A Current Study of Automatic Meter Reading

Solutions via Power Line Communications

Chong Hock K Goh

[email protected]

Department of Computer Science, School of Computer Science

Carnegie Mellon University

Department of Economics, College of Humanities and Social Sciences

Carnegie Mellon University

Advisors

Prof. Jay Apt

Engineering and Public Policy and Graduate School of Industrial Administration
Carnegie Mellon University

Prof. Lester B. Lave

Graduate School of Industrial Administration
Carnegie Mellon University

Abstract
It is more expensive to generate electricity during peak hours, yet consumers are not
paying the more expensive rate for peak-hour electricity. It will be more economically
efficient if consumers pay varying prices, depending on when they use electricity, instead
of the current system where an average price rate is used. Hence we need to send real-
time pricing to consumers. We look at current Automatic Meter Reading (AMR)
solutions via Power Line Communications (PLC). If current AMR technology allows
meter readings to be sent via power lines quickly and cheaply, then sending real-time
pricing via power lines is feasible. In this study, we consider 3 companies that provide
AMR solutions to existing customers, and make a comparison of their AMR technologies.
INTRODUCTION

Power demand from residents usually peak in the morning and at night, because
residents usually switch on their appliances as they prepare for work in the morning, and
when they come home from work at night. A typical resident’s power usage profile is
shown below1 :

Residential Load (E1) Usage

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Load (kWh)

0.5
Load
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2:00am
3:30am
5:00am
6:30am
8:00am
9:30am

2:00pm
3:30pm
5:00pm
6:30pm
8:00pm
9:30pm
12:30am

11:00am
12:30pm

11:00pm

Time of Day

However, it is costly to generate electricity to match peak power demand.

Additional plants have to be operated in order to increase supply. These plants only
operate 200 out of 8760 hours per year hence maintenance of the plants make them
economically inefficient. In addition, these plants generate electricity by using gas, which
is more expensive. Also, labor during these peak periods is more expensive as well.

1
Source: PG&E Corporation. 2003. Understanding Energy Use and Prices: Pacific Gas and Electric
Company. Load Profiles (E-1, E-8, E-13)

2
 Electricity costs vary substantially from hour to hour, often by a factor of five or
more within a single day.

Typical Energy Price with respect to time of day

However, most customers buy electricity under time- invariant prices that are set months
or years ahead of actual use. Customers should have the opportunity to see electricity
prices that vary from hour to hour, reflecting price variations. Permitting and encouraging
consumers to face time-varying electricity prices offers these benefits: economic,
environmental, and reliability. Economic efficiency requires a range of customer choices.
Offering customers a variety of pricing options is an essential component of competitive
markets and a key to improving customer well-being. Customers who choose to face the
volatility of electricity prices can lower their electricity bills in two ways. First, they
provide their own insurance. Second, they can modify electricity usage in response to
changing prices, increasing usage during low-price periods and cutting usage during
high-price periods. Strategically timed demand reductions decrease the need to build new
generation and transmission facilities. When demand responds to price, system load
factors improve, increasing the utilization of existing generation and reducing the need to
build new facilities.

Hence there is a need to send timely price signals to consumers. There are several
ways to send this information. For example, power utilities may update prices on their
internet web site. However, not all consumers will have internet access. Sending price

3
signals via power lines to meters will provide the most extensive coverage of power
consumers. Also, using power lines is a convenient and cheap solution.

Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) is the remote collection of consumption data

from customers’ utility meters using telephony, radio frequency, power lines and satellite
communications technologies. AMR provides water, gas and electric utility-service
companies the opportunity to increase operational efficiency, improve customer service,
reduce data-collection costs and quickly gather critical information that provides insight
to company decision- makers.

Since we are targeting to send price signals via power lines, we only look at
technologies that provide AMR solutions through this medium. The data from customers’
utility meters is similar in size with the data that contains price information. Therefore,
analyzing current AMR solutions via power lines provides a realistic feasibility study of
whether price signals can be sent to residents via power lines.

4
BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Power line communications (PLC) uses the power supply grid for communication.
Power line networks have very extensive infrastructure in nearly each building. Hence,
the use of this network for transmission of data in addition to power supply has gained a
lot of attention. Since power line was devised for transmission of power at 50-60 Hz and
at most 400 Hz, the use this medium for data transmission, at high frequencies, presents
some technically challenging problems. Apart from large attenuation, power line is one of
the most electrically contaminated environments. This makes communication extremely
difficult. Furthermore the restrictions imposed on the use of various frequency bands in
the power line spectrum limit the achievable data rates.

Power lines connect the power generation station to a variety of customers

dispersed over a wide region. Power transmission is done using varying voltage levels
and power line cables. Power line cable characteristics and the number of crossovers play
an important role in determining the kind of communication technology that needs to be
used. Based on the voltage levels at which they transfer, power lines can be categorized
as follows:

1. High-tension lines: These connect electricity generation stations to distribution

stations. The voltage levels on these lines are typically in the order of hundreds of
kilovolts and they run over distances of the order of tens of kilometers.

2. Medium-tension lines: These connect the distribution stations to pole mounted

transformers. The voltage levels are of the order of a few kilovolts and they run over
distances of the order of a few kilometers.

3. Low-tension lines: These connect pole- mounted transformers to individual

households. The voltage levels on these lines are of the order of a few hundred volts and
these run over distances of the order of a few hundred meters.

High-tension lines represent excellent carriers for RF energy as we only find open
wire equipment with very few crossovers. A transmission power of about 10 watts is
often sufficient to overcome distances of more than 500 kilometers. Around the year
1922 the first carrier frequency system (CFS) began to operate on high- tension lines in
the frequency range of 15-1500 KHz. During the past and even nowadays the main

5
purpose of CFS was to maintain the operability of the power supply. Through the
application of modern digital modulation and coding schemes, a significant enhancement
of bandwidth efficiency could be achieved for CFS.

Medium and low tension lines are characterized by large number of cross
connections and different conductor types (e.g. open wire and cable). Long distance RF
signal propagation is extremely bad in this environment because of high attenuation and
impedance matching problems. Around the year 1930 ripple carrier signaling (RCS)
began to operate on these lines. These used frequency range below 3 KHz down to 125
Hz with amplitude shift keying (ASK) modulation technique. The data rates achieved by
RCS were of the order of a few bits per second. Load management and automatic
reconfiguration of power distribution networks were among the most important tasks
performed by RCS.

We see that the use of power line communications in the past was mainly for use
by the Utility Corporations (UCs) in maintaining the seamless power supply. The UCs
generally regarded the power distribution wiring as a "natural" medium for their
communication needs, as all- important stations are connected. Recently, data
communications over low-tension lines has gained a lot of attention. This is fuelled by
the explosive growth of Internet along with advances in digital signal processing, error
correction coding and electronic hardware. These helped in achieving medium to high
bandwidth over low-tension power lines. However, these technologies are not able to
transmit data through transformers, and are only able to provide “last- mile access”.
Hence such technologies are more suitable for providing high bandwidth in local area
networks, but unsuitable for our purpose.

Our goal is to send price signals, using power lines, from the utility company to
the substations, which will transmit the signals to the electricity meters installed at
residents’ houses. One of the criteria that we use to evaluate the PLC technologies that
we have considered is whether signals are able to pass through transformers without
much attenuation. We also look at the distance at which signals can be transmitted before
degradation occurs. Ideally, the PLC technology should not require repeaters. If repeaters
are required, then installation and maintenance cost will increase. The cost of the
equipment that the technology requires is also a factor that we consider.

6
 Lastly, the data transfer rate has to be fast enough to transmit a day’s worth of
hourly meter data in a day. We estimate the bandwidth that is necessary for price signals
to be sent daily. We assume that TCP/IP protocol is used. Proprietary protocols that
require smaller overheads can be used, but since TCP/IP overhead is fairly large, our
estimate might be an overestimate – and it is better to overestimate than to underestimate.
A typical TCP header size is 20 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits); a typical IP header size is 20
bytes; a typical Ethernet header size is 14 bytes; and CRC size is 4 bytes (16-bit CRC).
We assume that the price is at most 200 cents. Hence the price needs only 8-bits
(maximum integer that can be encoded with 8-bits is 256). Hence a data packet’s size will
be 60-bytes. Ideally, for real-time pricing, a price signal should be sent every 15- min.
Hence the targeted bandwidth is approximately 0.5 bps 2 .

However, day-ahead pricing can be done as well. Prices for each hour of the next
day will be sent in 1 data packet. The new size of this packet is 106 bytes. This packet
will be sent once every day. Hence the target bandwidth for hourly pricing sent daily is
9.8 x 10-3 bps3 .

2
Bandwidth = Data size / Time to transmit = 60 bytes / 15-min = 60*8 bits / (15*60sec) = 0.5 bps
3
New packet size = Overhead + 24 prices = 20 (TCP) +20 (IP) + 14 (Ethernet) + 4 (CRC) + 24*2 (Price)
bytes = 106 bytes. Bandwidth = 106*8 bits / (24*60*60sec) = 9.8 x 10-3 bps

7
TURTLE SYSTEMS

Hunt Technologies Inc.’s newest system, Turtle Systems 2 (TS2) is a two-way

Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) system that allows command and control of endpoint
specific data to a utility company. In this case, it can allow simultaneous transmission of
meter readings from utility companies to meters and vice versa.

The TS2 system provides an infrastructure enabling delivery of meter readings to

a specified control site, typically located at the utility office. Each TS2 transceiver has its
own unique frequency allowing for every endpoint to transmit or receive continuously
without threat of possible collision.

TS2 System Overview

(TS1 is their older one-way AMR system. EPIC™ is their hosting service)

8
 The endpoint transceiver installed at each metering location stores energy usage
and outage data and transmits daily time-stamped data packets over the power line to the
Substation Controller to be downloaded by the TS2 Central Server. The endpoint is also
capable of receiving commands from the TS2 Central Server via the Substation
Controller. The transceiver’s two-wire connection to line voltage provides both power
and a communications path. Any future configuration can be performed remotely via the
power line, eliminating trips to the field.

Each transceiver supports both demand and time-of-use rate structures as well as
provides momentary and sustained outage information. This data collected by the
endpoint transceivers is received daily where it is distributed throughout the utility
company.

The Substation Controller is installed at the substation and facilitates bi-

directional communication with both the Central Server at the utility office and the
Endpoint Transceivers installed at the metering locations. The Substation Controller uses
PLC technology to continuously receive data from each endpoint. In addition, the
Substation Controller can send messages to each endpoint—broadcasting simultaneously
to an individual endpoint, group of endpoints, or all endpoints. Since we want to send
price signals to many meters at one time, this is an important feature that Turtle Systems
fulfills.

The Substation Controller is built around an industrial grade computer designed to

withstand the harsh environment of a substation. It consists of two main components: a
substation processing unit (SPU) and an amplifier. The components are housed in a
standard 19" rack and may be installed inside or outside of a control house. A Power Line
Coupler is also installed at each distribution substation where it couples a low voltage
signal onto the power line for communication with the endpoints. The Power Line
Coupler consists of two main components: an impedance matching unit (IMU) and a
standard two-bushing, three-phase power factor correction capacitor bank. The Power
Line Coupler may be installed either inside or outside the substation fence.

As a customer has reported, the meters can be up to 160 miles away from the
substation and yet be able to maintain data transmission. However, as its name reveals,
the system is extremely slow. With regards to AMR, each data packet a meter reading,

9
and is read once every 22 hours. The packet size is 63-bits, and takes 22 hours to transmit.
This implies that the bandwidth of TS2 is around 8 x 10-4 bps.

Turtle Systems use ultra- narrow bandwidth (UNB). UNB power line carrier
technology is a relatively new concept that has distinct advantages over other carrier
systems. Signals in UNB systems have the long distance and reliability (increased noise
immunity) virtues of low frequency signals used in ripple carrier systems, but UNB
transmitters are inexpensive and can be built small enough to easily fit inside the average
kWh meter. These meter reading devices don’t have to be polled because each one is
transmitting all the time. Similar to radio and television stations, each unit transmits on its
own private frequency, and thousands of these transmitters can be sending signals up the
power line simultaneously. However, if a single power disruption does occur, it will wipe
out an entire data frame – up to 22 hours worth of data. Moreover, there is no way to
request a fast re-send of the lost data frame; the re-send will take another 22 hours to
transmit.

Each TS2 module costs $85, and the cost of equipment for a substation is around
$25,000. Overall, Turtle Systems’ TS2 has a fair advantage in terms of pricing, for each
module. The distance of 160 mile, in which transmission can be done without
degradation, is impressive. However, the cost of equipment for each substation is
substantially higher compared to CannonTech’s EMETCON system (as described in the
next section). Also, the most significant disadvantage that TS2 has is its slow speed and
its inability for a quick re-request of data in the case of data loss. This makes it seem
unsuitable for our use of sending timely price signals to meters.

10
EMETCON DLC

DLC stands for Distribution Line Carrier, referring to the fact that this power line
carrier system can communicate over utility-owned distribution power lines. EMETCON
is an acronym for Electronic Metering and Control. The system is two-way, data-on-
demand, with the ability to read a remote meter in around six seconds start-to- finish.

Besides its fast speed, EMETCON has a few other advantages. It has direct
support for popular digital meters. Its software, Yukon Platform, allows data can be
integrated to its other applications : Integrated Call Center, Load Response Center and
Remote Power Factor Control. Also, its database is web-compatible and can be accessed
via a web-display engine.

With EMETCON, the theoretical transmission rate is 72 Baud and the frequency
is 12.5 KHz asynchronous. It takes between 3 and 6 seconds to read a meter, and thus to
read and display real-time meter data every 15 minutes, the system would be limited to
180 meters per substation. This would be adequate for commercial and industrial sectors
as seldom one will have that many meters per substation, and, especially since our system
is deployed more by rural electrics rather than densely populated investor owned utilities
(IOU) who normally would use a radio communication system.

EMETCON can store 48 intervals of data and the system can go around and
collect that data, six pieces at a time, so the system then can do load survey on 6 times
180 meters per substation. The system at the utility company polls data, going out to the
substation and requesting data to be returned. The substation equipment has intelligence
to go out and read meters and store them until the communication line frees up to bring
back data. Load survey reading of 6 15 minute intervals takes the same amount of time
as reading one interval - 3 to 6 seconds per meter. If 30-minute interval data is requested
instead, the number of meters per substation is increased to 6 times 360, and so the pipe
expands. EMETCON does have repeaters available and injects the signal up to 34.5KV
and it propagates well down through the distribution system, but the system does use
capacitor blocking units to jumper the signal around grounded banks.

The data packet used for AMR is 52-bits long. Since the time taken for data to be
transmitted from the substation to meter and back is 3 to 6 seconds, the bandwidth for
this is approximately 17 bps. This is much less than the theoretical bandwidth of 72 baud.

11
 The all- in cost of EMETCON system is approximately $175 per meter. Hence the
per-meter cost is fairly high. The cost of equipment needed per substation is between
$12,000 and $15,000, depending on options, volume, etc. This is significantly cheaper
than the per-substation cost of Turtle Systems.

The longest distance that meters can be from is 100 miles. In addition,
EMETCON AMR can be installed with fixed network architecture, or can be used as a
portable system for hard-to-read meters and tough-terrain routes. Hence the technology is
very popular in mountainous and rural areas. EMETCON is widely used by rural electrics
where commercial data networks are non-existent. Coverage includes large parts of rural
Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Michigan, Iowa,
Maryland, and Delaware. Clients include over 120 rural co-ops and municipals.
EMETCON seems to be used widely for rural areas but not city areas.

12
TWACS® SYSTEM

Since 1978, Distribution Control Systems, Inc. (DCSI) has marketed and
manufactured the highly successful, field-proven TWACS® two-way power line
communication technology which provides unique capabilities ideally suited for
Automatic Meter Reading (AMR), load control, distribution automation and other value-
adding services. TWACS is a fixed network utility communication system that uses
patented technology to communicate over electric power lines, providing low-cost,
highly- reliable, two-way communication between the utility and the consumers of
electricity, water and gas. To date, DCSI has in excess of 2 million endpoints under
contract, including the industry’s largest fully operational two-way deployments. All of
these systems provide immediate, two-way access directly to each end-point device
through the TWACS power line fixed network. The TWACS technology delivers over
99% message reliability, which results in highly efficient and dependable AMR demand-
side management and distribution automation systems.

TWACS® System Overview

Unlike conventional power line carrier systems, which superimpose a high

frequency on the power lines, TWACS works by modulating the voltage waveform at the
zero-crossing point. The result is a communication system that uses the Utility’s network
at the frequency for which it was designed and built. The TWACS communication

13
channel is power lines used at 60 Hz. Because the TWACS communication signal is part
of the AC waveform, there is no need for repeaters, blocking devices nor any
conditioning or special maintenance of the utility’s distribution feeders for TWACS to
achieve high reliability. The only equipment needed is a module that fits within the meter
at a home or business and transmitting/receiving equipment that is installed within a
utility's fenced- in substation. This is because it uses 60Hz as the actual carrier rather than
a superimposed high frequency carrier. Use of such superimposed high frequency
carriers leads to short propagation distances, loss of signals at capacitors and
underground line segments, standing waves/nulls, etc. hence the need for repeaters and
blocking devices for traditional power line carriers. The TWACS system has none of the
above deficits. By far, TWACS is the only company that has figured out how to do this
effectively and reliably.

There are a few other advantages of TWACS provides its customers. Firstly,
utility companies already own the data transmission infrastructure. Owning the TWACS
power line communication network provides multiple competitive advantages. TWACS
allows you to manage your data collection process and control critical interval data. You
are able to reduce risk by not depending on a third party’s proprietary system to carry the
data or this party’s ability to provide the type of data you need when you need it.

Secondly, TWACS has nearly 100% service territory coverage 4 . TWACS

achieves the highest coverage in the industry, particularly for geographically diverse
utilities. Since the utility’s existing power lines are used "as is," coverage exists virtually
everywhere the power flows. Homogeneous levels of service can be implemented
throughout a utility’s territory. Whether it is immediate on-request reads, daily or hourly
interval data, load control or service connect/disconnects, all of the rich features of
TWACS are available in urban, suburban and rural areas. TWACS provides an equally
compelling business case in all customer densities. This is due to the use of existing
power lines rather than an infrastructure where cost per metered point rises sharply as
customer density declines or a service where coverage is not available at all premises.
TWACS is only incrementally higher in cost in rural areas as compared to urban areas,
but so is the meter reading process. In urban areas, large substations serve 10,000 or more

4
The few exceptions relate to high-end transmission-served customers, which frequently have AMR
capability in place and PT-rated services where promising progress has been made toward TWACS
solutions for this small but important segment of a utility’s meter population. Note that CT -rated services
are routine TWACS applications.

14
consumers, allowing TWACS to achieve the industry’s lowest per- meter network cost
structure. TWACS’ relatively uniform per- meter cost structure allows a utility to choose
a deployment strategy that fits their unique business needs.

Regarding transformers, DCSI has at least one example where the TWACS
system was installed at 34.5kv/19.9kV (L-L/L-N voltages) and passed through several
intermediate 12.47kV/7.2kV substations, and then through a 4.16kV substation and
finally to a 120/240V conventional single-phase residence. This example is about as
complex as the North American distribution system, yet the TWACS signal was
unimpaired by these transformations. Also, TWACS signals can pass through circuit
breakers, unlike the old X-10 technology which bypassed them. In addition, the longest
circuit proven so far is 85 linear miles with no degradation noted.

TWACS is able to collect data at interval lengths as short as 15- minutes and
retrieve and store it within the TWACS Net Server for daily delivery. TWACS load
control capabilities include load status verification and automatic grouping of loads for
measuring load management effectiveness. Load control data can be used for load
forecasting and pricing. Load profiling allows for retrievable billing for direct access
tariffs. Because TWACS is a true two-way system, peak demand can be recorded and
reset remotely.

The data packet used for AMR is 8 to 15 bytes long. A two-way transaction takes
8.8 seconds, round trip, to communicate with a single meter. This is called a "serial
number mode" request in that a single end-point is polled. Of the 8.8 seconds, about half
is on the "outbound" channel – from the substation to the end-point, and the other half is
on the "inbound channel" – from the end-point to the substation. In group mode, the
system can perform 16 inbounds for each outbound with all 16 units communicating in a
22-25 second period. Additionally, all three phases can be running nearly concurrently,
adding to parallelism inherent in the electric distribution network. With all of these
features, the average time per meter falls to below one second. The system can also
"broadcast" an outbound, one-way message to all end-points in less than a minute
containing a data payload of a dozen or so bytes. Hence, the speed at which a substation

15
can transmit data to meters is approximately 30 bps5 , and with parallelism, the speed at
which meters can send data back to substation is approximately 80 bps 6 .

Since a TWACS system transaction only lasts 8.8 seconds, it is not an issue if it is
destroyed by a noise burst since it is automatically re-tried seconds later. So, in terms of
usable channel latency and throughput, the TWACS system outperforms both
EMETCON and Turtle Systems’ TS2 because it is optimized to expect a certain number
of noise hits (up to 5% of messages may be damaged on some noisy systems, though
most systems average close to 99% first try success) and to overcome them with ease.

The all- in cost of TWACS system is approximately $125 per meter. This pricing
is reasonable. Although TWACS has the shortest distance (85 miles) in which the signal
can be transmitted without degradation, this is adequate for accessing rural areas. Being
able to pass through transformers without impairing the signal and not needing repeaters
is also another big advantage of the TWACS system. The transmission speed of TWACS
is also the highest amongst the 3 systems being compared. Lastly, TWACS has been
implemented for approximately 25 years and has over 100 customers to date. Hence has a
rich experience in this aspect.

All in all, with its speed, robustness, reliability, and even pricing, TWACS is by
far the best choice that we have. Indeed, the TWACS system might be able to provide
real-time or day-ahead pricing to residents via power lines.

5
Data packet = 15 bytes; Time taken = 8.8 sec round trip -> one way takes 4.4 sec.
Bandwidth = (15*8)bits / 4.4 sec = 30 bps
6
Data packet = 16 channels * 15 bytes; Time = 25 second. Bandwidth = 16*15*8 bits / 25 sec = 80 bps

16
CONCLUSION

Having compared the 3 current AMR technologies, we have found that there
exists one that seems able to support sending real-time or day-ahead pricing to consumers.
The TWACS system has excelled in terms of speed and robustness and has extensive
coverage and experience in this field. With this technology that can send price signals to
consumers, our next goal is to investigate what we can achieve with real-time pricing sent
to meters of residents.

It is unrealistic to expect residents to monitor power prices every hour. If day-

ahead prices are sent to residents, then they can plan their activities and hence change the
timing of their power usage, according to the given prices. For example if a resident
usually does laundry in a peak period, then the resident might decide that it does not
really matter if he/she did the laundry at an off-peak period. Alternatively, appliances can
be programmed to automatically poll the meter for price information, and switch to
power-saving mode or switch off completely if a certain price level is exceeded. For
example, we might program the refrigerator to operate similarly to existing Honeywell
thermostats – if the price exceeds a certain level, then it will switch to a power-saving
mode and not operate at 100%.

Hence we will be able to shift peak usage to off peak periods, reducing the
demand peak-hour electricity. However, it is important to note that if everyone shifts
their usage schedule from peak periods to off-peak periods, then there will be a sharp
change in demand. The electricity demand might fall drastically during peak periods and
rise during off-peak periods. A sudden change of demand might make the grid unstable.
Hence an autonomous agent might be used to regulate power demand.

Next, we will like to create a simulation that investigates the possibility of

appliances polling the meter for price information and adjusting its operation with this
price information.

17
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my advisors Prof. Jay Apt, and Prof. Lester Lave for providing me
with kind guidance, insightful ideas and ample relevant material without whom this
project would not be possible.

I would like to thank the following people who have helped me in one way or another in
the project:

Research Engineer of Engineering and Public Policy and Systems Scientist of Computer
Science, Dr. Rahul Tongia

VP of New Business Development for DCSI, Mr Bob Richardson, for being very patient
and responsive despite numerous queries regarding the TWACS system.

President of Cannon Technologies, Mr Ed Cannon, for his replies to my questions despite

his busy schedule.

Support Staff from Hunt Technologies, Inc.

Kepple Land (Singapore), Mr Kwok Yan Hoe

Singapore Power, Mr Teo Heng Lam

18
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PG&E Corporation. 2003. Understanding Energy Use and Prices: Pacific Gas and
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<http://www.pge.com/tariffs/energy_use_prices.shtml>

J. A. Shonder and P. J. Hughes, 2002, DRAFT Proposed Deemed Energy and Demand
Savings for Residential Ground Source Heat Pump Retrofits in the State of Texas, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, February 7

E. Hirst and B. Kirby 2001, Retail-Load Participation in Competitive Wholesale

Electricity Markets, Edison Electric Institute, Washington, DC, and Project for
Sustainable FERC Energy Policy, Alexandria, VA, January.

Kasri. Introduction to Powerline Communications. 2002.

< http://plc.qcslink.com/IntroPLC/PLCmain.htm>

Hunt Technologies, Inc. TS2 System Overview. June 2002.

<http://www.turtletech.com/ProductsTS2.aspx>

P. Hunt. UNB power line carrier. 1998.

http://www.metering.com/archive/981/15_1.htm

Cannon Technologies, Inc. AMR EMETCON DLC. 2003

<http://www.cannontech.com/products/amremetcon.asp>

Distribution Control Systems, Inc. Value-Added Capabilities And Benefits Of TWACS®.

2003.

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