ND II

EEC 241 – COMPUTER SYSTEM AND PROGRAMME

1.1 Explain a computer system

A computer system is a set of integrated devices which takes input, process it and give output.
Also it store data and information. Computer system allows users to input, manipulate and store
data. Computer systems include a CPU, monitor, keyboard, mouse and other optional
components.

1.2 Distinguish between various types of computer system i.e analogue, digital and
hybrid computer
There are three types of computers, and each is capable of doing unique things. They are
separated by hardware and the manner data is processed. The three types of computers in
question are Analog, Digital, and Hybrid. Each can be found in various industries around
the world, your home, and even in your car. But hey, let’s go on ahead and focus on what
these computers are all about.

1. Analog Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

Analog Computer

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An analog computer is a type of system that provides information in continuous form.
These types of computers can only represent physical quantities such as pressure, weight,
voltage pressure, speed, and more. Whatever information the analog computer outputs are
usually shown on a graph.

These computer systems are useful in situations where data is accepted via measuring
instruments, which means, there is no need to convert into numbers or any form of digital
attributes. A speedometer is a great example of an analog computer, and the same can be
said for the traditional thermometer.

Note that analog computer systems do not require any storage capabilities because they
associate and measure quantities in a single process. In short, they are nowhere smart
when compared to what we use today, but they do have their industries.

In the past, an analog computer was primarily used in scientific and industrial applications,
and even after the rise of digital computers. This is because, in the early days of digital
computers, analog systems were still much faster to operate. However, between the 1950s
and 1960s, the analog computer system became obsolete as they could no longer keep up
with the digital wave.

Some characteristics of Analog Computers

 Continuous values
 Small memory
 Slow speed
 Not as reliable
 Results are not accurate
 Difficult to use

Digital Computer

When it comes down to representing numerals, letters, and other symbols a digital
computer relies on digits to get the job done. The inputs here are ON and OFF, and the
same goes for outputs.
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In a typical case, ON is represented by 1, while off is represented by 0. As it stands, then,
we can conclude that digital computers process data that is based on the existence or the
absence of an electrical charge. In short, this is called binary 1 or binary 0.

For those who might want to process numerical or non-numerical data, a digital computer
is more than capable of performing such tasks. Furthermore, such systems can perform
arithmetic operations with ease, and in most instances, much faster than the human brain.

Some characteristics of Digital Computers

 Discrete values
 Large memory
 Faster speed
 Very reliable
 Results are 100 percent accurate

Time to talk about Hybrid Computers, which are the most known around the world due to
being widely used by consumers and businesses alike.

Hybrid Computer

When you think of a hybrid computer, what comes to mind? It should be a blend of analog
and digital computers. Devices such as these have managed to combine the best features of
analog and digital, making them super important in a number of areas.
In terms of where hybrid computers are used, well, they are mainly found in specialized
applications that need to process analog and digital information. As you might guess, then,
hybrid computers can process discrete and continuous data.

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 The entire world today relies heavily on hybrid computers, and this has a lot to do with
their flexibility. A single hybrid computer can be used for various things. The same cannot
be said for analog, but we should not forget of its contribution.

An example of a hybrid computer is the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) found in hospitals
around the world. These devices use analog technology to measure temperature and blood
pressure, and the data is then converted and shown in digital form on a small screen.

1.3 Explain the advantages of digital computer over analogue computer system

1. S.NO. Digital Computer S.No. Analog Computer

The digital computer works
Analog computer works on
1. upon discrete (discontinuous) 1.
continuous data.
data.
This computer works with a These computers work with
2. 2.
digit. natural or physical value.

3. The accuracy is high. 3. The accuracy is low.

It is a general purpose
4. 4. It is a special purpose computer.
computer.
It has no or limited storage
5. It has high storage capacity. 5.
capacity.
6. It does a multi-purpose job. 6. It does a single purpose job.

7. It can be reprogrammed. 7. No possibility of reprogramming.

The cost is high and easily not
8. The cost is low and portable. 8.
portable.
Example: Desktop
computer, IBM PC, Example: Presley
Apple/Macintosh computer, etc.

1.4 State that computer can be used to:

(i) Keep tract of cheques and balance in our banks

What is Mobile Banking?

Mobile banking refers to the use of a mobile device to carry out financial transactions. The
service is provided by some financial institutions, especially banks. Mobile banking
enables clients and users to carry out various transactions, which may vary depending on
the institution.

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Currently, mobile banking’s become easier with the development of cellular mobile
applications. Clients are now able to check their balances, view their bank
statements online, make transfers, and even carry out prepaid service purchases.

Types of Mobile Banking Services

Mobile banking services can be categorized into the following:

1. Account information access

Account information access allows clients to view their account balances and statements
by requesting a mini account statement, review transactional and account history, keep
track of their term deposits, review and view loan or card statements, access investment
statements (equity or mutual funds), and for some institutions, management of insurance
policies.

2. Transactions
Transactional services enable clients to transfer funds to accounts at the same institution or
other institutions, perform self-account transfers, pay third parties (such as bill payments),
and make purchases in collaboration with other applications or prepaid service providers.

3. Investments
Investment management services enable clients to manage their portfolios or get a real-
time view of their investment portfolios (term-deposits, etc.)

4. Support services
Support services enable clients to check on the status of their requests for loan or credit
facilities, follow up on their card requests, and locate ATMs.

5. Content and news

Content services provide news related to finance and the latest offers by the bank or
institution.

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(ii) Forecast future events like weather, birth rate etc
In a sense, weather forecasting is impossible without a fairly sophisticated level of
technological development. The development of sensors to detect the present state of the
atmosphere and a communication system to collect and disseminate the data rapidly are
essential. From that perspective, weather forecasting has only truly been possible from
some point in the first half of this century. The old statement that "Never, no matter what
the development of science, will men, who have concern for their reputation, attempt for
forecast the weather" is partially rooted in the 19th century difficulty of knowing enough
about the current state of the atmosphere.

The ability to make and distribute observations has always been viewed as a benefit to
human forecasters and it is hard to imagine any way in which anyone could view it as a
threat to the role of human forecasters. A second technological development, electronic
computing, has been seen both as a benefit and as a threat. The idea of numerical
forecasting of the state of the atmosphere was presented in the 1920s but the technology to
carry out such an effort was not developed until World War II. In the years immediately
following the war, early electronic computers were applied to a number of problems,
including numerical weather prediction (NWP). As a result, they could not capture most of
the structures relevant to forecasting sensible weather.

Forecast future events like birth rate etc

The need for forecasting population

In the solution of any planning problem, the planner either makes an explicit forecast, or
makes some implicit assumption about the population for which he is planning.
"Population" includes much more than mere numbers of people. The planner must know
what kind of people live in his planning area, what types of lives they lead, and would like
to lead, how long they will live, and how long they will reside in the particular area; and
who will replace them when they move out or die; how many children they will have (and
would like to have under different conditions), whether these children will live in the area,
and many other factors.

Many communities have installed facilities which have become useless because predicated
on faulty estimates of future population, or they have failed to install facilities where
justified by future population. A common example of such errors is the newly constructed
school in an area where the population is aging rather than being replaced by young, child-
bearing families. Sewer systems have been expensively developed only to be later
replaced because the population soon was double or triple what was anticipated for the
area. Narrow streets have been later widened at great expense. On the other hand, land
often has been overly zoned for commercial purposes in the expectation of a vast increase
in population which did not materialize. Or land was zoned for potential capacities in
some cities of whole state or even the entire population of the country. Prematurely
subdivided land is plaguing many of our communities today.

In Western civilization, increased knowledge and application of science and technology

has over the last 150 years sharply decreased the death rate. During this period, the birth
rate has also been lowered, mainly through the practice of birth control. Since the birth
rate decreased more slowly than the death rate, a large increase in population took place in
the Western world in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the most industrialized countries the
death rate today has almost reached the present biological minimum, but since birth rates
also continue to fall, population increase is being slowed. Northwestern, southern and

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central Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand are among these countries
which are identified as having a population of incipient decline.

In those countries which are undergoing the process of industrialization, the application of
modern hygiene methods such as more widespread use of medical facilities and D. D. T.,
have decreased the death rate. The lowering of the death rate precedes the lowering of the
birth rate, and consequently these countries are now undergoing or have undergone a very
large population increase. These countries are said to be in the stage of transitional growth,
and countries such as the Soviet Union, Japan and some Latin American countries are in
the midst of this stage of population change while Turkey, Palestine and parts of North
Africa seem to be entering it.

There are also a number of countries which are not yet industrialized to any great extent,
such as China, India, Egypt, the Near East, and most of South and Central America, which
have at present both a high birth rate and a high death rate, which prevents any large
population increase. These countries are characterized as being of high growth potential
since rapid growth may be expected as soon as technological developments make possible
a decline in mortality.

(iii) Control of overbooking railways, airways and ship

Control Office Automation (COA):

The train operation over Indian Railways is monitored and checked through a control
office located in each division.

Crew Management System (CMS):

The crew of a train consists of a Loco Pilot, Assistant Loco Pilot, and a Guard. The crew
works a train from station A to station B and then works back the train involving
interchange from one division/zone to another. CMS has facilitated complete data
management of system from signing on to signing off and all the information on the single
click of the mouse.

Passenger Reservation System (PRS):

Countrywide Network of Computerized Enhanced Reservation and Ticketing
(CONCERT), based on the state-of-the-art client-server technology, has been installed at
all the PRS nodes providing the facility for the passengers to book seats/berths on any
train on IR from any location.

PRS inquiry facilities for Customers:

 IR’s Website indianrail.gov.in answers queries regarding Accommodation
availability, Current status of wait-listed tickets, Trains available between
important stations, Train schedules, Fares etc.
 Gives information about the running status of any train, its expected
arrival/departure at/from a station, information about passenger amenities, tourist
information and scheduled platform berthing of trains at important stations.
 Mobile phone bases SMS inquiry services on berth availability, waitlisted
passenger status, train arrival/departure etc.

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Parcel Management System:

Benefits:
o Reduction in time for weighing and booking
o Advance loading guidance according to availability of space thereby optimum use
of available space and control on overloading
o Prior information about the inward traffic
o Loading according to priority
o Web-enabled to know about latest position of the parcel
o Dynamic Management tool
o Reduction in Claims

Computerization of Complaints:
 Registration of Complaints
 All complaints received will be entered into the PC. The registration of the
complaint should be done in enclosed proforma which should be printed and
should be kept in the booklet form in the office of Dy. SS.
 Same proforma should be available at all other complaint registering points
whether it is Refreshment Room or Parcel Office or Goods Office or ASM office,
etc.
 Once in a day, the book from these locations should be brought to the computer
and all complaints should be entered into the computer.
 Complaints received in Railway Board, Zonal offices or Divisional offices should
also be entered into the computer. At a later stage, the scanner can also be procured
to reduce the workload for entering the complaint.
 Processing of Complaint

General Instructions & Maintenance of Database:

Each unit will maintain the data and statistics in respect of complaints registered,
complaints transmitted to other locations, complaints received from other locations for
action and feedback on complaints and action thereon etc., and also carry out analysis for
initiating larger system charges if required.

Integrated Train Enquiry System (ITES):

The system consisting of both IVRS and Manual Enquiry provisions provides details of
accommodation available, the current status of tickets and train running status on dialing
number 139 as a local call from anywhere in India. Other parts of IR will soon be covered
by the system.

National Train Enquiry System (NTES):

National Train Enquiry System (NTES) has been implemented at a large number of
stations on the off-line system of PRS so that late running position of trains can be
ascertained. In phase II of the system all devices at the station viz. announcement systems,
display boards, face to face inquiry and IVRs are required to be connected to NTES, thus
giving a uniform arrival times in all the devices.

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Airways

You’ve just settled into your seat. The armrests are down, and the window blind is up,
almost ready for take-off. All of a sudden, the air steward’s voice fills the cabin—they’re
apologetically asking for volunteers to off board. Your flight, like so many others, has
been overbooked.

Times like these might leave you and the passengers around you questioning why the
airline would sell more tickets than it has available seats. It seems counterintuitive.
However, there’s a logical explanation for airlines running oversold flights.

Whether it’s limiting losses or keeping airfares low, overselling tickets is common practice
with many airlines. Here’s all the info you need to help you avoid getting bumped from
your flight, as well as what compensation you deserve in the unfortunate case that you do.

What is airline overbooking?

Overbooking is an airline’s way of ensuring they have no empty seats at takeoff. It’s
exactly what it sounds like—an airline sells more tickets than they have seats on the plane.
They do this to ensure a full plane when it comes to take-off. Empty seats are a financial
drain on airlines.

Travel experts warn that around 150 tickets are sold for every 100 seats available, so
you’ve undoubtedly been on an overbooked flight. British Airways admits to overselling
500,000 seats in a single year, leading to 24,000 passengers having to be bumped from
flights.

Why do airlines overbook?

The simple answer to why airlines overbook is to maximize profit. Airlines want to avoid
empty seats at all costs, and overselling tickets is a great way to do just that. The logic is
understandable considering the statistical likelihood of all passengers with a valid ticket
checking in on time is less than 1 in 10,000.

There are many reasons why an airline oversells tickets. The first is that passengers often
simply don’t show up for their flights, and they don’t bother to cancel. These individuals
are known as ’no-shows’ in the aviation industry.

Another reason tickets are oversold is because airlines expect a percentage of people to be
coming from connecting flights—flights that could very possibly be delayed or canceled.
A 20-minute delay on the first flight could be the difference between boarding and not
boarding the connecting flight in many cases.

Is overbooking legal?
Yes, overbooking is entirely legal. Airlines are subject to regulations, which we’ll detail
shortly, but given these regulations are followed, overbooking is a completely legal
practice.

In fact, if overbooking were to be made illegal, the price of air travel tickets would likely
increase. Overbooking helps airlines guarantee their planes will be filled to capacity,
allowing them to keep tickets cheap.

Overbooking can go wrong, however, when passengers refuse to be bumped. While most

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airlines aim to solve overbooking issues before passengers begin to board, there are cases
where passengers must be removed from flights.

This was the case on a 2017 United Airlines flight from Chicago to Louisville. An old man
was forcibly removed from the flight in front of the remaining passengers. It was
distressing for everyone involved—and incredibly bad press for United Airlines. Not
illegal, but really not a good way to show passengers you care.

How do airlines determine how to overbook flights?

The extent to which plane tickets are oversold is based on extensive air travel statistical
research. Airlines invest in creating huge databases of previous passenger trends and past
no-shows. These calculations are not foolproof, however, and can lead to passengers being
bumped to different flights.

Ship

Anything that will help [cure] one of the long lasting and major diseases of our industry is
welcome,” Friedberg said. “All the inefficiencies have built up over the years. We don’t
forecast properly; we overbook because we don’t trust shippers. This is a real issue in
what is a service industry.”

Poor forecasting of volume has long been a source of friction between carriers and
beneficial cargo owners (BCOs). When carriers overbook, cargo gets rolled to the next
sailing. Knowing this, BCOs reserve more space than they actually need, which results in
“no show” cargo and further encourages the carriers to overbook to avoid unused capacity.

“Today, the standard ocean product means a shipper doesn’t commit to shipping and we
don’t commit to loading. It sounds crazy, but that’s how it is. Unlike in some industries,
ocean freight contracts are generally unenforceable. Both parties agree to the terms of the
transaction, but there are no penalties for altering or even breaking those terms when cargo
is rolled or doesn’t show up for loading.

The risk of doing that is we get it wrong and containers have to be rolled or the ship is not
full when it leaves. Both of these situations cost money for us and our customers.

Third-party solutions such as the New York Shipping Exchange (NYSHEX), which
provides a platform for carriers and shippers to draw up “guaranteed” contracts, with
penalties for noncompliance on either side, have also emerged in recent years but have yet
to gain meaningful traction in the marketplace.

Third-party solutions such as the New York Shipping Exchange (NYSHEX), which
provides a platform for carriers and shippers to draw up “guaranteed” contracts, with
penalties for noncompliance on either side, have also emerged in recent years but have yet
to gain meaningful traction in the marketplace.

We will be able to come on time and in the end we will all collectively help reduce all the
inefficiencies in the system. There is maybe a little uncertainty here, a little uncertainty
there, and uncertainty plus uncertainty in the end means there is inventory that should
probably not be there if we were all doing our jobs properly.

Michelle Weaver, senior vice president global order management at Expeditors

International, said the third-party logistics provider has been collaborating with Walmart
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 to address the importance of providing consistently accurate forecasting of their capacity
needs so carriers can provide that space.

“Over the last five years, we have partnered with Walmart to build a cloud-based platform
to connect carriers and shippers and provide forecast accuracy,” she said. “Carriers will
plan better and focus more on service. BCOs will get their product moved at the right
time, and forwarders will not need to do the double, triple work they currently have to
perform. All three segments of the industry stand to benefit.”

Anthony McAuley, director of global logistics at Walmart, said the key factors were
capacity planning and getting the right product to the right place at the right time, which
was both helpful for the carriers and provided better visibility for Walmart and its clients.

2.1 Explain the basic working principle of an analogue computer

Analog computers operate on mathematical variables in the form of physical quantities
that are continuously varying. For example temperature, pressure, voltages, etc. The basis
of the working of the analog computers is modeling. Any real physical process can always
be replaced by a mathematical model having the same properties. Control Engineers often
convert a mechanical or hydraulic system to its electrical analogy to make a mathematical
model for computation. This analogy or conversion of a physical process like a suspended
mass in a spring to its electrical model and consequently the mathematical model is the
basis of analog computing. After the modeling has been done the computation becomes
very easy and convenient.

2.2 Draw a block diagram of a digital computer

Digital computers deal with mathematical variables in form of numbers that represent
discrete values of physical quantities.

System Unit (Case)

The system unit is a box that contains different electronic components of a computer
system. It is also called the chassis. It protects the internal components from damage. The
electronic circuits in the system unit are connected to a motherboard.
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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is also called a processor. It is also the brain of the computer. It evaluates and
executes the commands on the computer. CPU is also called the processing unit of a
computer. When anybody buys a computer, the first thing to look out for is the CPU.

The central processing unit (CPU) is also called the computer brain. There are different
types of computers, laptops, smartphones, tablets, and TVs that have their own CPU. This
is very small chip; is small in shape of a square and is mounted on the motherboard of the
device.

Input Devices
A hardware component that enables a user to enter data and instructions to a computer is
called an input device. These devices are used to feed information or provide control
signals to the computer. Keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital camera, and PC
camera are the most common input devices.

Keyboard: The user can use a keyboard to enter text. It contains alphabetic, numeric, and
other keys for entering a different type of data.

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Mouse: a mouse is a pointing device. It controls the pointer on the screen. The user also
gives instructions to the computer through a mouse. It contains different buttons.

Microphone: The user can use a microphone to enter input in the form of voice into the
computer.

Scanner: it read and scans the hardcopy and graphics and produces the results in digital
form.

Digital Camera: we can use a digital camera to take and store pictures in digital form.

PC Camera: A PC camera enables a user to create a movie and take photos on the
computer. Furthermore, the user can also use it to make a video phone call.

Output devices
A hardware component that is used to display the result of the processing to the user is
called an output device. The major output devices are a monitor, printer, and speaker. In
addition, LCDs and LEDs are also used to display output. Modern technology is the base
of these output devices.

Monitor: a computer can also use a monitor to display text, graphics, and video output.

Printer: if the user wants to get output in printed form on paper, then he can use a printer.

Speakers: the speaker is also a hardware component that almost produces output in the
form of sound, music, and voice.

Computer Memory
Memory: Memory is also an important component of a system unit. Memory is used in a
computer to store data and instructions temporarily. Furthermore, it loses all its
information when the power is turned off. These chips are connected to a motherboard.

RAM Cache: Another major component of a computer is RAM, also known as cache,
which is used to increase speed and improves system performance.

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)

The important operations that must require RAM to run include: processing images for
graphic design, editing movies or photos, and running multiple programs at the same time.

Storage Devices
The hardware components that can be used to store data, commands, and information
permanently for future use are called storage devices. Some important storage devices are
the floppy disk drive, Zip drive, hard disk drive, CD-RW drive, DVD-ROM drive, etc.

Hard Disk Drive or HDD: Hard drive is the fundamental component of a computer and
its function is to store and maintain permanent and temporary files. This is used to store
data in different forms. For example, inside the computer hard drive, you can store an
operating system, application software, spreadsheets, computer programs, family photos,
office documents, etc
.
D-ROM Drive or DVD-ROM Drive: CD and DVD are the two most commonly used
storage media. These storage devices have the ability to store a large amount of
information related to music, data, and software. A CD has the capability to store 74
minutes of music. On the other hand, a DVD is capable of storing 17 GB (in two types). A
two-type Layer DVD has a capacity of 26 ordinary 665 MB CDs.

D-Writer or DVD-Writer: CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives are not capable to read or
write data on CDs or DVDs. CD-Writer and DVD-Writer are specially used for reading
and writing information on these storage mediums.

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 Floppy Disk Drive or FDDA: Floppy drives are small pieces of computer hardware used
to store a small amount of data on a small disk. The most well-known type of floppy drive
is a 3.5-inch or 5.25-inch drive.

2.4 List Basic types of memory devices e.g semi-conductor

(i) RAM
The full form of RAM is Random Access Memory. The information stored in this type of
memory is lost when the power supply to the PC or laptop is switched off. The
information stored in RAM can be checked with the help of BIOS. It is generally known
as the main memory or temporary memory or cache memory or volatile memory of the
computer system.

Types of RAM
FPM-(Fast page mode RAM)-
EDO RAM (Extended data operations read-only memory)
SDRAM (Single dynamic RAM)
RDRAM (Rambus RAM)
DDR (Double Data Rate)
DDR2
DDR3
DDR4

ROM
ROM stands for read only memory, a solid-state semiconductor memory that can only
read data stored in advance. Its characteristic is that once the data is stored, it can no
longer be changed or deleted. It is usually used in computer or other electronic devices,
and even if the power is turned off, the data will not disappear.

Types of ROM

MROM - Mask Read Only Memory

PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory
Flash Memory

(ii) Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape, similar to the tape used in tape recorders, has also been used for auxiliary
storage, primarily for archiving data. Tape is cheap, but access time is far slower than that
of a magnetic disk because it is sequential-access memory—i.e., data must be sequentially
read and written as a tape is unwound, rather than retrieved directly from the desired point
on the tape. Servers may also use large collections of tapes or optical discs, with robotic
devices to select and load them, rather like old-fashioned jukeboxes.

Types of Magnetic Tape

Audio Tape
Video Tape
Data Storage Tape

Optical Disc

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Another form of largely read-only memory is the optical compact disc, developed
from videodisc technology during the early 1980s. Data are recorded as tiny pits in a
single spiral track on plastic discs that range from 3 to 12 inches (7.6 to 30 cm) in
diameter, though a diameter of 4.8 inches (12 cm) is most common. The pits are produced
by a laser or by a stamping machine and are read by a low-power laser and a photocell that
generates an electrical signal from the varying light reflected from the pattern of pits.
Optical discs are removable and have a far greater memory capacity than diskettes; the
largest ones can store many gigabytes of information.

Types of Optical Disc

Optical compact disc
CD-ROM - (compact disc read-only memory)
CD-R (CD-recordable)
WORM (write-once read-many)
CD-RW (CD-rewritable)
DVDs (digital video, or versatile, discs)
Magneto-optical discs

(iii) Paper – tape, card

Advances in storage technologies have been the behind-the-scenes movers of the digital
revolution. From a few megabytes at first, to gigabytes of storage, memory cards have
grown in capacities, over the decades. Here we discuss the various types of these cards
that serve as storage solutions.

We live in an age of computers, laptops, digital cameras, and cell phones that help us
create and store vast number of digital files. These files include data files, music files,
music videos, movies, and all other sorts of digital data. To save such vast quantities of
information, the in-built computer memory is almost never enough.

Also, one needs to store data in such a device that can be used to transfer information,
from one machine to the other. Since the 1990s, memory cards have been introduced, that
help in storing digital data. These cards come in different shapes and sizes, with different
transmission speeds, as well as other features.

Types of Paper Cards

Compact Flash

There are two types of these cards:

 Type I – 42.8 mm x 36.4 mm x 3.3 mm
 Type II – 42.8 mm x 36.4 mm x 5.5 mm

Memory Sticks
There are two types of these cards:
 Normal Memory Stick
 ‘Magic Gate’ (for protection of copyrighted documents)

Multimedia Cards
There are two types of multimedia cards, based on different voltages:
 Multimedia cards (3.3 V) that have a notch on the upper left hand corner
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  Multimedia cards (5 V) that have a notch on the upper right hand corner

Secure Digital
The SD cards come in three formats:
Standard SD
Mini SD – This is a card with dimensions of 21.5 mm x 20 mm x 1.4 mm, for digital
cameras and mobile phones
Micro SD – This is a card with dimensions of 15 mm x 11 mm x 0.7 mm for mobile
phones and smaller devices. It is the smallest type of memory card available.

Smart Media Cards

xD Picture Card

2.5 Distinguish between backing store and main store

What Is Backing Storage?

Backing storage refers to any computer storage media besides the internal
memory. When a computer restarts or loses power, it clears the internal memory. Backing
storage retains data for an indefinite period even without power. Common backing storage
devices include internal hard drives, external hard drives, USB flash drives, network
drives, DVDs, CDs and magnetic tape.

Backing storage devices have several roles. An internal device stores data on a computer
while it is in use. An external device such as a USB flash drive can transfer data between
computers. Larger devices keep a backup copy of data in case the internal drive fails or
corrupts data. Backing storage devices need power to access stored data but not to retain
data. This makes some forms, such as DVDs, ideal for long-term storage. Backing storage
also costs less than internal memory and has far greater capacity, allowing multiple copies
of data on different devices. Most backing storage devices are slower than internal
memory, but cost reductions in solid-state drives have addressed this problem.

Early computers had limited internal drive space, so backing storage devices, like tapes or
floppy drives, helped keep a copy of the data and allowed users to erase some data and
make room for more. As new and faster devices such as CDs and DVDs became available,
tape backup usage declined.

Main storage
Main memory refers to physical memory that is internal to the computer. The
word main is used to distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as disk drives.
Other terms used to mean main memory include RAM and primary storage.

The computer can manipulate only data that is in main memory. Therefore,
every program you execute and every file you access must be copied from a storage
device into main memory. The amount of main memory on a computer is crucial because
it determines how many programs can be executed at one time and how much data can be
readily available to a program.

Because computers often have too little main memory to hold all the data they need,
computer engineers invented a technique called swapping, in which portions of data are
copied into main memory as they are needed. Swapping occurs when there is no room in

17
 memory for needed data. When one portion of data is copied into memory, an equal-sized
portion is copied (swapped) out to make room.

Now, most PCs come with a minimum of 32 megabytes of main memory. You can usually
increase the amount of memory by inserting extra memory in the form of chips.

Main Memory Vs Backing Storage

What`s the difference between the two?
This is a common GCSE Computing question and a key area for any computer science
student to understand.

There are essentially two types of data storage that a computer uses:

Main Memory or Primary Storage

This is where the computer hold any data it is working on at the moment. Music that is
playing, images on screen, Word docs you have open, etc. RAM is the main type of main
memory and is VOLATILE. This means it wipes itself whenever the power turns off.

Backing Storage
This is where data is stored long term, it is NON-VOLATILE so it does not wipe when the
power goes off. You hard drive, CDs and USB sticks are all backing storage.
An analogy:
Imagine RAM as your hands and Backing Storage as your rucksack. You can hold loads
of stuff in your rucksack and if you suddenly pass out it`ll be safe in there. But you can`t
use it unless you get it out and use it with your hands. Your hands are fast, but space is
limited and if you suddenly pass out (let`s say you do that) then you drop everything and
lose it. If you have too much stuff in your hands you have to start swapping things in and
out of your bag and swapping tasks takes ages. You see this sometimes when you have a
lot of windows open and it takes a long time to swap between them.

2.6 List basic types of input/output devices

The computer is a vast technology. You may have used so many features of computer and
its related devices. But I am sure, many of them might have known about their features. If
you are a computer user then you must be using a mouse, keyboard, printers, monitors,
joysticks, webcams, speakers, touchpad, etc. Do you really know what exactly they mean?
What kind of devices they are? In what terminology they come under? Hereby, providing
you input output devices list related to computers and their brief description:

You must be using a mouse, keyboard, touchpad, monitor, printers, speaker, scanners, etc.
Few of them comes under Input devices and some of them comes under output devices.
Check out the list below, separated input output devices:

List of Input/Output Devices

Input Devices: Computer related input devices are:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Touchpad
 TrackPoint
 Scanner
 Microphone
 Digital Cameras
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  Barcode reader
 Joystick
 Webcam
 Light Pen etc.

Output Devices:
Few examples of output devices are:
o Printers
o Projector
o Plotters
o Monitor
o Speakers
o Head Phone etc.

2.7 Distinguish between input device and output device

An input device is connected to a computer that sends out data into the computer, while an
output device is connected to a computer that receives incoming data. The data that is sent
by the input device to the computer for processing is reproduced or displayed by the
output device. While most devices are only either input device or output device, some can
accept input and display output, as well. To know further difference between input and out
devices, do look up this table below.
INPUT DEVICE OUTPUT DEVICE

It is a hardware device and is used to key in It is a hardware component, and it uses the data
the data, instructions or commands, into the that is has received from the computer to carry out
computer a task

It can transfer data to another device, but Can obtain data from another device and can also
cannot receive any from it produce output from it. However, cannot transfer
data to another device

Necessary for the computer to receive user Required if a computer has to share its results.
commands and data to process They also help to prompt the users for additional
information and commands

These are user controlled Computer manages it

Complex coding is used Users need to only see the results and so are not
required to learn the process

Examples: Keyboard, webcam, microphone, Examples: LCD Projection panels, printer,

joystick and so on monitor, speaker and more

2.8 State the different used of the devices (input/output)

Given below is the list of the most common input devices along with brief information
about each of them.

1. Keyboard
o A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number
or number commands which can be given to a computer for various actions to be
performed
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 o It has a modified version of typewriter keys
o The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both use
keyboards to give commands to the computer

2. Mouse
It is also known as a pointing device
Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the system and
open up various files and programs
A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which
helps in selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively
In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which
helps in the movement of the mouse pointer

3. Joy Stick
o It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so
that it can be moved and controlled
o Mostly used to control the movement in video games
o Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aero
plane, wheelchairs, cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well
4. Light Pen
It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s
screen
It is light-sensitive
Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube

5. Microphone
o Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form
o It converts sound into an electrical signal
o To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be
connected with an amplifier

6. Scanner
o This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
o When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital
signal and displays it on the computer screen

7. Barcode Reader
o It is a kind of an optical scanner
o It can read bar codes
o A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details are
displayed on the screen

List of Output Devices

The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what
their function is and how they can be used.

1. Monitor
o The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called
the Monitor
o When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is
displayed on the monitor
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 o Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years

2. Printer
 A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a
paper is called a printer
 For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and later gets a
print out of it, which is in the form of paper and is later published
 Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve
different purposes

3. Speakers
 A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we
command a computer to do is called a speaker
 Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device
which can be attached separately
 With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are
wireless and can be connected using Bluetooth or other applications

4. Projector
 An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection
screen is called a projector
 Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for
the display of the videos or lighting
 If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the
screen is the same as the one displayed on the computer screen

5. Headphones
o They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency
of sound
o Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using headphones,
the sound is only audible to the person using them
o Also known as earphones or headset

2.9 Distinguish between different types of digital computers i.e. micro-computer, mini-
computer and mainframe computer systems

Broadly, digital computers may be classified in four major categories:

1. Micro computers
2. Mini computers
3. Mainframe computers
4. Super computer

The differences are primarily on the basis of three basic factors, namely,
i. The primary storage capacity,
ii. Speed of processing data, and
iii. Ability to support different input, output and mass storage devices such as printers,
tape drives, etc.

1. Micro Computers:

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The smallest among them are microcomputers. They are small in physical size (most of
them are desktop system; however, notebook micro computers that can fit into a briefcase
are also available). They are economical in terms of costs and are friendly in use. Personal
computers (PCs) fall into this category.

These computers can be used for small data processing jobs of bigger companies or serve
as complete computer systems for small firms. PC can also be connected with bigger
computers and be used as an intelligent terminal to a bigger computer.

2. Mini computers:
Mini computers are very popular among medium sized companies. Mini computers offer
facilities for faster processing of voluminous information. Mini computers, of course, are
bigger than microcomputers but smaller than most of their elders called mainframes.

They cost somewhere between Rs. 5 to 15 lac depending upon the configuration.
However, these prices are only indicative and are subject to substantial changes over time.
The mini computers like VAX 8000 series from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
and AS/400 series from IBM have been quite popular in computer aided manufacturing, as
well as departmental computers.

They have also been used extensively as gateways between mainframe networks and as
main servers for local area networks of microcomputers.

3. Mainframes:
Mainframes are bigger computers, capable of handling data processing needs of, say, head
office of a bank, or a big multinational company or may be a public utility office.
Mainframe computer systems have larger storage and the speed of processing is also very
high.

They also offer the advantage of wider choice with regard to up-gradation of the system in
future. They offer features such as parallel processing. The parallel processing involves
combining a large number of processors that break down an application into many sepa-
rate parts in order to enhance processing speed.

The speed of processing is expressed in terms of 10 to 100 million of instructions per

second (MIPS), and cost somewhere between 1 to 5 million dollars depending upon the
configuration. IBM still holds almost 80 per cent of mainframe market with its popular
mainframe series IBM System 390.

The mainframe popularity has fallen due to emergence of microcomputers and popularity
of client server technology. However, they still find niche markets in large volume data
processing requirements such as central database servers.

Super computers are on the higher end of mainframe computers. They offer tremendous
computing power and are being used primarily in scientific research and forecasting. For
example, Cray T3E-900 series of computers are packed with computing powers that are
incomparable to any big mainframe.

4. Supercomputers:
Supercomputers have a speed of between 100 to 900 MIPS. They are quite expensive and
cost somewhere around 10-30 million dollars depending upon the configuration. The other
competitors of Cray supercomputers are machines from NEC of Japan.
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2.10 Outline the different areas of application of the computer system
Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational
institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.

Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching
movies or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet
access, etc. They provide communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work
from home facility for corporate employees. Computers help the student community to
avail online educational support.

Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, X-
rays, live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to
perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality technologies
are also used for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s
womb.

Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in
playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the
entertainment industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed
from computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous
features.

Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory,
designing purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video
conferencing, etc. Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various
products to inaccessible corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen
phenomenal participation from different levels of people through the use of computers.

Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations,
referring e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in
the education field.

Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of
citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defense organizations have
greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket
launches, etc.

Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct
transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have
reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.

Business

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 Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business
is transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or
customers. Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze
investments, sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.

Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money
and improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time
and travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.

Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid
movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using
computers.

Science and Engineering

Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and
Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and
Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists
use computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.

3.1 Define computer software

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a
computer. Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs
that run on a device. It can be thought of as the variable part of a computer, while
hardware is the invariable part.

The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An
application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is
designed to run a computer's hardware and provides a platform for applications to run on
top of.

Examples and types of software

Among the various categories of software, the most common types include the following:

 Application software. The most common type of software, application software is a

computer software package that performs a specific function for a user, or in some cases,
for another application. An application can be self-contained, or it can be a group of
programs that run the application for the user. Examples of modern applications include
office suites, graphics software, databases and database management programs, web
browsers, word processors, software development tools, image editors and communication
platforms.

 System software. These software programs are designed to run a computer's application
programs and hardware. System software coordinates the activities and functions of the
hardware and software. In addition, it controls the operations of the computer hardware
and provides an environment or platform for all the other types of software to work in. The
OS is the best example of system software; it manages all the other computer programs.
Other examples of system software include the firmware, computer language translators
and system utilities.

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  Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this software is often considered a type of
system software. Device drivers control the devices and peripherals connected to a
computer, enabling them to perform their specific tasks. Every device that is connected to
a computer needs at least one device driver to function. Examples include software that
comes with any nonstandard hardware, including special game controllers, as well as the
software that enables standard hardware, such as USB storage devices, keyboards,
headphones and printers.

 Middleware. The term middleware describes software that mediates between application
and system software or between two different kinds of application software. For example,
middleware enables Microsoft Windows to talk to Excel and Word. It is also used to send
a remote work request from an application in a computer that has one kind of OS, to an
application in a computer with a different OS. It also enables newer applications to work
with legacy ones.

 Programming software. Computer programmers use programming software to write

code. Programming software and programming tools enable developers to develop, write,
test and debug other software programs. Examples of programming software include
assemblers, compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

3.2 Explain the importance of computer system

Introduction
Computer systems are everywhere today. From business to entertainment, from shopping
to education, in our daily lives, communication and in every situation, it is difficult to
imagine a world without computers.

 Communication
Computer systems are more often than not linked together in networks and the ability to
connect with these networks is something we take for granted now. We can now
communicate across the planet at a speed that was unimaginable only a few years ago.
Using our smartphones, tablets, laptops and personal computers, we can send and receive
25
 data from wherever we are. We can do this across the Internet or via the phone network
using 3g or 4g.

 Business
Businesses make extensive use of computers. Jobs that used to take specialists a long time
to do can now be done by a lot of people. For example, many people know how to set up
and use spreadsheets for looking after accounts. Word processors are used by many people
to write letters. Databases are used to search through millions of records and reorganise
them very quickly. Images, video and sound can be manipulated easily now using a
variety of packages. All of these types of jobs were done by specialists in the past. Now
they are accessible to everyone, perhaps with some degree of training. Computers are used
in factories to control operations, to build things using robots and to monitor processes in
ways that are far better than humans ever could. Anyone can set-up a business easily
online using the Internet now and appear to be a very large company and you can run an
online business completely from home, too.

 Employment
There have been many changes to employment patterns. Increasingly, people work from
home (called 'tele-working'). They can organise their working life around their home life,
which might be important if someone has children or a disability. A range of computer
equipment now allows someone to do their job and stay in contact with their employers.
They might use a computer, a tablet, a printer, a webcam and microphone, a broadband
modem and Internet connection, a smartphone and a FAX, for example. If a company is
based in Australia, they no longer need to look for employees just in that country for some
jobs - they can use tele-workers. Workers can be based anywhere in the world. There are
many jobs that didn't exist a few years ago and in the future, there will be many types of
jobs that we can't predict today. This is why it is very important for students to learn to be
adaptable and to be able to change skills easily.

 Education
The way students learn now has changed beyond recognition. Whole libraries of
information are available via the Internet. The use of interactive whiteboards, wireless
connections, video cameras, smartphones and tablets, for example, have changed the
activities in a classroom and exam boards are making increased use of online testing and
marking as well.

 Entertainment
Many people play computer games, a form of entertainment that didn't exist before the
mid-1970s. Computer power means that we can now make and watch 3D films, can carry
vast libraries of music and films around with us on portable devices and can access a
whole range of entertainment via our TVs and portable devices by streaming films directly
to our homes, for example.

 Socialising
We now socialise in ways we never used to. Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Dating
Agencies, chat rooms, forums and so on are all ways which we connect to other people. In
the past, we used to socialise with only those people we met whereas now, we can
socialise with people from all over the world.

 Shopping
We can now shop for any product using the Internet 24 hours a day all year round. We can
use the Internet to find a wider choice of products from across the globe. We can look up
26
 reviews before we make a purchase and can compare prices easily to save money. We can
get some products such as music, books, films and games delivered to us instantly
electronically.

 Crime
With the increasing use of computers in our daily lives, it was inevitable that criminals
would also be harnessing the power of computers. Criminals have hacked into computer
networks belonging to large companies and stolen data, including credit card details. They
have set up false web sites with amazing deals to try and get people to enter in their credit
card details to buy something and have used 'phishing' techniques (sending out large
numbers of emails) to try and get people to give them their account details for their bank,
for example.

3.3 Distinguish between system software and application programme

Let’s discuss the difference between System Software and Application Software with the
help of the following comparison chart (in a tabular form)

S/No System Software Application Software

1. System Software are the type of software Application software are the type of
designed to manage system resources, such software designed to meet the
as memory management, thread requirements of users to perform specific
management, system security and more tasks
2. System software acts as an interface Application software acts as an interface
between the application software and the between users and system software
system. It basically provides a platform to
install and run application software
3. System software are usually written in a Application software are written in a high-
low-level language (e.g. machine language level language. For example – Java, C++,
or assembly language), which gives the etc
system maximum compatibility for
interacting with computer hardware
4. System software are installed along with Application software are third – party
the operating system software that can be downloaded and
installed on the computer according to the
user’s requirement
5. System software are general-purpose Application software are specific-purpose
software primarily used to operate a system software primarily used to perform certain
with computer hardware tasks
6. System software start running when we Application software generally start when
power-on a computer system and stop we launch them to work, and stop when
when the computer is powered off. They we particularly close them. There is no
typically run in the background need to turn off the computer system to
end the application software
7. Programming of system software is Programming of application software is
comparatively complex and more simple as compared to system software.
importantly written for hardware Because they are designed for user-
compatibility; therefore, less or no specific tasks, a user-interface is provided
interaction is provided so that users can interact and perform

27
 according to their work
8. System software can run independently, Application software cannot run
meaning that they can also operate without independently and system software is
application software. However, the system required to run them
cannot run without system software
9. The working of the system software is User-action is required to operate the
mostly automated. They start working on application software. They usually work
their own when the system is turned on according to the commands given by the
user
10. System software are usually classified as a Application software are usually classified
package program/software or customized as client-server, time-sharing, and
program resource-sharing
11. System software are essential for the Application software are not so important
functioning of the system for the effective functioning of the system
12. Some common examples of the system Some common examples of the
software include: Windows Operating application software include: Photoshop
System, Android, Compiler, Debugger etc software, MS Office, File downloader,
media player etc

3.4 Differentiate between high level and low level languages

Both of these are types of programming languages that provide a set of instructions to a
system for performing certain tasks. Though both of these have specific purposes, they
vary in various ways. In this article, we will discuss the difference between high-level and
low-level languages. But before that, let us first know more about programming languages
and their purpose.

What is a Programming Language?

Programming languages define and compile a set of instructions for the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) for performing any specific task. Every programming language has a set
of keywords along with syntax- that it uses for creating instructions.

Till now, thousands of programming languages have come into form. All of them have
their own specific purposes. All of these languages have a variation in terms of the level of
abstraction that they all provide from the hardware. A few of these languages provide less
or no abstraction at all, while the others provide a very high abstraction. On the basis of
this level of abstraction, there are two types of programming languages:

 Low-level language
 High-level language

The primary difference between low and high-level languages is that any programmer can
understand, compile, and interpret a high-level language feasibly as compared to the
machine. The machines, on the other hand, are capable of understanding the low-level
language more feasibly compared to human beings.

What are High-Level Languages?

 One can easily interpret and combine these languages as compared to the low-level
languages.
 They are very easy to understand.
 Such languages are programmer-friendly.
 Debugging is not very difficult.
 They come with easy maintenance and are thus simple and manageable.
28
  One can easily run them on different platforms.
 They require a compiler/interpreter for translation into a machine code.
 A user can port them from one location to another.
 Such languages have a low efficiency of memory. So it consumes more memory
than the low-level languages.
 They are very widely used and popular in today’s times.
 Java, C, C++, Python, etc., are a few examples of high-level languages.

What are Low-Level Languages?

o They are also called machine-level languages.
o Machines can easily understand it.
o High-level languages are very machine-friendly.
o Debugging them is very difficult.
o They are not very easy to understand.
o All the languages come with complex maintenance.
o They are not portable.
o These languages depend on machines. Thus, one can run it on various platforms.
o They always require assemblers for translating instructions.
o Low-level languages do not have a very wide application in today’s times.

3.4 Difference between High-Level and Low-Level Languages

Parameter High-Level Language Low-Level Language

Basic These are programmer-friendly These are machine-friendly languages

languages that are manageable, easy to that are very difficult to understand by
understand, debug, and widely used in human beings but easy to interpret by
today’s times. machines.

Ease of Execution These are very easy to execute. These are very difficult to execute.

Process of High-level languages require the use of a Low-level language requires an

Translation compiler or an interpreter for their assembler for directly translating the
translation into the machine code. instructions of the machine language.

Efficiency of These languages have a very low These languages have a very high
Memory memory efficiency. It means that they memory efficiency. It means that they
consume more memory than any low- consume less energy as compared to
level language. any high-level language.

Portability These are portable from any one device A user cannot port these from one
to another. device to another.

Comprehensibility High-level languages are human-friendly. Low-level languages are machine-

They are, thus, very easy to understand friendly. They are, thus, very difficult
and learn by any programmer. to understand and learn by any
human.

Dependency on High-level languages do not depend on Low-level languages are machine-

Machines machines. dependent and thus very difficult to
understand by a normal user.

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 Debugging It is very easy to debug these languages. A programmer cannot easily debug
these languages.

Maintenance High-level languages have a simple and It is quite complex to maintain any
comprehensive maintenance technique. low-level language.

Usage High-level languages are very common Low-level languages are not very
and widely used for programming in common nowadays for programming.
today’s times.

Speed of Execution High-level languages take more time for The translation speed of low-level
execution as compared to low-level languages is very high.
languages because these require a
translation program.

Abstraction High-level languages allow a higher Low-level languages allow very little
abstraction. abstraction or no abstraction at all.

Need of Hardware One does not require a knowledge of Having knowledge of hardware is a
hardware for writing programs. prerequisite to writing programs.

Facilities Provided High-level languages do not provide Low-level languages are very close to
various facilities at the hardware level. the hardware. They help in writing
various programs at the hardware
level.

Ease of The process of modifying programs is The process of modifying programs is

Modification very difficult with high-level programs. It very easy in low-level programs.
is because every single statement in it Here, it can directly map the
may execute a bunch of instructions. statements to the processor
instructions.

Examples Some examples of high-level languages Some examples of low-level

include Perl, BASIC, COBOL, Pascal, languages include the Machine
Ruby, etc. language and Assembly language.

3.5 State the different types of computer low-level languages e.g. machine code and
assembly languages

Machine and assembly languages are “low-level,” requiring a programmer to manage

explicitly all of a computer’s idiosyncratic features of data storage and operation.

A machine language consists of the numeric codes for the operations that a particular
computer can execute directly. The codes are strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits (“bits”),
which are frequently converted both from and to hexadecimal (base 16) for human
viewing and modification. Machine language instructions typically use some bits to
represent operations, such as addition, and some to represent operands, or perhaps the
location of the next instruction. Machine language is difficult to read and write, since it
does not resemble conventional mathematical notation or human language, and its codes
vary from computer to computer.

30
 Assembly language is one level above machine language. It uses short mnemonic codes
for instructions and allows the programmer to introduce names for blocks of memory that
hold data. One might thus write “add pay, total” instead of “0110101100101000” for an
instruction that adds two numbers.

Assembly language is designed to be easily translated into machine language. Although

blocks of data may be referred to by name instead of by their machine addresses, assembly
language does not provide more sophisticated means of organizing complex information.
Like machine language, assembly language requires detailed knowledge of
internal computer architecture. It is useful when such details are important, as in
programming a computer to interact with peripheral devices (printers, scanners, storage
devices, and so forth).

3.6 State the different types of computer high level languages e.g. BASIC, FORTRAN,
PASCAL and COBOL

BASIC
BASIC (beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code) was designed at Dartmouth
College in the mid-1960s by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz. It was intended to be easy
to learn by novices, particularly non-computer science majors, and to run well on a time-
sharing computer with many users. It had simple data structures and notation and it was
interpreted: a BASIC program was translated line-by-line and executed as it was
translated, which made it easy to locate programming errors.

Its small size and simplicity also made BASIC a popular language for early personal
computers. Its recent forms have adopted many of the data and control structures of other
contemporary languages, which makes it more powerful but less convenient for beginners.

FORTRAN
The first important algorithmic language was FORTRAN (formula translation), designed
in 1957 by an IBM team led by John Backus. It was intended for scientific computations
with real numbers and collections of them organized as one- or multidimensional arrays.
Its control structures included conditional IF statements, repetitive loops (so-called DO
loops), and a GOTO statement that allowed non sequential execution of program code.
FORTRAN made it convenient to have subprograms for common mathematical
operations, and built libraries of them.

FORTRAN was also designed to translate into efficient machine language. It was
immediately successful and continues to evolve.

Pascal
About 1970 Niklaus Wirth of Switzerland designed Pascal to teach structured
programming, which emphasized the orderly use of conditional and loop control structures
without GOTO statements. Although Pascal resembled ALGOL in notation, it provided
the ability to define data types with which to organize complex information, a feature
beyond the capabilities of ALGOL as well as FORTRAN and COBOL. User-defined data
types allowed the programmer to introduce names for complex data, which the language
translator could then check for correct usage before running a program.

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 During the late 1970s and ’80s, Pascal was one of the most widely used languages for
programming instruction. It was available on nearly all computers, and, because of its
familiarity, clarity, and security, it was used for production software as well as for
education.

COBOL
COBOL common business oriented language) has been heavily used by businesses since
its inception in 1959. A committee of computer manufacturers and users and U.S.
government organizations established CODASYL (Committee on Data Systems
and Languages) to develop and oversee the language standard in order to ensure its
portability across diverse systems.

COBOL uses an English-like notation—novel when introduced. Business computations

organize and manipulate large quantities of data, and COBOL introduced the record data
structure for such tasks. A record clusters heterogeneous data—such as a name, an ID
number, an age, and an address—into a single unit. This contrasts with scientific
languages, in which homogeneous arrays of numbers are common. Records are an
important example of “chunking” data into a single object, and they appear in nearly all
modern languages.

3.7 Distinguish between interpretative and compiled languages

Compiled Language:
A compiled language is a programming language which are generally compiled and not
interpreted. It is one where the program, once compiled, is expressed in the instructions of
the target machine; this machine code is undecipherable by humans. Types of compiled
language – C, C++, C#, CLEO, COBOL, etc.

Interpreted Language:
An interpreted language is a programming language which are generally interpreted,
without compiling a program into machine instructions. It is one where the instructions are
not directly executed by the target machine, but instead read and executed by some other
program. Interpreted language ranges – JavaScript, Perl, Python, BASIC, etc.

S.NO. COMPILED LANGUAGE INTERPRETED LANGUAGE

A compiled language is a An interpreted language is a programming language
programming language whose whose implementations execute instructions directly
1
implementations are typically and freely, without previously compiling a program
compilers and not interpreters. into machine-language instructions.
In this language, once the program is
While in this language, the instructions are not
2 compiled it is expressed in the
directly executed by the target machine.
instructions of the target machine.
There are at least two steps to get There is only one step to get from source code to
3
from source code to execution. execution.
In this language, compiled programs While in this language, interpreted programs can be
4
run faster than interpreted programs. modified while the program is running.

In this language, compilation errors In this languages, all the debugging occurs at run-
5
prevent the code from compiling. time.

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S.NO. COMPILED LANGUAGE INTERPRETED LANGUAGE
The code of compiled language can
A program written in an interpreted language is not
6 be executed directly by the
compiled, it is interpreted.
computer’s CPU.
This language delivers better This languages delivers relatively slower
7
performance. performance.
Example of compiled language – C, Example of Interpreted language – JavaScript, Perl,
8
C++, C#, CLEO, COBOL, etc. Python, BASIC, etc.

4.1 Write simple algorithms

An algorithm to calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles and circles

1. Type in the name for the sphere.

2. If the shape is rectangle, go to step 6
3. If the shape is triangle, go to step 9
4. If the shape is circle, go to step 17
5. Go to step 19
6. Type in the length, L and the breath E
7. Calculate area A as length, L multiplied by breath E
8. Go to step 19
9. Type in the three sides S1, S2, S3
10. Calculate sum S as S1, plus S2plus S3 all divided by 2
11. Subtract S1 from S and call it Z1
12. Subtract S2 from S and call it Z2
13. Subtract S3 from S and call it Z3
14. Multiply S by Z1, Z2, Z3 and call it Z
15. Calculate area A as square rest of Z
16. Go to step 19
17. Type in the diameter of the circle D
18. Calculate A as 11 multiply by the square of the diameter D divided by 4
19. Print the area A
20. Go to step 1
21. End

Here is the algorithm for going to the market to purchase a pen.

1. Get dressed to go the market
2. Check your wallet for money
3. If there is no money in the wallet, replenish it
4. Go to the shop
5. Ask for your favorite brand of pen
6. If pen is not available, go to step 7 else go to step 10
7. Give money to the shopkeeper
8. Keep the purchased peb safely
9. Go back home
10. Ask for any other brand of pen
11. Go to step 7

Let us now create an algorithm to check whether a number is positive or negative.

1. Print “Give any number
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 2. Read num
3. If (num ==0) print “You entered 0”
4. If (num>0) print “You entered a positive number”
5. If (num<0) print “You entered a negative number”

4.2 Draw flow chart of a programming task which can be implemented in BASIC

Symbol Purpose Description

Indicates the flow of logic
Flow line
by connecting symbols.

Represents the start and the

Terminal(Stop/Start)
end of a flowchart.

Used for arithmetic

Processing operations and data-
manipulations.
Used for decision making
Decision between two or more
alternatives.

Used to join different

On-page Connector
flowline
Used to connect the
Off-page Connector flowchart portion on a
different page.
Represents a group of
Predefined Process/Function statements performing one
processing task.

Examples of flowcharts in programming

1. Add two numbers entered by the user.

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 Flowchart to add two numbers

2. Find the largest among three different numbers entered by the user.

Flowchart to find the largest among three numbers.

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3. Find all the roots of a quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0

Flowchart to find roots of a quadratic equation

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4. Find the Fibonacci series till term≤1000.

Flowchart to display the Fibonacci Series

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Flowchart Example – Medical Service
This is a hospital flowchart example that shows how clinical cases shall be processed. This
flowchart uses decision shapes intensively in representing alternative flows.

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Flowchart Example – Simple Algorithms
A flowchart can also be used in visualizing algorithms, regardless of its complexity. Here
is an example that shows how flowchart can be used in showing a simple summation
process.

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 Flowchart Example – Calculate Profit and Loss
The flowchart example below shows how profit and loss can be calculated.

4.3 Identify arithmetic operation in BASIC language

Symbol Operation Example
+ Addition x=6+2
8
- Subtraction x=3-2
1
* Multiplication x=5*2
10
/ Division x = 16/8
2
% Modulus x=5%3
2
** Power x = 2 ** 4
16
== Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then (A == B) is

40
 condition becomes true. not true
!= Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are (A != B) is
not equal then condition becomes true. true.
> Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (A > B) is not
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
< Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right (A < B) is
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the (A >= B) is
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. not true.
<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value (A <= B) is
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

Function Main
This program demonstrates arithmetic operations.
Declare Integer a
Declare Integer b
Assign a = 3
Assign b = 2
Output "a = " & a
Output "b = " & b
Output "a + b = " & a + b
Output "a - b = " & a - b
Output "a * b = " & a * b
Output "a / b = " & a / b
Output "a % b = " & a % b
End

Output
a=3
b=2
a+b=5
a-b=1
a*b=6
a / b = 1.5
a%b=1

Flowchart
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4.4 Identify variables names in BASIC language

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 Variables are the nouns of a programming language: they are the entities (values, data)
that act or are acted upon.

A variable declaration always contains two components: the type of the variable and its
name. Also, the location of the variable declaration, that is, where the declaration appears
in relation to other code elements, determines the scope of the variable.

Variable Types
All variables in the Java language must have a data type. A variable's type determines the
values that the variable can have and the operations that can be performed on it. For
example, the declaration int count declares that count is an integer (int). Integers can have
only whole number values (both positive and negative) and you can use the standard
arithmetic operators (+, -, and so on) on integers to perform the standard arithmetic
operations (addition, subtraction, and so on). There are two major categories of data types
in the Java language: primitive types and reference types.

Primitive types contain a single value and include types such as integer, floating point,
character, and boolean. The following table lists, by keyword, all of the primitive data
types supported by Java, their size and format, and a brief description of each.

Type Size/Format Description

(whole numbers)
byte 8-bit two's complement Byte-length integer
short 16-bit two's complement Short integer
int 32-bit two's complement Integer
long 64-bit two's complement Long integer

(real numbers)
float 32-bit IEEE 754 Single-precision floating point
double 64-bit IEEE 754 Double-precision floating point

(other types)
char 16-bit Unicode character A single character
boolean true or false A boolean value (true or false)

Reference types are called such because the value of a reference variable is a reference (a
pointer in other terminology) to the actual value or set of values represented by the
variable. For example, the character-counting program declares (but never uses) one
variable of reference type, args, which is declared to be an array of String objects. When
used in a statement or expression, the name args evaluates to the address of the memory
location where the array lives. This is in contrast to the name of a primitive variable,
the count variable, which evaluates to the variable's actual value

4.5 Identify INPUT statement in BASIC

1. REM Statement
The REM statement is used in making comments or remarks. This kind of comment or
remarks is meant only for the consumption of the users. So, they are ignored by the
computer during execution. REM statements takes this form: <lien
number>REM<comment>. For example

10 REM THIS PROGRAM CALCULATES ALL THE VAT FOR ALL THE
TRANSACTIONS
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15 REM AMOUNT READ IN

2 INPUT Statement
The INPUT statement is a means for data statement. It includes READ-DATA statements.
It enables us to input data into a program through the computer keyboard.

INPUT statement takes this form: <line number>INPUT<variable list>. This list of
variables is separated with comma.

For example.

10 INPUT A, B, C

3. READ-DATA Statement
Any data value including string data value can be read in READ-DATA statement. It
provides another means of data input into a program. READ-DATA statements take the
following forms:

<line number>READ<variable list>

<line number>DATA<data list>. For example

10 READ A, B, C
20 D=A+B+C
30 PRINT D
40 DATA 9.2, 5, 3.5

The execution of the statement on line number 10 would cause the data values 9.2, 5. And
3.6 specified in the DATA statement in line number 40 to be read into the variables A, B,
and c respectively.

4. OUTPUT Statement
The OUTPUT statement is a means for data output. It is shown clearly in the PRINT
statement. It takes this form: <line number>PRINT<output list>

5. PRINT Statement
The PRINT statement provides a way of getting a result of the output from a program. It
takes this form: <line number>PRINT<output list>the output list is a list of variables to be
printed out. The PRINT statement DISPLAYS the result on the screen. It should not be
confused with ‘printing’. For example

10 LET A = 9.2
20 LET B = 3.5
30 PRINT A, B
40 PRINT “A+B IS”, A+B

When there is a PRINT statement without <output list>, the statement causes a print line
to be skipped. This could be likened to ENTER key on the keyboard. For example

10 PRINT
6 LET Statement

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The LET statement to assign values in a program. It enables you to evaluate the arithmetic
expression indicated on the right side of the “equal to” sign. It also helps to move the
variable specified on the left side of the “equal to” sign. LET statement takes this form:
<line number>LET<numeric variable> = <arithmetic expression>. For example

10 INPUT A! B! C!
20 LET D! = A! + B! + C!

Consider this type of mathematical expression in BASIC Programming

10 INPUT D
20 LET D + 1

Line 20 gives an expression that is not a correct mathematical equation but as a BASIC
statement, it is acceptable because 1 is added to D and the result is placed in D.

If D were in as 21, 1 would be added and 22 would be placed back into D. The effect of
the LET statement in line 20 is to add 1 to D. this can be used to communicate a running
total.

7. GOTO Statement
In the GOTO statement, the transfer of control or jump from one part of the program to
another is called looping. Looping involves repeating some portion of a program either a
specified number of times or until some particular conditions have been satisfied. Looping
could be Conditional or Unconditional looping. The form of the GO-TP statement is GO-
TO <line number> showing the line number of statement in the program. For example.

10 INPUT A, B
20 LET A = 2
30 LET B = 3
40 PRINT A, B
50 GO-TO 10

8. IF THEN Statement
The IF-THEN statement is the Conditional part of looping. It is used to carry out
conditional branching operations. The form of the IF-THEN statement is:

IF<relational expression> THEN<line number>

Where <relational expression>is a relational expression involving comparison of two

quantities using a relational operator. <line number> is the line number of an existing
statement. The relational operators used in relational expressions are the following:

Equal: =
Less than: <
Greater than: >
Less than or Equal to: <=
Greater than or Equal to: >=
Not equal to: <>

A relational expression gives a condition that is satisfied or not satisfied. Example of

relational expressions are:
45
N < =0.001
X = 25
A+B<C+D
P <> Q
C > (C2 + C2)2
Z >= X*Y

An examples of a conditional looping is:

10 INPUT A, B
20 LET A = 2
30 LET B = 3
40 PRINT A, B
50 GO-TO 10
60 IF 1 >= 100 THEN 80
70 LET 1 = 1 + 1
80 PRINT A, B
90 GO-TO 10
100 END

The IF statement provides the programmer the capacity for looping and opens for him a
variety or similar operations with minor modifications. For example,

5 REM SUM INTEGERS FROM 1 – 1000

10 LET S = 0
20 LET N = 1
30 LET S = S + N
40 LET N = N + 1
50 IF N <= 1000 THEN 30
60 PRINT S
70 END

9. FOR AND NEXT Statement

The FOR AND NEXT statement is another form of looping meaning that the sequence of
instructions is to be repeated a fixed number of times. They enable a more concise way of
handling loops that IF-THEN statements. Consider using the FOR AND NEXT statement
to handle programs involving IF-THEN Looping

SUM ALL INTEGERS FROM 1 – 200 AND PRINT OUT THE RESULT

Using the IF-THEN statement

10 LET S = 0
20 LET 1 =1
30 LET S = S + 1
40 LET I = 1 + 1
50 IF I > 200 THEN 70
60 GO-TO 30
70 PRINT S
80 END

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Using the FOR AND NEXT Statements:

10 LET S = 0
20 FOR I = 1 – 200 STEP 1
30 LET S = S + I
40 NEXT I
50 PRINT S

Statements 20, 30, and 40 constitute a FOR – NEXT loop. A FOR – NEXT loop starts
with a FOR statement and ends with a NEXT statement.

Notice that statements 20, 40, and 50 in Example 1 are instructions to perform the
following operations respectively

- initialize I to 1
- increment I to 1

- if I is greater than 100 (the final value), get out of the loop (consisting of
statements 30 – 60)

The FOR statement 20 in our example above combines these three operations performed
in statements 20, 40, and 50 in IF-THEN example. The NEXT statement in line 40 means
go back to execute the FOR statement.

The operational logic of the FOR loop in statement 20 to 40 above can be explained in this
way:

a. initialize I with 1
b if I > 100 then exit the loop by going to statement 50 (i.e the statement immediately
following the NEXT statement)
c. execute statement 30 (that is the statement to be executed if I <= I <= 100)
d. increment I by
e. Go back to (b)

I in the example is called the loop variable. I (after =) is called the initial value of the loop
variable, 100 is called the final value of the loop variable. I (after STEP) is called the
incremental value for the loop variable.

FOR AND NEXT loop is certainly useful when one knows exactly how many times one
wants a sequence of statements to be executed.

10. ON-GO TO Statement

ON-Go To statement is used to replace many IF – THEN statements at a time it is called a
computed GO TO statement. The general form of ON-GO TO statement is:

<line number>ON <expression? GO TO <list of statement number>. For example,

10 INPUT
20 IF A = 5 THEN 80
47
30 IF A = 7 THEN 100
40 IF A = 10 THEN 90

Line number 20 to 40 could be replaced with ON-GO TO statement like this:

20 ON A GO TO 80, 100, 90

If A is equal to 5, then a loop is made to the first number indicated in this case line number
80. If A equal to 7, then a loop is made ti line number 100 wich is the second line number
in this program. If A is equal to 10, then a loop is made to the third line number which is
90.

11. STOP Statement

The STOP statement is a control statement. It should not be mistaken for END which is
used to terminate a program. Generally, the BASIC program ends with an END statement
and when executed, the program terminates normally. STOP statement causes an abrupt
termination of a program but it is not the final end of the program. STOP statement could
be likened to a bus-stop whereas the END statement could be likened to a bus-Terminal
where all passengers are discharged. STOP statement takes form:

<line number>STOP. For example, using a BASIC program, calculate and print the
average of five amounts, and then repeat the process. Stop when on amount is equal to
10000.

10 S=0
20 FOR I = 1 – 5
30 INPUT A
40 IF A = 10000 THEN 90
50 S=S+A
60 NEXT I
70 PRINT S
80 GO TO 10
90 STOP
100 END

12. DIM Statement

DIM statement is used to tell the program to reserve enough room for a list. The BASIC
translator automatically reserves enough location to allow for subscript whenever a
subscripted variable is encountered during translation.

The general form of DIM statement is: 5 DIM S(10). For example, 10 subjects are
expected to be entered for every student in JSS2, we will need a DIM statement like this:

<line number> DIM <list of variables>

To allow the program so that it can read in 14 exam scores of students in 15 different
subjects and compute average, we shall add the DIM statement and simply change the
parameters in this form:

5 DIM S(14)
10 LET T = 0
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 20 FOR J = ! – 14
30 INPUT S (J)
40 LET T = T + S (J)
50 NEXT J
60 PRINT T/14
70 GO TO 10
80 END

S = Subjects, T = Name of the array, J = Next subject

4.6 Identify output statement in BASIC

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50