1. What is psychology?

Psychology: Intellectual social biological behavioural psychological and emotional aspects of human
functioning across the lifespan in varying cultures and at all socio-economic levels (society of clinical
psychology, 2002)

2. Meaning and nature of discipline

APA – clinical psychology involves research, teaching and services relevant to the applications of
principles, methods, and procedures for understanding, predicting, and alleviating intellectual,
emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioural maladjustments, disability & discomfort,
applied to a wide range of client population

Clinical psychology is the psychological specialty that provides continuing and comprehensive mental
and behavioural health care for individuals and families; consultation to agencies and communities;
training, education, and supervision; and research-based practice.

Clinical psychology has been defined as a field that involves teaching, practice, and research in
services rendered in the field of psychology – aimed at understanding, predicting modifying, and
improving the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioural aspects of an
individual, across lifespan, various socio-economic cultures, or disabilities (Resnick, 1991)

Clinical psychology maybe practiced across a wide range of individuals – from infants, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, elderly, across individuals in various settings – schools, workplace,
healthcare, communities, groups, families, couples, and individuals of different professions.

Clinical psychologists are usually degree holders in the field of psychology – and the biggest
distinction between them and psychiatrists is the difference in training received in medicine.
Nonetheless, clinical psychology is as much science as it is an art – the roles performed by clinical
psychologists involve scientific and methodological training, which is very specific in nature.

It also considers the following current issues affecting clinical psychology that seem likely to impact
on its future:

(1) the division in professional activities and aspirations between clinical psychologists who function
primarily as practitioners and those who work primarily as academic teachers and researchers

(2) the controversy over alternative training models in clinical psychology: those designed primarily
to train practitioners and those designed to train academic clinical psychologists

(3) the impact of managed care on the practice of clinical psychology

(4) the effort by clinical psychologists to gain legislative authority to prescribe

psychopharmacological agents

(5) the expanded practice opportunities created for clinical psychologists and other mental health
professionals by behavioural telehealth; and

(6) the possibilities and problems posed by the development since the early 1980s of evidence-based
treatments and practice guidelines

3. History and development

The field of clinical psychology seeks to study, assess, treat, and prevent abnormal behaviour and
psychopathology.

a. Witmer

Most historians of clinical psychology trace its founding in the United States to Lightner Witmer, who
established the first psychological clinic in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania. The clinic treated
children with learning problems and disruptive classroom behaviour. Brought to the clinic by their
parents or teachers, these children received both physical and mental examinations. The results of
the examinations determined who would see them next: specialists in internal medicine, psychiatry,
and/or learning remediation. Interestingly, while Witmer founded the first psychological clinic,
taught the first specific course on the subject, and, in fact, named the infant field, he contributed no
central theories or research findings. For that reason, modern day clinical psychology’s debt to him is
limited to his role as the first clinical psychologist.

b. Francis Galton & Catell

Francis Galton, whose efforts during the last two decades of the nineteenth century to relate
individual differences in reaction time and other psychomotor abilities to differences in intellectual
and cognitive functioning, did not call himself a clinical psychologist. Nonetheless, his focus helped
define and strongly influenced those who came later who did call themselves clinical psychologists.
Another influence of the same sort came from James McKeen Cattell, an American psychologist who
had studied with Wilhelm Wundt; Wundt, of course, is generally accorded primacy as the first
psychologist and his laboratory in Leipzig, founded in 1879, the first psychological laboratory. Cattell
also studied individual differences in reaction time and other perceptual and motor skills in hopes of
capturing the essence of intelligence. He called his measures mental tests and developed a battery
of 10 tests to select individuals for various work environments.

Despite this earlier work of Galton and Cattell, though, it is to French psychologist Alfred Binet that
credit is generally given for founding the mental measurement movement that defined the infant
profession of clinical psychology during its earliest decades; In 1904, Binet and his colleague
Theodore Simon were asked to develop an instrument to differentiate degrees of mental
“subnormality” among French schoolchildren for placement purposes. The result was the 1908
Binet-Simon Scale. Later, psychologist Henry Goddard arranged for the Binet tests to be brought to
the United States, where psychologist Lewis Terman produced the first American revision in 1916.
The Stanford-Binet tests subsequently became the principal means by which the intelligence of
children was assessed in America for many years.

c. Explanation of abnormal behaviour

- Hippocrates

imbalance between four fluids, or humours, within the body: yellow and black bile, blood, and
phlegm. Excess yellow bile, for example, resulted in mania; excess black bile resulted in melancholia.
Treatment involved reducing levels of the relevant fluids through a variety of means. Levels of black
bile, for example, could be reduced by a quiet life, a vegetarian diet, temperance, exercise and
celibacy. Although radical treatment approaches such as bleeding or restraint by mechanical devices
were evident at this time, the first-line treatment of both ancient Greeks and Romans was generally
humane, and included providing comfort and a supportive atmosphere.

- Middle Ages
By the Middle Ages, the dominance of religious thinking and the clergy resulted in abnormal
behaviour once more being considered the result of demonic possession. Treatment was provided
by priests and involved attempts to rid the individual of the demon throuhh prayer, chanting and
administration of holy water or bitter drinks. More radical approaches included insulting the devil,
starving, whipping, or stretching the affected individual
Towards the end of the Middle Ages, power again shifted to the secular authorities and, as a result,
biological theories of mental health problems once more became dominant. Institutions for the
humane care of people with mental health problems were established. However, the initial success
of these asylums led to them becoming overcrowded. As a result, the quality of care they provided
gradually deteriorated and became increasingly inhumane

- Somatogenic vs Psychogenic Perspectives

In the early twentieth century, theories and treatments of mental disorders diverged into two
approaches: the somatogenic and psychogenic perspectives. The somatogenic approach considered
mental abnormalities to result from biological disorders of the brain. A highly influential advocate of
this approach, Emil Kraepelin, constructed the first modern typology of abnormal behaviour
(Kraepelin [1883] 1981). He identified various clusters of symptoms, gave them a diagnostic label,
and reported on their course. In addition, he measured the effects of various drugs on abnormal
behaviour. Despite the rapid adoption of this approach, many of the interventions it led to, including
remedies as diverse as tonsillectomy and lobotomy (see Chapter 3), proved ineffective. More
recently, the biological approach has led to the development of powerful drugs used in the
treatment of conditions as varied as depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety disorders.

The psychogenic approach considered the primary causes of mental disorders to be psychological. It
was initially led by an Austrian physician, Friedrich Mesmer. In 1778, he established a clinic in Paris
to treat people with hysterical disorders. The treatment he provided, called mesmerism, involved
the patient sitting in a darkened room filled with music. Mesmer then appeared dressed in a
flamboyant costume and touched the troubled area of the individual’s body with a special rod, a
treatment that proved effective in a number of cases. Other leading advocates of the psychogenic
approach, Jean Charcot and then Sigmund Freud, used hypnotism in the treatment of hysterical
disorders. Treatment typically involved hypnotizing the patient before encouraging them to identify
the factors precipitating the onset of their symptoms and to re-experience their emotions at this
time, a process known as catharsis. Freud later rejected this method in favour of free association
and the use of psychoanalysis. The latter part of the twentieth century saw a revolution in the
treatment of mental health problems and a strengthening of both the biological and psychological
approaches. Humanistic therapies advocated by Carl Rogers added to those of Freud and the
analysts, as did the behavioural and cognitive behavioural approaches led by theorists and clinicians
such as Hans Eysenck

- World Wars

Meanwhile, early in World War I, it became clear that some means needed to be developed to
screen and classify the thousands of new recruits to the U.S. Army. To deal with this problem, a
group of five members of the American Psychological Association (APA), chaired by Robert Yerkes,
was asked by the Medical Department of the Army to create an instrument to classify men for
assignment according to their mental abilities. The result was the Army Alpha, a scale of verbal
ability, published in 1917. The Army Beta, a non-verbal scale, followed shortly thereafter. For further
classification, psychologist Robert Woodworth developed the Psychoneurotic Inventory during the
same period, it was the first questionnaire specifically designed to explore for the presence of
psychopathology.

d. Treatment & Research

During these decades, only a small number of clinical psychologists developed, wrote about, or
practiced treatment, in large part because psychiatrists of the psychoanalytic persuasion pretty
much controlled that enterprise. Most intervention, of course, focused on efforts, which were
largely unsuccessful, to control the behavior of the severely disturbed patients committed to state
hospitals; relatively few non-psychotic (“neurotic”) persons sought treatment and when they did
they generally sought psychoanalysis or psychoanalytic psychotherapy. A few psychologists did move
from assessment activities in the child guidance clinics where they worked to play therapy and, in a
few instances, group therapy, but psychosocial treatment did not become part of the
armamentarium of clinical psychologists until the demands of World War II so markedly changed the
profession. Similarly, clinical research was not a major activity of clinical psychologists during this
period, although some test development research was published.

e. Present trends

Many of Freud’s medical and psychological colleagues were critical of his approach from the
beginning, a fact that is curiously portrayed in histories of psychoanalysis as an example of
unconsciously motivated “resistance.” Eysenck and his behavioral colleagues simply had the
boldness to call the Freudians to account and to engage in much-needed critical thinking about the
relevant evidence.
Meanwhile, support for the behavior therapy movement quickly appeared. Behavioral principles
had a profound influence on research and the practice of therapy By the 1980s, the larger scientific
community finally began to realize the need for formal randomized clinical trials to evaluate the
effectiveness of treatments for psychopathology. Elkin et al. (1989) reported the results of the NIMH
Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. Participants in this research were
outpatients between the ages of 21 and 60 who met the current Research Diagnostic Criteria for
major depressive disorder with specified scores on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale.
Of 250 potential subjects, 239 entered treatment, of whom 162 completed treatment. They were
randomly assigned to either interpersonal psychotherapy, cognitive behavior therapy, imipramine
plus clinical management, or pill placebo plus clinical management (medication was administered on
a double-blind basis). The psychological treatments were carried out by 13 different therapists, in
accordance with detailed treatment manuals. The results showed that the antidepressant
medication and the two types of psychological treatment were all significantly more effective than
pill placebo but were essentially equivalent to each other in their effects on depression. Critics of
such research were quick to point out the additional need for studies on the “effectiveness,” not just
the “efficacy” of such treatments.

Nevertheless, it is clear that with the NIMH Collaborative Research and similar studies, a new era
had arrived. The subsequent emphasis has been on the need for all therapists, when possible, to use
“evidence-based” treatments of psychopathology, rather than procedures that have not been tested
in a rigorous way.
Similarly, the training of all mental health personnel should give priority to teaching treatments that
are firmly grounded in the research literature. This is not to deny, however, that clinicians are
constantly experiencing variations in the pictures presented by patients’ problems, thus requiring a
flexible adaptation of established principles.
 4. Organizations in clinical psychology

- To support research
- Build communities and spread awareness
- Fund campaigns, conferences, and other programs
- Collective national and international movement to fast forward development of
psychology
- Opportunities

- Indian Association of Health Psychology

APA – American psychological Association APA is the leading scientific and professional organization
representing psychology in the United States
The APA is a nonprofit corporation governed by a council of representatives who are elected from its
divisions and affiliated psychological associations.
Our mission is to promote the advancement, communication, and application of psychological
science and knowledge to benefit society and improve lives. We do this by:
● Utilizing psychology to make a positive impact on critical societal issues.
● Elevating the public’s understanding of, regard for, and use of psychology.

● Preparing the discipline and profession of psychology for the future.

● Strengthening APA’s standing as an authoritative voice for psychology.

● The stated mission of APA is to advance the creation, communication, and application of
psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives.
Founded 1892

- The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (1937)

The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology® (JCCP) publishes original contributions on the
following topics:
● the development, validity, and use of techniques of diagnosis and treatment of disordered
behaviour
● studies of a variety of populations that have clinical interest, including but not limited to
medical patients, ethnic minorities, persons with serious mental illness, and community
samples
● studies that have a cross-cultural or demographic focus and are of interest for treating
behaviour disorders
● studies of personality and of its assessment and development where these have a clear
bearing on problems of clinical dysfunction and treatment
● studies of gender, ethnicity, or sexual orientation that have a clear bearing on diagnosis,
assessment, and treatment
● studies of psychosocial aspects of health behaviors
Studies that focus on populations that fall anywhere within the lifespan are considered.
JCCP welcomes submissions on treatment and prevention in all areas of clinical and clinical–health
psychology and especially on topics that appeal to a broad clinical–scientist and practitioner
audience.
JCCP encourages the submission of theory–based interventions, studies that investigate mechanisms
of change, and studies of the effectiveness of treatments in real-world settings.
Studies on the following topics will be considered if they have clear implications for clinical research
and practice:
● epidemiology
● use of psychological services
● health care economics for behavioral disorders
Although JCCP largely publishes research that is empirical and quantitative in method, rigorous
theoretical papers on topics of broad interest to the field of clinical psychology will be considered, as
will critical analyses and meta-analyses of treatment approaches on topics of broad theoretical,
methodological, or practical interest to the field of clinical psychology.

- British Psychological Society (1901)

The British Psychological Society is the representative body for psychologists and psychology in the
UK. We Increase awareness and influence of psychology, support our members’ professional
development and provide a wide range of conferences and events.

● Research workers and lecturers in institutions of higher education

● Clinical psychologists, counselling psychologists, health psychologists and neuropsychologists
working in healthcare and community settings, in research or private practice
● Educational psychologists in LEAs, schools, special schools, colleges and clinics
● Occupational psychologists in management, personnel, training, selection and careers
advisory services
● Forensic psychologists working in penal institutions and special hospitals
● Sport and exercise psychologists working with teams and individuals
● Students on sixth form, undergraduate (one of the largest and fastest growing subjects at
university level) and postgraduate courses

- Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology: Founded 1974. Journal publishes Original Research
Articles, Review Articles, Case Reports, Book Reviews, Brief Communication and Letters
to Editor. The journal encourages the articles related to theory-based interventions,
studies that investigate mechanism of change, effectiveness of treatment in real world
setting. Journal also accepts the articles in the area of Women, Child & Adolescents and
Community Mental Health. Articles related to Epidemiology, Critical Analysis and Meta
Analysis of Treatment approaches; Health care economics, Community Mental Health
Promotion, Development of tools in the area of Clinical Psychology etc. are also
accepted. Journal is started publishing quarterly i.e. March, June, September and
December from year 2021

5. Application & Roles

To be a clinical psychologist, one must

▪ Have documents and license proving they have good professional training
▪ Maintain upto-date knowledge of the trends in research and have ongoing educational
certifications to meet requirements for specialized practice.

- Diagnosis and assessment

 All practicing clinicians engage in assessment of one form or another.
Take, for example, the following cases:
■ A child who is failing the fourth grade is administered an intelligence test and an achievement test.
Does she have a learning disability?
■ Personality tests are given to a client who is depressed and has lost all zest for life. Can the test
results shed light on personality factors contributing to the depression?
■ An adolescent has been talking excessively, moving quickly, switching from one idea to another,
and has been engaging in more risktaking behaviors. A diagnostic assessment is conducted to
determine whether he may have Bipolar Disorder, ADHD, or some other possible psychological
disturbance.

Common to all these examples is the effort to better understand the individual so that a more
informed decision can be made, or the most desirable course of action selected. Assessment,
whether through observation, testing, or interviewing, is a way of gathering information so that an
important question can be answered or so that a problem can be solved. Assessment has long been
a critical part of the clinical psychologist’s role.

- Research

The scientist practitioner model suggests that clinical work is enhanced by a knowledge of scientific
methods, and research is improved by exposure to clinical practice. Clinical psychologists are in a
unique position both to evaluate research conducted by others and to conduct their own research.
By virtue of their training in research, their extensive experience with people in distress, and their
knowledge of both therapy and assessment, clinical psychologists have the ability to consume and to
produce new knowledge. The range of research projects carried out by clinicians is enormous.
Studies include searching for the causes of mental disorders, development and validation of
assessment devices, evaluation of therapy techniques, and so on.

- Teaching

Clinical psychologists who have full or part-time academic appointments obviously devote a
considerable amount of time to teaching. Those whose responsibilities are primarily in the area of
graduate education teach courses in advanced psychopathology, psychological testing, interviewing,
intervention, personality theory, developmental psychopathology, and so on. Even clinicians whose
primary appointments hospitals a private practice sometimes teach evening courses at a nearby
college or university or may even have part-time appointments in graduate programs to help teach
or supervise students working towards their doctoral degree. Much of this teaching is of the familiar
classroom-lecture type. But a considerable amount of teaching is also done on a one-to-one,
supervisory basis. Clinical psychologists in clinical settings may also teach informal classes or do
orientation work with other mental health personnel, such as nurses, aides, social workers,
occupational therapists, and so on. In some cases, the clinician may go out into the community and
lead workshops on various topics for police officers, volunteers, ministers, probation officers, and
others.

- Supervision – working under a registered psychologist for one year or more, train and provide in
writing about proof of competency; passing three levels of examinations abroad. Clinical
supervision is really another form of teaching. However, it typically involves more one-to-one
teaching, small group approaches, and other less formal, non-classroom varieties of instruction.
Whether in university, internship, or general clinical settings, clinical psychologists often spend
significant portions of their time supervising students, interns, and others. Becoming skilled in
 the intricacies of therapy and assessment techniques requires more than just reading textbooks.
It also involves seeing clients and then discussing their cases with a more experienced
supervisor. In short, one learns by doing, but under the controlled and secure conditions of a
trainee– supervisor relationship. This kind of “practicum” teaching and supervision can occur
both in university and internship settings and in postdoctoral programs as well.

- Consultation

In consultation and in teaching, the goal is to increase the effectiveness of those to whom one’s
efforts are directed by imparting to them some degree of expertise. Consultation takes innumerable
forms in many different settings. For example, one might consult with a colleague who is having
difficulty with a therapy case. Such consultation might be a one-shot affair with someone who simply
needs help with one specific case. Consultation could come in the form of case-by-case advice, or
the consultant might be asked to discuss general problems associated with drug addiction. Clinical
psychologists also can serve as consultants to advertising agencies or corporations interested in
developing products that could improve the mental health of their customers. Clinical psychologists
offer valuable consultation services within the legal system as well, either by assisting attorneys in
the selection of jurors for a case or consulting with police departments in hostage negotiations.
Finally, a growing number of clinical psychologists serve as consultants to physicians who deliver
primary care services. Consultation can run the gamut from clinical cases to matters of business,
personnel, and profit. It can deal with individuals or entire organizations.

- Administration

Nearly every clinical psychologist spends time on administrative tasks. For example, client records
must be maintained, those infernal effort reports must be filled out each month, and research
psychologists who work for agencies or institutions will likely serve on several committees:
personnel, research, patient rights. In any event, good administrators are the ones who keep their
organization running smoothly and efficiently. The ability to communicate well with those under
supervision is also important, as is a knack for selecting the right people for the right jobs. It would
be difficult to list all the sorts of administrative posts held by clinical psychologists.

- Professional practice:
Clinical psychologists are involved in having their own practice, where they provide therapeutic and
referral services (either generalized or specific in certain techniques or with specific populations)
According to The American Psychological Association, a clinical psychologist must complete the
following education requirements:
a. UG
b. PG
c. Doctoral
d. Specific Certifications & Training
Requirement of country specific licensing and training. In India, be registered with RCI to
start your own private practice. Prior to which, you must train under a supervisor for a year
or more to sign off on your competence.

- Policy:

As experts in human behaviour, psychologists are considered as efficient and competent

administrators. Because the understanding of human behaviour in social contexts is considered
the backbone of management, therefore psychologists find themselves in administrative
positions in hospitals and other residential treatment settings. Clinicians from psychology serve
 as chairpersons of departments, units, or divisions in hospitals e.g. neuropsychology, mental
health, rehabilitation, and occupational health. They could be directors of graduate training
programs in mental health, student counseling-psychological centers, hospital outpatient
departments, and directors of hospitals. Moreover, they participate in assigned committees and
are active members of their departments. In administration, psychologists manage budgets, lead
multidisciplinary professional and support staff; they develop policies and procedures for
planning and personnel issues etc. Finally, they participate and contribute to all quality
management activities of hospitals and other care settings.

- Evaluation of current mental health interventions

Until the mid-1960s, the major role for psychologists in treating illness was to assess
psychopathology in patients. With the growth of knowledge on the importance of behavioural and
psychosocial factors in the aetiology and maintenance of dysfunctions, psychologists have developed
more expertise in diagnosing and treating the behavioural aspects of illness. Consequently,
psychologists have begun to define themselves as health care rather than mental health care
providers. the clinical role of psychologists in health care delivery as diagnosticians, therapists,
academicians, researchers, and administrators in the era of the biopsychosocial practice.
Psychologists are actively involved in the process of overseeing the formation and implementation of
mental health interventions for patients with purely mental illness, or even as comorbidities with
physical conditions, and work in collaboration with healthcare providers to address subsequent
mental issues.

- Member of various committees and boards

As experts in human behaviour, psychologists are considered as efficient and competent

administrators. Because the understanding of human behaviour in social contexts is considered the
backbone of management, therefore psychologists find themselves in administrative positions in
hospitals and other residential treatment settings. Clinicians from psychology serve as chairpersons
of departments, units, or divisions in hospitals e.g. neuropsychology, mental health, rehabilitation,
and occupational health. They could be directors of graduate training programs in mental health,
student counseling-psychological centers, hospital outpatient departments, and directors of
hospitals. Moreover, they participate in assigned committees and are active members of their
departments. In administration, psychologists manage budgets, lead multidisciplinary professional
and support staff; they develop policies and procedures for planning and personnel issues etc.
Finally, they participate and contribute to all quality management activities of hospitals and other
care settings.

- Legal and court cases for evaluation and counselling

There are several general roles for psychologists in the legal system, and many specific careers exist
in psychology in the law. More generally, psychological researchers can impact the law in a variety of
ways. Psychologists also evaluate the success of various legal interventions or reforms. A large and
growing number of local districts use drug courts as an alternative to traditional criminal courts to
help defendants receive addiction-treatment counselling and intensive supervision instead of
incarceration. Sometimes, legal psychologists also work for trial consulting. In some cases, a
psychologist who works as an academician is called up as a trial consultant when their expertise is
helpful in any particular case. Trial consultants play different roles such as picking up the jurors,
performing mock trials, etc. Forensic psychology helps in analysing the mental condition with
regards to the insanity plea, which is a tactic adapted by people to avoid death sentence and
imprisonment. Hence, forensic psychology helps in determining whether a person is really suffering
from any mental disorder or not. Since the trial process is too long and tiring, it cannot be handled
by mentally or physically ill people. Hence, forensic psychology helps in determining who can endure
the trial and who should be immediately sent for psychiatric treatment.

6. Sub-specialties

Overall, the field of clinical psychology integrates science, theory, and practice to understand,
predict and alleviate maladjustment, disabilities, and discomfort as well as to promote human
adaptation, adjustment, and personal development. It, therefore, focuses on the intellectual,
emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioural aspects of human function in different
cultures and at all socioeconomic levels.

- Child: Pediatric psychology is an interdisciplinary field that addresses the full range of physical
and mental development, health and illness issues affecting children, adolescents, and
families. Pediatric psychologists, therefore, diagnose, assess, and treat the psychological
problems affecting the physical health of children and adolescents or resulting from dysfunction
of the physical health. Moreover, they are involved in the improvement of the mental health
services, the promotion of health and development, and the prevention of illness and injury to
children and adolescents.
- Rehabilitational: Rehabilitation psychology is an applied clinical specialty in professional
psychology concerned with the treatment and science of disabling and chronic health condition.
Rehabilitation psychologists deal with stroke and accident victims, people with mental
retardation, and those with developmental disabilities caused by such conditions as cerebral
palsy, epilepsy, and autism. They help disabled individuals adapt to their situation, frequently
they work with other health care professionals. They deal with such issues as pain management,
personal adjustment, interpersonal relations at home and the workplace. They have become
more involved in public health programs to prevent disabilities. They also testify in the courts as
expert witnesses on the causes and effects of the disabilities and rehabilitation required to
improve the quality of life.

- Clinical health - Health psychology (sometimes referred to as medical psychology or behavioral

medicine) can be defined as the aggregate of the specific educational, scientific and professional
contributions of the discipline of psychology to the promotion and maintenance of health, the
prevention and treatment of illness, the identification of etiological and diagnostic correlates of
health, illness and related dysfunction, and the improvement of the health care system and
health policy formation. Health Psychologists apply psychological research and methods to the
prevention and management of disease, the promotion and maintenance of health, the
identification of psychological factors that contribute to physical illness, the improvement of the
health care system, and the formulation of health policy. Thus, health psychologists are
interested in how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness. Therefore,
they are engaged in the promotion and maintenance of health-related behavior, the prevention
and treatment of illness and analysis and improvement of the health care system. Recognizied
1997
- Clinical neuropsych - Clinical neuropsychology focuses on the brain-behavior relationship and
how behaviour and behavioural problems are affected by the way the brain functions. A clinical
neuropsychologist specializes in the diagnostic assessment and management of individuals with
brain impairment. Clinical neuropsychologists are usually located in the departments of clinical
psychology, neuroscience and neurosurgery. Recognized 1996

- Geropsychology Rexognized 2010

Geropsychology is a specialty in professional psychology that applies the knowledge and methods of
psychology to understanding and helping older persons and their families to maintain well-being,
overcome problems and achieve maximum potential during later life. Geropsychology appreciates
the wide diversity among older adults, the complex ethical issues that can arise in geriatric practice
and the importance of interdisciplinary models of care.
● Adult development and aging: normal aging-related biological, psychological, social change
and sociocultural factors (e.g., gender, ethnicity)
● Behavioral and mental health in late life: medical illnesses, psychopathology, neuroscience
and functional changes
● Foundations of geropsychological assessment: theory and research informing multiple
assessment domains (e.g., mood, cognition, decision making and functional capacities)
● Foundations of intervention and consultation: theory and research evidence about
geropsychological interventions, aging services, prevention and health promotion, and
models and method of interdisciplinary collaboration
The specialty of geropsychology addresses many biopsychosocial problems encountered by older
adults and their families, including:
● Mental disorders such as depression and anxiety
● Dementia and related behavioral/lifestyle changes
● Changes in decision making or everyday living abilities
● Coping with and managing chronic illness
● Behavioral health concerns such as insomnia, pain
● Grief and loss
● Family caregiving strains
● Adjustment to aging-related stresses including marital/family conflict, changing roles
● End-of-life care

- Forensic Recognized 2001

Forensic psychology is a specialty in professional psychology characterized by activities primarily

intended to provide professional psychological expertise within the judicial and legal systems.
The clinical-forensic population is composed broadly of individuals who may present with a
psychiatric diagnosis or may have other characteristics that are relevant to a clinical-legal decision
and who are involved with the judicial system. That is, each individual has an identifiable clinical
status (broadly considered) and legal status. Individuals can be broadly categorized into two
subpopulations:
Civil: those involved in civil litigation (e.g., plaintiffs in personal injury suits, persons subject to civil
commitment, parties to child custody cases, litigants in workers’ compensation suits, individuals
seeking or contesting the need for guardianship, individuals being assessed for disability).
Criminal: those involved in criminal and delinquency proceedings (e.g., defendants raising issues
such as competency to stand trial, insanity, diminished capacity, sentencing considerations or
juvenile waiver, defendants adjudicated as incompetent to stand trial and in need of treatment to
help restore competence, defendants acquitted by reason of insanity and in need of treatment to
help progress through secure hospitalization and reintegrate safely into the community).
The description and measurement of capacities relevant to legal questions is an important goal in
forensic psychology. As a result, the forensic specialist attempts to create relevant, accurate and
credible data and conclusions that inform legal arguments and judicial decision-making, but do not
intrude upon it. In addition, there is a special focus on the need to clarify conflicts between
psychological ethical standards and the demands of law. The synthesis of psychological and legal
issues distinguishes forensic populations from other specialties.

7. Ethical and Legal Issues

5 (apa.org)

Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (apa.org)

The Ethical Principles of the APA consist of a Preamble, a set of General Principles, and a large
number of specific Ethical Standards.
Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence. The essence of this principle is that psychologists
should “do no harm.”
Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility. This principle states that psychologists must be trustworthy
and uphold the highest ethical standards in their professional relationships.
Principle C: Integrity. This principle encourages psychologists to remain accurate, honest, and
truthful in their professional work.
Principle D: Justice. This principle focuses on the need to treat all
individuals, but especially clients, fairly and justly.
Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity. This principle highlights the need for
psychologists to treat individuals with the utmost respect for their dignity and individual freedoms.

The Ethical Standards are organized under the following headings:

1. Resolving Ethical Issues. This first section contains standards about how psychologists are to
resolve ethical questions or complaints.
2. Competence. This section states that psychologists must be trained in their specific area of
expertise and that they must continue to keep current in their field in order to maintain
competence. This section also addresses the issue of when psychologists have personal
problems or conflicts that limit their ability to practice in a competent manner.

3. Human Relations. These ethical standards deal with such topics as preventing unfair
discrimination, sexual or other harassment, multiple relationships, conflict of interest,
providing informed consent, and avoiding termination of clinical services when it is not in
the best interest of the client.

4. Privacy and Confidentiality. These rules cover psychologists’ obligations to protect their
clients’ rights to confidentiality and privacy.

5. Advertising and Other Public Statements. Standards that control the way psychologists
publicize their services and their professional credentials are presented under this category.
6. Record Keeping and Fees. This section provides guidance on documenting professional work,
maintaining and disposing of confidential records, fees, referrals, and other financial
arrangements.

7. Education and Training. This section contains several ethical standards that control
psychologists’ conduct as they teach and supervise students.

8. Research and Publication. Standards that control researchers’ activities are included in this
section, such as receiving approval from the Institutional Review Board before conducting
research, obtaining voluntary informed consent from human research participants,
debriefing participants, providing publication credit for co-authors, sharing research data,
and conducting reviews of scholarly work.

9. Assessment. Rules pertaining to the use and interpretation of tests are listed.

10. Therapy. Rules about the structuring, conduct, and termination of therapy are identified
here. Specific standards prohibit psychologists from having sexual intimacies with current
clients or the relatives and significant others of current clients and from accepting persons as
clients if they have had previous sexual intimacies with them. Furthermore, psychologists
should not have sexual intimacies with former therapy clients for at least 2 years after the
termination of therapy, and even then only if the psychologist can demonstrate that no
exploitation of the client has occurred.