synchros; however, it is just another peculiarity of the CT. When the rotor of the CX is on 0°,
the rotor magnetic field points straight up, as shown by the black arrow. The induced voltages
in the CX stator windings, as a result of this field, are impressed on the CT stator windings
through the three leads connecting the S1, S2 and S3 terminals. Exciting currents proportional
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to these voltages flow in the CT stator windings establishing a magnetic field in it with the
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same direction (white arrow) of the magnetic field (black arrow) in the CX. Observe that the
rotor of the CT is perpendicular to the stator magnetic field and therefore, the induced voltage
in the rotor is zero, as represented in the previous picture.

On the other hand, when the CT rotor is rotated by 90° and the rotor is parallel to the resultant
stator field, maximum magnetic coupling occurs between the rotor and stator fields.
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Fig. 3.30 - Control synchro system 2

As a result of this coupling, the stator windings induce a maximum of 55 Volts into the rotor
winding. The phase of this voltage depends on the direction in which the CT rotor is turned.
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The rotor of the CT is wound so that clockwise rotation of the stator magnetic field induces a
voltage across the rotor, which is proportional to the amount of rotation and in phase with the
AC supply voltage.

The CT output voltage discussed is commonly referred to as an error signal. This because the
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voltage represents the amount and direction by which the CX and CT rotors are out of
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correspondence. It is this error signal that is eventually used to move the load in a typical servo
system. This happened in the example proposed in the first part of this chapter whose block
diagram was:
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Fig. 3.31 - Block diagram of a control synchro system
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4.3.B.3 Synchros defects

Troubles in synchro systems

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Two types of problems usually occur in a synchro system that has been in operation for a
certain period. Firstly, the interconnecting synchro wiring often passes through a number of
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switches and at these points open-circuits, short-circuits or short-to-ground situation may
occur. You will be expected to trace down these troubles with an ohmmeter. You can find an
open-circuit situation easily by checking for continuity between two points. Similarly, you can
find a short-to-ground by checking the resistance between the suspected point and ground. A

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zero ohms reading means that the point under consideration is grounded. Secondly, the
synchro itself may become defective; this can be due to open-circuits or short-circuits in the
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windings, bad bearings, worn slip rings or dirty brushes. Nothing can be done to fix these
defects, a part from a replacement of the synchro itself.

Trouble indicators
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When trouble occurs in an electronic installation that contains a large number of synchro
systems, it may be very difficult to isolate the trouble to one particular system. Since it is vital
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that maintenance personnel locate the point of trouble and fix it in as short a time as possible,
indicators, which help in locating the trouble quickly, are included in the equipment. These
indicators are usually signal lights installed on a central control board and connected to the
different synchro systems. When a trouble occurs in a synchro system, the signal light
connected to it may either light or flash. Maintenance personnel identifies the defective
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system by reading the name or number adjacent to the light. Signal lights indicate either
overload conditions or blown fuses. Overload indicators are usually connected to the stator
circuit of a torque synchro system because the stator circuit gives a better indication of
mechanical loading than the current in the rotor circuit does. An example is represented in the
following picture.
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It consists of a neon lamp connected across the stator leads of a synchro system by two
transformers. The primaries consisting of a few turns of heavy wire are in series with two of
the stator leads; the secondaries consisting of many turns of fine wire are in series with the
lamp. The turns ratios are designed so that when excess current flows through the stator
windings, the neon lamp lights. For example, when the difference in rotor positions exceeds
18°, the lamp lights to indicate that the load on the motor shaft is excessive.
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Blown fuse indicators are front panel lights, which switch on when a protective fuse in series
with the rotor blows. The next picture shows a typical blown fuse indicator.
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Fig. 3.33 - Blown fuse indicator

If because of a short-circuit or severe mechanical overload, excessive current flows in the rotor
windings of this circuit, one of the fuses will blow and the neon lamp across the fuse will light.
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