COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Structures of English
First Semester, A.Y. 2024-2025

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
Lesson 3: Prepositions

A preposition is a function word that connects or combines a noun, pronoun, or phrase to another word in the sentence.
A preposition composed of several words rather than just one is called a phrasal preposition. Prepositions are used to
show position, location, direction, time and other relationships between words and phrases in sentences.

Prepositions of place, position, and direction

-they show the relationship of place between the nouns or pronouns to the other words in a sentence.

at For specific address I live at 28 Gov. Boyles Street.

Meeting place At home, at the office
To identify names of streets, Our drugstore is on Gov. Boyles Street.
avenues, roads, etc.
on For means of transportation On a bus
For televisions, radio On TV, on air
Walking or riding on horseback On foot, on horseback
Geographic location I live in Cebu.
Cebu is in the Philippines.
in In an enclosed space In an envelope
In a print medium In a magazine, in a book
by Close to, alongside of By the school, by the door
along Tracing the length not emphasizing Along the river
the ends
among In group of three or more Among friends
The end of a long list Among other things
onto Movements onto a place Jump on the rooftop
towards In the direction of something but not Run towards the base
directly to it

Prepositions of time

-are used to show relationship of time between the nouns or pronouns to the other parts of a sentence.

To designate a specific time The program starts at 8:00am.

at Meal time At dinner
Age At age 18
Other usage: at noon, at night, at
the weekend, at present, at
on sunrise/sunset, at the moment
Days of the week On Monday
Dates On October 7th
For nonspecific timers during the In the evening
day
in Seasons In the summer
Months In September
Years In 2019
for To measure time For four hours, for six months
since From a certain specific date or time Since 2000, since 9:00 am
by A limit in time By sundown
The end of a long list Among other things
past Telling the time Ten past seven (7:10)

Prepositions of agents or things

-are used to indicate a casual relationship between nouns or pronouns and other parts of the sentence. Of, for, by, with,
about, etc. are most common examples of this type.
 Who/what did it belong to A page of the magazine
of Related to About my family’s company
Not exactly About one million
For topics Talking about her

Phrasal Preposition

-is composed of two or more words functioning as a preposition. It should be remembered, however, that a phrasal
preposition is not a prepositional phrase.

Because of Contrary to In regard to Given that

Along with By means of Instead of Prior to
Apart from On account of Out of Pursuant to
According to In reference to In spite of Rather than
In front of In addition to On top of With regard to

CHAPTER 2
Lesson 1: Punctuation Marks

When teaching a language, most teachers often put punctuations as the least among the priorities. However, it is
something that most students wrestle with. Using punctuation correctly and accurately is what concerns most of them.

Punctuation, not only changes the meaning of the sentence but also helps one express idea a lot more clearly.
Punctuation replaces contextual clues when conveying meaning in a speaking event.

As future English teachers, you will be faced with the challenge of building students’ skills in the appropriate use of
punctuation hence YOU HAVE TO BE PROFICIENT AND KNOWLEDGEABLE IN PUNCTUATION YOURSELF and
master some strategies and techniques in the use of punctuation that you can share and apply to your learners.

Mastery in the use of punctuation, is important to help your learners develop and enhance English language proficiency
specifically in the written language with the help of appropriate input in the use of punctuation.

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation skills are very important in writing. It can make a huge difference in the meaning with what one is writing.
Punctuation are marks commonly used in English grammar such as period, question mark, exclamation point, comma,
semicolon, colon, hyphen, parenthesis, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks and ellipses.

PUNCTUATION STYLES

Closed Punctuation is most often used in formal texts like reports, theses and dissertations, term papers. It is also the
use of commas or period after a salutation, complimentary close, abbreviations etc. in English correspondence.

Open punctuation is more commonly used in personal communications, newspaper where it is put to the guide the
reader and make the meaning clear. They stand for mission of characters and marks such as full stops (period), colons or
commas in the address, after the salutation, in abbreviations, etc. in English correspond. It does require any punctuation
marks unless it is necessary to abbreviate a word at the end of the line.

You may be able to use punctuate a sentence in more than one way. You must choose the marks symbols that best signal
your intent to the reader.

Punctuating Abbreviations

1. Periods are always used with Latin abbreviations, but not with contraction. For abbreviation in general US and
UK English differ from each other.
2. A period usually ends abbreviation of a title or names of institutions. Mr. Mrs. Co. Inc.

But periods can be omitted after professional and personal titles

Mr Ms Prof Dr

And names of institutions and countries

USA BPI DPWH ASEAN

3. Three-initial of a person’s name often within institution may not have periods and are always unspaced but when
the first and middle name initials used with surnames, may have space and periods. FDR = Franklin Delano
Roosevelt
T.S. Eliot

Punctuating Titles

• Use double quotation marks for titles of poems, essays, short stories, songs, paintings, and other small creative
works if they are part of the sentence.
 e.g., We are tired listening to you singing, “Top of the World.”
Titles of books, periodicals, symphonies, operas, song or choral cycles and other large creative works must be
italicized or underscored.
• Place a comma between parts of literary or musical works.
• Don’t use a period after a title or heading.

Punctuating Lists

a. Use a colon to introduce a list.

To apply for Student Driver’s license, you need to show:
i. Original copy of your birth certificate ii. Valid I.D.
b. Use a period for numbers and letters marking items in a list formulated vertically. Success in writing a thesis
requires: i. discipline ii. hard work iii. perseverance
c. Dashes or bullets (small dots, squares, etc. may also be used to mark items in a vertical list.
• Discipline
• Hard work
• Perseverance
d. If the entire enumeration comprises one sentence, a semicolon at the end of each enumerated clause may be
used.
i. Identify the kinds of sentences according to use; ii. Use
the different kinds of sentences according to use to express intended
meaning; and iii. Express ideas clearly and appropriately.

Punctuating the end of the sentence

Period

1. Use a period to end a declarative, a request and a rhetorical question.

Copies of the information brochure about covid-19 had been distributed.
Please provide us the original copy of your report card.
May we please be provided with the copy of the referendum.

2. If a sentence ends with an abbreviation, the period of the abbreviation also serves as the period of the
sentence. Some of those volunteered to be front liners were from CBS-FAI, Inc.

3. A period may be used with sentences in the interrogative form but functions as a request. May we the
results, please.

4. Series of short, related sentences may be punctuated with a comma or a semicolon. I came. I saw. I
conquered.
I came. I saw. I conquered.
I came. I saw. I conquered.

Question Mark

A question mark is used to end a direct interrogative sentence even if it is in the declarative form.
Do you have any more concern?
His concern is really this: How does he get to the train station?
He liked me?
Yes?

Exclamation Point

1. An exclamation is used to end an exclamatory sentence even if it

is in the declarative or interrogative form.
That is impossible!
You lied to me!
Look behind you!
2. It is also used after an interjection Hooray!
3. It is used to end a strong imperative. Faster! Get out of the car
now!
4. To signify a surprised emphatic tone of voice, an exclamation point
may also be used. Oh, there she is!

Ellipsis Points

Ellipsis points are used to indicate an unfinished/incomplete sentence.

If you open your third eye, would you…

Punctuating within a sentence

Semicolon

A semicolon is place before such words as for example, instance, etc.

The major requirements for this course are only very few; namely, term paper compendium of tasks and
the major exams.
Comma

Use a general comma to indicate a pause or a set of pauses setting off a word, phrase, or clause from the rest of the
sentence. It must mark the grammatical unit you want to set off.
However, the man refused to settle the bill with the manager.
However, the man, refuse to settle the bill with the manager.

Put a comma to set off adjectival phrase and adverbial elements from the main sentence. You
should, at the very list, set your priorities.

A comma or a pair of commas is used for:

• transition words and phrases
Interestingly enough, even scientist admit that there are events in this world they can never explain.
• Appositives (set off by a pair of commas)
Dr. Ruiz, a well-known surgeon, advised for the patient's immediate operation.

• Names of persons directly addressed Mrs. Villamor, I am glad you are here.

• Words or phrases in a list

For the midterm exam, you need to prepare a pencil, eraser, and calculator.

Below is the punctuation Quick Reference Guide (from www.literacvideas.com)

Period (Full Stop). Question Mark Exclamation Point:

These three punctuation marks are used at the end of sentences.
• The period is used after declarative statements.? The question mark denotes a question.
! The exclamation point denotes strong emotion or is used for emphasis.

Comma, Semicolon, Colon

, The comma separates ideas or elements in a sentence.
; The semicolon connects independent clauses.
: The colon introduces a quotation, an example, or a series and separates 2 independent clauses when the second
explain the first.

Brackets Braces, Parenthesis

[] Brackets are used to clarify meaning or provide a technical explanation within the text.
{} Braces are mostly used in computer programming and mathematical equations.
() Parentheses are used to contain qualifying remarks or further information.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks, Ellipsis

‘ An apostrophe is used to denote omission of a letter or letters or the possessive case.
" " Quotation marks are used to mark a section of text as a quotation, dialogue or a standout word or phrase.
… The ellipsis is used when leaving out a word phrase, sentence, paragraph etc. from a quotation. In creative writing, it
represents a trailing off or implies there is more to come.

CHAPTER 2
Lesson 2: Sentence Types, Structures and Functions

Reading and writing correctly is very important. Wrongly learning the structures and pronunciation of the
language, it will take several years to undo the mistakes learned. Knowledge of meaning of words, sentences and parts of
speech played a great role in writing and comprehension

As English teaches, we must make our students realize and recognize sentence structure and word because as
they progress with the English language; it will be more difficult to correct problems in syntax. If structure/sentence
structure is reinforced earlier in the lives of students, they will develop a natural ability to use correct syntax. Knowing the
parts of sentences, for example allows a learner to write sentences correctly

As future English teachers, you will be faced with the challenge of building the natural inclination of your students
to write sentence correctly to convey their intended meaning and comprehend varied sentence meaning hence you also
have to be proficient and knowledgeable in sentence types; structure, use and function yourself so that you can share and
apply these to your learners.

To note, mastery on sentences; structure, use and function is a tool that could help your learners become well-
verse in the language.
 The Elements of Sentence
In English language, it is important that sentences are communicated clearly. Sentences must follow certain patterns that
can be described in grammatical terms. In writing sentences, we always include the two basic parts of a sentence: the
subject and predicate. They always go together to make a complete sentence.

Subjects
In a sentence, the subject performing the action can be a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause. To examine sentences,
grammar experts have determined three kinds of subjects.
▪ Complete Subject - "The tall tree swayed in the wind," "The tall tree" is the complete subject and is usually the
entire noun phrase. This is usually found before the verb.
▪ Simple Subject - The word "tree" is the simple subject. Simple subjects can be the main noun or pronoun being
talked about in a sentence.
▪ Compound Subject - "The sturdy young man and the child didn't get along very well.” The underlined groups of
words are called compound subjects. Compound subjects consist of two or more subjects joined together by
conjunctions. Remember that the simple subjects of that sentence are "man and child".

Predicates
As with subjects, predicates can be categorized as complete predicates, simple predicate, and compound predicates. To
form a grammatically correct and complete sentence, the predicate must include a verb. It can also include objects,
complements and adverbials. A complete predicate in a sentence includes a verb that tells something about the complete
subject. In the sentence "Jonathan’s father makes shoes", the complete predicate is makes shoes and the simple verb is
makes.

Objects
In English, an object in a sentence is considered the receiver of the action. "Leslie dropped the ball" or "She ate the cake".
Objects can be a word or group of words which function as a noun and each type of object can be classified as complete,
simple, or compound object. Objects, categorized by their different functions in sentences have three types:

✓ Direct Object – “Sandra wrote a poem.” (What did Sandra write? A poem.)
✓ Indirect Object - "Sandra gave me the poem she wrote.” (Who did Sandra give the poem? me.)
✓ Prepositional Object – “I wrote on the wall.” (Where did I write? On the wall)

Complements
Complements are words that complete the predicate by describing a noun in the sentence. Linking verbs are followed by a
complement to form a complete sentence.
There are four kinds of complement: subject complement, object complement, adjective complement and verb
complement.

❖ Subject Complement – functions as a noun, pronoun, or adjective. It comes with a linking verb and tells
something about the subject of the sentence.

There are three kinds of subject complement:

• The predicative nominative which appears with a linking verb and renames, identifies, or explains the
subject of the sentence. "The new president of the company will be Dana.” (Dana renames president).
• The predicate adjective is an adjective that appears with a linking verb and describes the subject of the
sentence. "The spread of the virus seemed uncontrollable." (Uncontrollable describes spread)
• The adverbial complement is an adverb with a linking verb and tells something of a place. "Nelson is in
the market." (Market tells the adverb of place).

❖ Object Complement - a wordfound only with direct object. It usually comes after a direct object to rename it or
tell what it has become. "I colored my drawing yellow." It is the object complement which modifies the direct
object, either by describing it or renaming it. "The people called him boss."

❖ Adjective Complement - functional part of a sentence that completes or complements the adjective. It can be a
noun clause or a prepositional phrase. "I was happy that she was chosen". "That she was chosen" is a noun
clause.
"I am very worried of the situation". “Of the situation” is a prepositional phrase.

❖ Verb Complement - refers to direct and indirect objects. Others use it to refer to a complement happening after a
linking verb (a subject complement). The complement must give some information about or description of the
subject.
Kinds of Sentences According to Use/Functions

Writing involves different kinds of sentences. These are declarative sentence, imperative sentence, interrogative
sentence and exclamatory sentence. These sentences have different functions depending on their purposes.

A declarative sentence tells or expresses a statement an idea or opinion which ends with a period.
Examples:
 I want to learn how to create a web design. (statement) Antonio
is a good web designer. (opinion)

An imperative sentence gives direction, an order, command, or request. It may end with a period or an
exclamation
point depending on what is the situation.
Examples:
Clean up to your room. Move!
Please move your chair. Close the door!

An exclamatory sentence delivers strong feeling and ends with an exclamatory point. This feeling can be a
feeling
of anger, happiness, excitement, or surprise.

Examples:
That was great. What a wonderful day it is!

There are some exclamatory sentences which may seem asking a question but are still considered exclamatory sentence
because of the words behind it have strong emotion.
Examples: Can you believe that! Look what you’ve done!

An interrogative sentence asks question and ends with a question mark. It usually answers sentences that start with five
w’s and how. Examples:
When are you coming home?
How did you get the virus?

Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (The independent clause contains a subject and a verb
and expresses a complete thought.)

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semi-colon.
Alone, each of these clauses form a sentence. The seven coordinating conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so
(FANBOYS).

A complex sentence comprises the independent clause and a dependent clause. The dependent clause starts
with a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun and consists of subject and a verb but does not have a complete
thought.
Independent Clause --- Subordinating Conjunction --- Dependent Clause

She failed the course because she did not show up in class.
My dog hid under the table when he heard the noise from the firecrackers.

Some of the subordinating conjunctions are:

although, because, that, how, till, as, after, since, until, once, than, when, before,
where, if while, whether, though

The Five Basic Relative Pronouns are that, which, who, whom, whose.

The compound - complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
Independent Clause --- Subordinating Conjunction Dependent Clause – Coordinating
Conjunction --- Independent Clause

Sheryl did not appear in the show because she was so sick, so the people were
disappointed. I left in a hurry when I got an emergency call, but I came back in the afternoon.