FORENSIC

PHOTOGRAPHY
(15%)
Prof. Ayo Wayne Lugtu, mscj (C)
 TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
1. Explain the scientific and technical principles of forensic photography
2. Identify the types of photography and their application to law enforcement
operations e.g. surveillance, crime scene, etc
3. Distinguish analog and digital photography and the operation of various
photographic equipment, its parts & functions in forensic investigation
4. Process photographic exhibits i.e. fingerprint, ballistic, questioned
documents, etc.
5. Examine the legal aspects of photographic evidence, write forensic findings
in a format generally accepted by the scientific community and in a
language clear to the court of law
 PHOTOGRAPHY
Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos”
which means “light” and “Grapho” means “Writing”
or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir John F. W.
Herschel coined the word photography when he first
wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot.
 PHOTOGRAPHY
Is the art and science of reproducing image by
means of light through some sensitized material
with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories
and the chemical process required in order to
produce a photograph.
 FORENSIC
Derived from the Latin word
“Forum” which means “a
marketplace” where people
gathered for public discussion.
 FORENSIC
When used in conjunction with other
science it connotes a relationship to the
administration of justice. It is sometimes
used interchangeably with the word legal.
 PICTURE
(derived from the Latin word “pictura” or
“pictus” which means “to paint”. It is a design
or representation made by various means
such as painting, drawing, or photography.
 PHOTOGRAPH
is the mechanical and
chemical result of
Photography.
Picture and photograph are not the
same for a picture is a generic term is
refers to all kinds of formed image
while a photograph is an image that
can only be a product of photography.
 NEGATIVE
A material showing a negative (latent)
photographic image on transparent material
used for printing positive picture
(photograph) as a result of chemical
processing.
 THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Equipment – 1700 – Camera
Obscura was designed by
Leonardo da Vinci for accurate
perspective and scale.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham)
He invented the first pinhole
camera, also known as the
Camera Obscura
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Johann Heinrich Schulze (1727)
Accidental creation of his first photosensitive
compound from the mixes of chalk, nitric acid
and silver nitrate in a flask and was
developed through the action of light, not the
heat.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Thomas Wedgwood
The making of profiles by the agency of light
Lights make a silhouette and could also make an
image by the action of light.
Use a silver nitrate and make images by contact
printing however the images were fleeting and
disappear after a certain period of time.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Humpry Davy
Produced
photograms.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Joseph Nicephore Niepce – 1816
Was able to obtain camera images on papers
sensitized with silver chloride solution. Fixation
was partial.
Produce the first permanent photographic
image on a summer day in 1826
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre
(1839)

Developed a more convenient and effective

method of photography, naming it after
himself the Daguerreotype “Daguerreotype” –
the first practical photography process. Image
was made permanent by the use of hypo
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
HYPO
An emulsion of sodium thiosulfate (called hypo by
photographers) is used to stop development of exposed
film. Thiosulfate converts undeveloped silver bromide
grains in the film into water-soluble silver thiosulfate
complexes that can be removed when the film is washed.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Daguerre was able to reduce exposure time to less than
30 minutes and keep the image from disappearing
afterwards
Daguerreotype created a lasting image, one that
would not change if exposed to light
Uses silver iodide on a metal plate (France)
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
William Henry Fox Talbot (1841)
Working in England uses silver chloride
He patented “Calotype: process negatives on
paper sensitized with silver – iodide and
silver nitrate. These were contact on
sensitized paper
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
The Photogenic Drawing
o Used sulfur chloride, coating the paper with
salt and silver nitrate
The Salted Paper Print
o The image materials sinks into the paper
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Sir John F.W. Herschel (1839)
-he coined the word
“Photography”

James Clerk Maxwell (1861)

- He researched colors.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
William Abney

In 1880, he introduced the hydroquinone

as a developer.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
George Eastman
Founded the Eastman Kodak Company
and helped bring the photographic use of roll
film into the mainstream
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY

Leica Camera- forerunner of

today’s 35 mm cameras.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
1907 – Lumiere color
process was introduced, a
panchromatic film was
used but with blue, green,
and red filters.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
1914 – US Eastman Kodak introduced two
(2) color subtractive processes called
Kodachrome. Twenty one (21) years later,
a three (3) color process came out.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
1935 – Electronic flash unit came out.

1947 – Edwin H. land introduced

“Polaroid” one step photography
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
1960 – LASER was invented making
possible holography, •, making possible
HOLOGRAPHY by the principles
developed in 1947 by DENNIS GABOR.
Light
Amplification and
Stimulation in the
Emission of
Radiation
 LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
EVIDENCE
For black and white photographs:
1859-Daguerreotype was use in civil case,
Lueo vs. US (regarding the authenticity of
photographs in comparing signatures)
 LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
EVIDENCE
1874 - In criminal case introducing
photograph as identification evidence,
Underzook vs. Commonwealth
 LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
EVIDENCE
For color photographs
1943-Civil litigations Green vs. City and county of
Denver Colorado, involving spoiled meat in
violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the
sale of putrid meat to the public.
 LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
EVIDENCE
1960- In criminal case, State vs. Conte,
showing the graphic wound of the victim
 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
A photograph is both the mechanical and chemical result of
photography. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside
from sensitized materials (film or papers) Light radiated or
reflected by the subject must reach the film while all other
lights are excluded. The exclusion of all other lights is
achieved by placing the film inside a light box (camera).
 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The effect of light on the film is not visible in
the formation of images of objects. To make it
visible, we need or require a chemical
processing of the exposed film called
development.
 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The visual effect of light on the film after development
varies with the quantity or quality of light that
reaches the emulsion of the film. Too great an amount
of light will produce an opaque or very black shade
after development. Too little will produce a
transparent or white shade after a development.
 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The amount of light reaching the film is
dependent upon several factors like
lighting condition, lens opening used,
shutter speed used, filter used, etc.
 PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Photography is an essential tool for the law – enforcement
investigator. As a tool, it enables him to record the visible and in many
cases, the invisible evidence of crime. Special techniques employing
infrared, ultra – violet, and X – ray radiation enable can then be stored
indefinitely and retrieved when needed. There is no other process
which can ferret, record, remember, and recall criminal evidence as
well as photography.
 PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Photographs are also a means of communication. It is a
language sometimes defined as “the most universal of all
languages”. Photography has an advantage as a language
because it does not rely upon abstract symbols – words.
Photography, thus, is more direct and less subject to
misunderstanding. As a communication medium has few, if any,
equal.
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● Personal Identification
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● For Communication
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● Different Views in
photographing
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● For Preservation
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● For Discovering and Proving

PHOTOMICROGRAPHY
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● For Court Exhibits

 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● Crime Prevention
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

● Reproducing and Copying

 SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Aerial Photography = photography from the air.
2. Astrophotography = is the photography of object
in space.
3.Diagnostic Imaging = X-ray, Computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT Scan) and Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI).
 SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
4.Holography = is the three dimensional
photography.
5. Satellite Photography
6. Spectrography
7. Night –vision photography
 METHODS OF FORMING IMAGE USING LIGHT
Pinhole method
Is the oldest method of forming
image where a box camera with a
very small hole without lens is use
to collect light and form image.
 METHODS OF FORMING IMAGE USING LIGHT

Shadow method
This method is the principle
involved in the use of X-ray
machine.
 METHODS OF FORMING IMAGE USING LIGHT

Lens method
Is the modern method of
forming image by light action
passing a lens.
 ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Light
is an electromagnetic energy that
travels in a form of a wave with the
speed of 186, 000 miles per second.
 ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Camera
a light tight box designed to block
unwanted or unnecessary light from
reaching the sensitized material.
 ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Lens
is the light gathering mechanism
of the camera that collect the
reflected light coming from the
object to form the image.
 ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Sensitized material
composed of a highly sensitized chemical
compound which is capable of being
transformed into an image through the action
of light and with some chemical processes. (
Film and Photo Paper).
 ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Chemical Process
is the process necessary for reducing
silver halides into a form so as a latent
image and a positive image be made
resulting to what we called Photograph.
LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy

with the speed of 186,00 miles per second. Its
wave travel is said to be characterized in
certain extent based on velocity, wavelength
and frequency of the number of vibration of
the wave per second.
 THEORIES OF LIGHT
1. The Wave Theory (Huygens)
- the motion of the water that we
observe a piece of log floating in the
ocean and with the force of air will
make the log move up and down.
 THEORIES OF LIGHT
2. The Corpuscular Theory (Newton)
- opposed the wave theory stating
that light has its effect by the motion
of very small particle known as
corpuscles.
 THEORIES OF LIGHT
3. Modified Wave Theory (Maxwell and
Hertz)
- a theory based on electromagnetics.
- light is a form of energy which is
electromagnetic in form.
 THEORIES OF LIGHT
4. Quantum Theory (Albert Einstein)
- that electrons attached to a
metal can absorb a specific quantity
of light thus have the energy to
escape.
Light wavelength is the distance
measured between two (2) successive
crest or through of wave and it is
expressed in either
A. Millimicron (nanometer) or
B. Angstrom.
WAVELENGTH
Millimicron is the units of light wavelength
which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a
millimeter.

Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an

equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth
part of a millimeter.
• Once light hits a certain
medium, its action can be
characterized as either:
Reflected, Transmitted or
Absorbed (RAT).
Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce
back.
Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass
which would allow the light to pass through its
medium and
Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object
and prevents it from either bouncing or passing
through.
REFLECTION
REFRACTION
REFRACTION
REFRACTION
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see
as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the
spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a
glass prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array
will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow, green,
blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible
light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700
millimicron or nanometer.
NEWTON'S DISCOVERY OF THE
DIFFERENT COLORS OF LIGHT
 THE LIGHT
WAVELENGTH
THE LIGHT WAVELENGTH
 THE LIGHT
WAVELENGTH
 TYPES OF LIGHTS
Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible
light.
Visible Light
Is the type of light that produces different sensation when
reach the human eye. It is the type of light, which is
capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
 TYPES OF LIGHTS
Invisible Light
lights in which their wavelength are
either too short or too long to excite the
retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultra-
violet and Infra-red lights.
 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS
X-ray - Light with a wavelength between .01
to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing
an electric current through a special type of
vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered
by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen.
 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS
Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet) - Radiation having a
wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to
photograph fingerprints in multi-colored background,
documents that are altered, decipherment of erase
writing and developing invisible writing. It is
commercially known as “black Light”.
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS
Visible Light - Is the type of
radiation having a wavelength of
400 to 700 millimicrons designed for
ordinary photographing purposes.
 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS
Infrared (Beyond the Red)- Considered as the
photographic rays with the longest wavelength
ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed
to take photographs of over-written documents,
obliterated writing, and charred documents or for
black out photography. (Sometimes referred to as
heat rays).
INFRARED LIGHT
 LIGHT SOURCE
Natural Light - are those light
which come to existence without
the intervention of man e.i.
Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Bright Sunlight - an object in an
open space casts a deep and
uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Hazy Sunlight - an object in an
open space casts a transparent or
bluish shadow. This is due to thin
clouds that cover the sun.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Dull Sunlight - objects in an open
space cast no shadow due to thick
clouds covering the sun.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Daylight may still be classified as:
open space bright sunlight, under
shade bright sunlight, hazy
sunlight, cloudy sunlight and
cloudy dull sunlight.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Artificial Light - otherwise known
as man-made light e.g. fluorescent
bulb, incandescent bulb and
photoflood lamp.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp - likewise known as
Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light
with a reflector at the back which focuses
the light to the object. The common wattage
of this lamp is 500 watts.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Fluorescent Lamp - tube lamps in which the
walls are coated with fluorescent powders
with both ends are mounted with a holder
that serves as the reflector. This is commonly
used by everybody more than it is used in
photography.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Incandescent bulb - are bulbs with a wire filament
connecting two wires which sustain the electrical charge
that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses
this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical
consumption.

Infrared Lamp
Ultra-violet Lamp
 LIGHT SOURCE
Short Duration type
Flash bulb - generate light by the rapid combination
of metal in oxygen. It can be only used once as the
bulb is busted when electricity is applied.

Electronic Flash
LIGHT SOURCE
SENSITIZED MATERIAL
It refers to the film and photographic
paper that basically composed of
emulsion containing Silver Halides
suspended in gelatin and coated on a
transparent or reflective support.
Film and Photo Paper
Parts of the Sensitized Material
Emulsion = is that part of the film or
photographic paper which contains the silver
grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a
colored film this emulsion surface can be
composed of Three layers ( Blue, Green and
Red) with filters intervening.
• Anti Halation Backing - Is the one
designed to hold back the light and
prevents halation.
• Base - Support the emulsion
• Animal Gelatin- prevent scratches on
the emulsion.
Halo- a bright ring around a
light object.
• FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the
film to light.
– ASA (American Standards Association) = this is
expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the
number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600
– DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed
in Logarithmic value system. Used in the
same principle as the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
– ISO (International Standard Organization)
expressed as combination of ASA and DIN
rating.
• Spectral Sensitivity (Sensitivity to Wavelength)
Spectral Sensitivity- is the responsiveness of the film
emulsion to the different wavelength of the light.

1. Blue-Sensitive Film= sensitive to U.V. Light and Blue

Color.
2. Orthochromatic Film= sensitive to UV light up to green.
3. Panchromatic Film= sensitive to UV light
up to red. (sensitive to all colors of the
visible light)

4. Infrared Film= sensitive to all colors and

to infra-red films.
• Photographic Paper
Is that sensitized material
that will record the visible
image in the final development
and become the photograph.
• According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides
content)
– Silver Chloride paper = used for contact
printing, the size of the positive print is
the same as the size of the negative used.
Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-
black tones when properly developed.
– Silver Bromide paper = used projection,
printing and enlarging process. This is one of
the most ideal photo paper used for police
photography. Will give a black tone when
properly developed.
– Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for
projection and contact printing. Slow
emulsion.
• According to Physical Characteristics
b.1. Weight
• Light weight = designed for high flexibility
and when paper thickness is not of
consideration. Intended for purposes, which
involves folding.
• Single Weight = papers used for small prints
or which are need to be mounted on solid and
fine details necessary in the production. Used
in ordinary photographic purposes.
• Double weight = generally used for large
prints because they stand up under rough
treatment.
• Surface Texture
– Glossy paper =designed for fine details and
brilliant image formation.
– Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
– Rough papers = used for large prints or
where breath rather than detail is necessary.
Color
White = better used in police
photography.
Cream = preferred for pictorial
effect, portraits, landscape or
when warmth effect is desired.
Buff papers = prepare for tone
prints
• According to Contrast (grade)
Velox No. 0 - used for printing
extremely contrast negative or
extremely exposed film.
Velox No. 1 - used for high contrast
negative (over exposed film)
–Velox No. 2 - used for normal exposed film
–Velox No. 3 - used for negative with weak
contrast (under exposed)
–Velox No. 4 - used to provide sufficient
contrast to compensate for very thin or weak
negatives. It is useful imprinting which high
contrast is desired.
• CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light
gathering device and a means of
blocking unwanted or unnecessary
light from reaching the sensitized
material.
• Basically, camera can produce image
with its four-(4) basic parts such as
light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder
of sensitized material.
Essential Parts of a Camera
• Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out
and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
• Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected
light from an object to form an image on the film.
• Shutter – designed to control the time during
which the light reaches the film
LENS
Leaf and Focal Plane Shutter
LEAF SHUTTER
• Holder of the sensitized material – located at
the opposite side of the lens designed to hold
firmly the sensitized material to prevent the
formation of the multiple or blurred image
• Viewfinder – designed to determine the field of
view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the given lens
VIEWING SYSTEM
• OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

Viewing System
Is that part of the camera which provides the
means of showing to the photographer the entire
scene coverage that can be recorded in the
sensitized material.
–Film Advancer (film advance lever or
knob) =designed to transfer the exposed
film to the other side or to the take up
spool and the unexposed film will be the
opposite side of the lens for another
exposure.
FILM ADVANCER
Shutter speed - is that part of the camera
which regulates the time exposure of the film
thus, affecting the amount of light reaching
the sensitized material. It is usually
expressed in a fraction of a second.
 – Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of
the whole lens in relation to the focal length of the
lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens.
Otherwise known as lens opening or relative
aperture and it is expressed in F-number.

F-2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

Aperture
 Standard Combination

Bright Sunlight = 1/125 , f- 11

Hazy Sunlight = 1/125, f-8
Dull Sunlight = 1/125, f- 5.6
Camera Accessories
1. Tripod = it is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable
extension. Used in holding big camera or when using a slow shutter (Lower
than 1/125).
2. Cable Release = This is attached to the shutter to prevent accidental
movement of the camera during the exposure period especially when
longer exposure is required.
3. Light Meter = a device use in determining the intensity of light that
strokes the subjects and affects the film.
◻ Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera
designed to control the degree of sharpness
of the object to be photograph. It is usually
obtained by estimating the distance from
the camera and that of the object that will
make a sharp or clear image.
Types of focusing device:
A. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image
type)
• Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image
focusing. In this type of focusing a single object will
appear double once the object is not in focus, but moving
the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide
or superimposed to form a single object.
• Split Image focusing on the other hand
will show an image in split or two
parts once the object in not in focus
once the two parts of the image has
been united then the object is already
focused
B. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the
camera, once the object is not in focused the object will be
viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once
adjusted.
C. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting
the camera control based on his estimation do this.
• TYPES OF THE CAMERA
–Viewfinder Type – it is considered as the
smallest and the simplest type of camera
–Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of
camera best suited for police work due to
its interchangeability of the lens
• Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of
camera with dual lens, one for focusing
and the other for forming the image.
• View or Press type – is considered the
biggest and expensive type of camera,
used for movie making
VIEW FINDER TYPE
SINGLE LENS REFLEX
TWIN LENS REFLEX
FILTER - Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or
rectangles that modify the light passing through them.

Filters are used in photography to change the

appearance of a scene by emphasizing, eliminating or
changing color or density, generally so that the scene
can be recorded with a more natural look, on a
particular film.
LENS
It is the image-forming device of the lens
that actually has a greater effect on the
quality of the image to be formed.
a medium or system which converge or
diverge light rays passing through it to form
an image.
 Can be a glass or transparent
material, which permit light to
pass through and change the
direction of light.
According to the type of image to be produced
□ Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens)
Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at
the center and thinner at the side which is
capable of bending the light together and forms
the image inversely.
◻ Negative or Concave Lens (diverging
Lens)
Characterized by the fact that it is
thinner at the center and thicker at the
side and forms the virtual image on the
same side of the lens.
TYPES OF LENSES BASED ON LENS SPEED
Lens speed refers to the largest opening of the diaphragm
that the light can pass through that determines the
maximum intensity of the light entering the light tight box.
A. FAST LENS – Lens with high lens speed, a high lens speed
is used during nighttime or in dark rooms.
B. SLOW LENS – lens with low lens speed, used during
daytime or where the room is very bright.
INHERENT LENS DEFECTS

What is aberration?
Is the failure of light rays to focus properly after they
pass through a lens or reflect from a mirror. Proper
focus occurs when the light rays cross one another at a
single point.
Spherical Aberration - Inability of
the lens to focus light passing the
side of the lens producing an image
that is sharp in the center and
blurred at the side.
Coma - (Also known as lateral
aberration) - Inability of the lens to
focus light that travels straight or
lateral, thus making it blurred while
the light reaching the lens oblique is
the one that is transmitted sharp.
Curvature of Field - the
relation of the images of the
different points are incorrect
with respect to one another.
CURVATURE OF FIELD
Distortion - Is a defect in shape
not in sharpness. It can either be
Pincushion distortion (curving
inward) or Barrel (curving
outward).
Chromatic Aberration - Inability of the
lens to focus light of varying wavelength.
The lens refracts rays of short wavelength
more strongly than those of longer
wavelength and therefore brings blu rays
to a shorter focus than the red.
Astigmatism - is a form of lens
defects in which the horizontal and
vertical axis are not equally
magnified. Inability of the lens to
focus both horizontal and vertical
lines.
OTHER OPTICAL DEFECTS

These defects are usually corrected when

the lens is designed, however, they can
occur if the lens is misused or through
normal wear and tear
FLARE or OPTICAL FLARE - As a result of
double reflection from inner lens surfaces. It
exhibits itself as a misty haze, or a cloudy
semicircular patch of light, which may cover
part or all of the image. This double
reflection may form an image called a ghost
image.
MECHANICAL FLARE- Are bright
spots on the film caused by stray
light from worn shiny parts of the
lens such as the stop, shutter lens
mount, or from the camera itself.
STRAY LIGHT - Is light in an optical system,
which was not intended in the design. The
light may be from the intended source, but
follow paths other than intended, or it may
be from a source other than the intended
source.
According to Degree of Corrections
Meniscus Lens - lens that has no correction.

Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected for

distortion. It was introduced by John Henry
Dallmeyer in 1866.
Anastigmat Lens – correcting
astigmatism;
Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic
aberration;
Apochromatic Lens – correcting both
astigmatism and chromatic aberration;
Focal Length – is the distance
measured from the optical center
of the lens is set to focus at
infinite position. As according to
focal lenses may be classified as:
–Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length
not longer than the diagonal half of the
negative. Useful in taking photograph at
short distance with wider area coverage.
–Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length
approximately equal but not longer than
twice the diagonal half of the negative.
– Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than
twice the diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long
distance photographing but with narrow area coverage.

– ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that

which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of
one or more elements in the lens system.
–Depth of Field – is the distance measured
from the nearest to the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens
–Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance
at which when a lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening will gives the
maximum depth of field.
DEPTH OF FIELD
HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE
CHEMICAL PROCESS
- The process of making the latent image visible and
permanent.
Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal
Solution)
= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to
form the image.
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents
1. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or
Universal Solution)
= Is the process necessary for reducing
the silver halides to form the image.
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main
developing agents
• Dektol - 1 to 1 ½ minutes
( 60 to 90 seconds)
• D -76 - 5 to 6 minutes
• Universal - 1 to 2 minutes
• Fixing - 20 to 30 minutes
2. Stop bath = normally composed of
water with little amount of dilute
acetic acid that serves as a means to
prevent contamination between the
developer and the acid fixer.
3. Fixation = Is the process by which all
unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
removed from the emulsion surface and
making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main
fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver
halides.
• Other chemicals used:
• Acetic Acid and Boric acid - serves as neutralizer
• Sodium Sulfate - serves as the preservative
• Potassium Bromide - restrainer or hardener
• Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves
as accelerator
• Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted
portion of the negative during enlarging.
• Cropping = is the process of omitting an object
during the process of enlarging and printing.
• Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image
towards the side through skillful adjustment on
the dodging board.
• Dye toning = is the process designed in
changing the color tone of the photograph.
• Burning-In = refers to additional exposure
on a desired portion of the negative used
for purposes of making a balance exposure.
Fingerprints

Fingerprints should be photographed before they are collected

on major cases or if the latent may be destroyed when lifting.
Occasionally, a latent print can be visible or developed on a
surface but cannot be lifted (e.g. a fingerprint in blood). In
such a case photographing the latent is the only way to
document the evidence.
Fingerprint impressions in
soft substances (e.g., wax,
putty, clay, adhesive tape,
grease, or dust) require the
use of oblique lighting at a low
angle. This will create small
shadows in the impression.
Preview the effect with a
flashlight.
Admissibility in court for photographic evidence is
determined by each photo’s relevancy, accuracy, authenticity
and originality.

Relevancy: The photo must have a clear purpose for being

presented in court. If the photo does not help to demonstrate
whether a crime did or did not occur, there is no reason to
introduce it into the courtroom.
Accuracy: Does this photo represent what was observed by
the naked eye at the scene? Witness & investigator views
should align with what was captured in the photograph.

Authenticity: The photo must be verified for accuracy by a

qualified individual, such as a forensic photographer. This
individual must be willing and prepared to testify.
Originality: The photo must be presented in its original form,
whether that be the film negative or a digital .jpg. It should
not be edited, formatted or modified in any way.
Establish an agency-wide policy of Standard Operating
Procedures (SOP) to follow for every case. Consider the
following as you are developing your procedures:

Preserve electronic evidence in its original form (many

agencies use a hard drive or CD).
Track and document each piece of evidence (answer the
“who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “why,” and “how” questions).

Prevent purposeful and accidental alterations (save the files

as “read-only” and restrict file access to essential personnel).

Create a new file for analyzation purposes and leave the

original file as is (re-name the new file to avoid confusion).
Maintain chain-of-custody from the moment of evidence
collection through case closure.
THANK YOU AND GOOD LUCK!!!