Semiconductor Physics

Unit I
Band Formation in Solid
Atomic Structure
Splitting of Energy level
Formation of Energy Band
Splitting of energy levels which are closely spaced for Virtual continuum called Energy Band.
 With decrease the inter atomic distance
Valance band & Conduction band over
lap with each other.
 The equilibrium spacing determines the
forbidden energy gap & type of
element.
 Energy Bands in solids
 Valence Band – The band is formed by the series of energy
levels consist of valance electrons known as valance
band.it is partially or completely filled depend upon nature
of crystal.
 Conduction Band-The band is formed by the series
of energy levels consist of conduction electrons known as
conduction band.it is partially or completely empty
depend upon nature of crystal.
 Forbidden Band-valance band & conduction band are
separated by a gap known as Forbidden gap. It is the series
of energy levels between top of valance band & bottom of
conduction band.
 Types of Solids
On the bases of forbidden energy solid is divide in to three types

Insulator
 The material in which forbidden gap is very large is known as an
insulator.
 Band gap energy (Eg) is ≥ 5eV.
 Under normal condition electron can not jump from valance
band to the conduction band.
 The transfer of electron from valance band to the
conduction band required high activation energy is of the order
of temp.of thousand of degrees.
 Insulator have very low conductivity & very high resistivity.
 Examples:Wood,Plastics,Rubber etc
Conductor
 The material in which there is no forbidden gap
or overlaps between valance band &
conduction band is known as Conductor.
 Band gap energy (Eg) is 0 eV.
 Electrons easily transfer from valance band to
the conduction band.
 At room temp. Have high electrical conductivity.
 Examples:Silver, Copper, Gold etc
Semiconductor
The material whose conductivity lies between conductor &
insulator is known as Semiconductor.
Band gap energy (Eg) is ≤ 2eV.
At 0°k it behaves like an insulator & at room temp. It behaves
like conductor.
Electron required some electrical or optical energy to jump
from valance band to the conduction band.
At 0°k its resistivity is high & at room temp. Its conductivity is
high.
Examples: Silicon (Eg=1.12 eV),Germanium(Eg=0.72 eV)
 Covalent bond
 Bond which is formed due to the sharing of electron.
 Sharing of electron between two some or different type of atoms.
 Bounded & Free Electron

At absolute 0ᵒk atoms are tightly bound with other.

With increase in temp. covalent bond breaks & electron
becomes free.
This electron free to move through out the crystal like gas
molecules.
When electric field is applied this free electron drift towards
the positive electrode which gives the current.
With free motion this electron collide with one of the broken
covalent bond & combine with hole.
Form electron & hole pair ,covalent bond is completed.
Thus free electron becomes bounded.
 Hole

The vacancy of electron is called hole.

When covalent bond broken due to the supply of
energy, electron becomes free thus form a
Quantum vacancy.
Removal of negative charge create positive charge.
This positive charge vacancy attract electron from
adjacent bond and hole is shifted to position of
attracted electron.
Created hole move in the crystal like free electron
but in opposite direction.
In presence of electric field holes are drift towards
the negative electrode.
 Fermi Level in Semiconductor

V.B & C.B are separated by Forbidden

energy gap.
Fermi level lies in the middle of
Forbidden gap.
Energy level corresponding to the center
of gravity of conduction electrons &
holes weighted according to their
energies.
 Fermi level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

 In intrinsic semiconductor equal no. of

electrons & Holes .
Concentration of electrons decreases above
the bottom of C.B
Concentration of holes decreases below the
top of V.B
Center of gravity of electrons & holes lies
exactly at the middle of forbidden Gap.
Electron Distribution Function

n( E )E  g ( E ) f ( E )E
Where,
n(E)∆E – No. of electrons per unit volume in with energy
between E & E+∆E
g(E) – No. of energy state per unit volume in energy range
∆E.
F(E)-Distribution function or probability that finding an
electron in Energy state E
∆E – Energy Interval.
 Fermi Dirac Distribution Function.

Fermi-Dirac gives this function in 1926.

This function F(E) gives the carrier occupancy of energy level.
The equation gives the distribution of electron among the energy level as
function of temperature known as Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
 Derivation: Fermi energy level lies at the center
of Forbidden Gap.

Prove that Ec  Ev
E f 
2
Assumptions
All the electron in conduction band
have energy Ec & valance band have
energy Ev.
The width of valance band &
conduction band is very small as
compare to the width of Forbidden
gap.
Let Nc & Nv be the nunmer of electrons in conduction band & number of
electrons in valance band.
N be the total number of electrons in both the bands.
N  Nc  Nv ……….(1) Similarly N ………(4)
Nv 
Now f ( Ec ) 
Nc 1  eEv Ef kT 

N
Nc  Nf (Ec ) ……..(2) From Eq.(1)

N N
But 1 N EcEf kT 

f ( Ec) 
1 e Ec Ef kT  1 e 1 eEvEf kT 
Eq(2) becomes 1 1
N 1 
Nc  Ec Ef kT 
………….(3) 1 eEcEf kT  1 eEvEf kT 
1 e
 1 e EcEf kT 
1 e EvEf kT 
  1 e EvEf kT 
1 eEcEf kT 

1 e EcEf kT 
1 e EvEf kT 
  1 e EvEf kT 
1 eEcEf kT 

1 eEvEf kT 
 eEcEf kT 
 eEcEv2Ef kT   1 eEvEf kT 
1 eEcEf kT 

Taking log on both the sides eEcEv2Ef kT   1

 Ec  Ev  2Ef  0
2Ef  Ec  Ev
Ec  Ev
Ef 
2
At all the temp. ie T>0ᵒ k probability of occupancy of Fermi level is 50%

• An electrons in solids obys Fermi Dirac Statistics

• A/c to this distribution of electron among the energy level as function of temperature given by
1
f (E ) 
1  e E  Ef kT 
Since f(E) represent probability, its value lies between 0 &1
Let T=0ᵒk, kT=0
Case-I
When E< Ef , (E-Ef) is Negative ,then E  Ef kT  
Fermi function becomes 1 1
f (E )     1
1 e 1 0
Thus at absolute zero temp.all the levels below Ef are filled .
Case-II
When E>Ef , (E-Ef) is Positive ,then E  Ef kT  
Fermi function becomes 1 1
f (E )    0
1  e 1 
Thus at absolute zero temp.all the levels above Ef are empty .
Case-III
For T>0ᵒk, kT= positive
When E=Ef ,(E-Ef) is zero, then E  Ef kT   0
Fermi function becomes f ( E )  1 1 1
 
1  e0 11 2

Thus distribution function shows that occupation of Fermi level at any non zero temp. is 1/2
• At temp. greater than 0ᵒk probability distribution function changes from 1 to 0 over
energy range of about kT values.
• At T=T1 there are some probability f(E) shows that states above Ef are filled.
• The probability[1-f(E)] shows that states below Ef are empty.
Equation for Concentration 0f Electrons & Holes in
Semiconductor
• When semiconductor is heated above 0⁰K , Electrons are excited from V.B to
C.B.
• Thus Electrons in C.B & Holes in V.B are made available for conduction .
• The no. of Electrons per unit volume in C.B & the no. Holes per unit Volume in
V.B called Electron Concentration & hole concentration respectively.
• If density of available energy state in C.B & V.B are known, concentration can be
calculated with Feri Dirac distribution function.
• Let f(E) is the probability of occupancy of electron in level “E”at temp.T
• At Equilibrium most of the electrons are present at the bottom of C.B.
• Thus the concentration of conduction electron is
Where
n  Ncf (Ec) ………(1)
1  e  Ec  Ef kT 
 e  Ec  Ef kT  ...(3)

Nc – Number of energy state in C.B Putting in eq (2)

Ec – Energy for C.B 1
f ( Ec) 
f(Ec) – Probability of occupation of Ec e  Ec  Ef kT 
f ( Ec)  e   Ec  Ef kT  …………..(4)
1
f ( Ec)   Ec  Ef
…………(2)
kT 
1 e putting in eq (1)
At room temp n  Nc e   Ec  Ef kT  …………(5)
kT=1.38×10-23×300 But no. of available state in C.B is
kT≈ 0.025 eV is very small as compare to (Ec-Ef)
 2m kT  3 2 
(Ec-Ef) >>kT Nc  2 e
 
2
 h  
e  Ec  Ef kT 
1
Putting in eq (5)
  2m kT  3 2 
  Ec  Ef kT 
n  2 e
2  e ………………(6)
 h  

Where me is the effective mass of electron

• Above equation shows that electron concentration is a function of position of Fermi

level in semiconductor.
• As Ef moves close to the conduction band (Ec-Ef) decreases & concentration
increases.
• If Nv be the no.of energy state in V.B, then the concentration of Holes in V.B is
p  Nv1  f ( Ev)…………(1)
where, f(Ev)- Probability of occupation of energy state Ev by electron at temp.”T”
[1-f(Ev)]- Probability of occupation of energy state Ev by Holes
1 But no. of available state in V. B are
1  f ( Ev )  1   Ev  Ef kT 
1 e  2m kT  3 2 
Nv  2 h
 
1  e  Ev  Ef kT   1  h
2
 
1  f ( Ev ) 
1  e  Ev  Ef kT 
put in eq(3)
1  f ( Ev )  e  Ev  Ef kT   2m kT  3 2 
  Ef  Ev kT 
p  2  h
 e
1  f ( Ev )  e   Ef  Ev kT   h
2
 
……(2)
Putting in eq(1) the above equation shows that hole concentration
p  Nv e   Ef  Ev kT  ……….(3) increases as Fermi level moves closer to the V.B.
 Types of Semiconductor
Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
(Pure) (Doped )
Ex. Silicon (Si) N-type P-type
Germanium(Ge) Semiconductor Semiconductor
ne= nh = ni Pentavalent impurity Trivalent impurity
Ex. Phosphorus(P) Ex. Gallium(Ga)
Antimony(Sb) Indium(In)
Arsenic(As) Boron(B)
Donor Impurity= ND Aluminum(Al)
ne >> nh Acceptor Impurity= NA
ne << nh
Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Pure form of Semiconductor.
• Transformation of electrons to the C.B & generation of Holes in
V.B achieved purely due to thermal excitation.
• Produce Equal no. of Electrons & holes called as Intrinsic
charge carriers.
• Conductivity is known as Intrinsic conductivity.
At 0⁰K
• Each silicon atom consist of 4 valance electrons .
• At 0⁰K all the electrons are strongly bounded with their parent
atoms & spend most of time with neighboring atoms i.e
forming covalent bond.
• No. free electrons exist in the solid.
• Thus at 0⁰K semiconductor acts as perfect insulator.
Fig. Model of Pure Silicon crystal at 0⁰K
At Room temp.
• Atom gain thermal energy & vibrate about its mean
position.
• When electron acquires sufficient energy, breaks the
covalent bond & Randomly move in crystal.
• Further increase in temp. free electron jump to the C.B
creating hole behind.
• Thus semiconductor behaves as conductor.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor

• Small amount of impurity is added in

pure semiconductor
• The process of addition of impurity is
called doping & impurity is called
dopant.
• Depending on type of doping Extrinsic
semiconductor is of two types N-type
& P-type.
 N-type Semiconductor
• Semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurity
like Phosphorus, Antimony, Arsenic etc.
• When Phosphorus is added in pure silicon, four
electrons of Phosphorus forms covalent bond with
four neighboring silicon atoms.
• Fifth electron remains free.
• An impurity gives an excess (a free) electron , hence
called as donor impurity.
• In this semiconductor conductivity is due to
electrons i.e Negatively charge particles, hence
called as N-type Semiconductor.
• Electrons are majority charge carriers & holes are
minority charge carriers.
• Fermi level is near the bottom of C.B.
 P-type Semiconductor
• Semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurity like Gallium ,
Indium, Boron, Aluminum etc.
• When aluminum is added in pure silicon, three electrons of Al
forms covalent bond with three neighboring silicon atoms.
• One covalent is incomplete with vacancy of electron, create a
hole & accept electron from neighboring atoms.
• An impurity accept the electrons , hence called as acceptor
impurity.
• In this semiconductor conductivity is due to holes i.e positively
charge particles, hence called as P-type Semiconductor.
• Holes are majority charge carriers & electrons are minority charge
carriers.
• Fermi level is near the top of V.B.
Law of mass action

The product of electrons & holes concentration in doped semiconductor is

constant & is equal to the square of intrinsic carrier density at given
temperature.

2
ni  n.p
Charge Neutrality Condition
• Semiconductor (Intrinsic/Extrinsic) it is
electrically neutral in its equilibrium
condition.
• In N-type no. electrons in C.B must be equal
to sum of electrons originated from donor
level & electrons excited from the V.B.
• Electrons in donor level leaves behind
positive ions & electrons in V.B leaves behind
holes.
• Thus total negative charge mobile electrons is
equal to total positive charge created in the
crystal.
Charge Neutrality condition in
N type P-type
Electron concentration is given by Holes concentration is given by
ne= ND+ nh ph= NA+ pe
Since ne >> nh Since ph >> pe
ne≈ ND Ph ≈ N A
But A/c to Law of mass action But A/c to Law of mass action
ne nh = ni 2 ph pe = ni 2

ni 2 ni 2
nh = pe = p
ne h

ni 2 ni 2
nh = N pe = N
D A
Position of Fermi level in Extrinsic Semiconductor
N-Type
• Pure Si or Ge doped with Pentavalent impurity.
• Addition of such impurity introduced new energy
level in Band structure, just below the bottom of C.B
• At 0⁰K the level is filled with electrons.
• This level donates electrons to the C.B, Hence called
Donor Level.
• At 0⁰K Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of
bottom of C.B & donor level.
• When temp. increase electrons from donor level jump
to the C.B
P-Type
• Pure Si or Ge doped with Trivalent impurity.
• Addition of such impurity introduced new
energy level in Band structure, just above the
top of V.B
• At 0⁰K the level is filled with holes.
• This level accept electrons from the V.B,
Hence called Acceptor Level.
• At 0⁰K Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of
top of V.B & acceptor level.
• When temp. increase acceptor level accept the
electrons from the V.B .
 Effect of Temperature on Fermi level in Extrinsic Semiconductor
N-type
• Fermi level lies in the middle of bottom of C.B & donor level
at 0⁰K.
• With constant impurity concentration as temperature
increases the Fermi level moves down wards.
• it passes through the donor level & finally reached at intrinsic
level.
• Thus semiconductor behaves like Intrinsic semiconductor.
• At lower temp. some of the donor atoms get ionized i.e
electrons jump from donor level to the C.B.
• At certain temp. all the atoms get ionized.
• Beyond this temp. electrons are jump from V.B to C.B.
• Thus Fermi level get shifted down to intrinsic position.
P-Type
• Fermi level lies in the middle of top of V.B & acceptor level at
0⁰K.
• With constant impurity concentration as temperature increases
the Fermi level moves up wards.
• it passes through the acceptor level & finally reached at
intrinsic level.
• At some temp. electrons from V.B excited to acceptor level.
• At certain temp. all the empty state in acceptor level are filled.
• Above this temp. electrons from V.B will jumped to C.B.
• Thus at specific temp. Fermi level remains at intrinsic position.
• P type semiconductor behaves like Intrinsic semiconductor.
Equations of Electrical Conductivity for Semiconductor.
For Metal Where, n- No. of free e- per unit volume,
p- No. of holes- per unit volume,
Electrical conductivity due to electron only.
μe- Mobility of electron,
thus   ne e μh- hole mobility,
Where, n- No. of free e- per unit volume
e- Charge.
e- Charge on electron
 V For Intrinsic Semiconductor
μe- Mobility of electron   e  
 E In Intrinsic Semiconductor no. of free electrons is
equal to no. of Holes i.e
For Semiconductor n  p  ni
Electrical conductivity due to both electrons &
holes Where ni is intrinsic carrier concentration
Thus   ne  e  pe  h   e n i  e  n i  h 
  e n  e  p h    en i  e   h 
This is the general Equation
 Conductivity in Extrinsic Semiconductor
For N-Type For P-Type
n  p p  n
n  ND p  NA
Also n  p Also p  n
ne  ph ph  ne
ne  ph  ne  N D e ph  ne  ph  N A h
Thus the conductivity of N-type Thus the conductivity of P-type
semiconductor is semiconductor is
 n  eN D  e  p  eN A  h
Drift & diffusion in Semiconductor
Drift
• In metal the conductivity is due to electrons J  E
• But in semiconductor the electrical conductivity is the sum of
conductivity due to electrons & holes
J  Jn  J p
• Thus the net current in semiconductor is
J   n   p  E  J  nee  peh E

• When an electric field is applied across semiconductor , electric

force act on charges
• due to electric force electrons are moving in the opposite
direction of applied electric field & holes are in the direction of
electric field.
• This motion of charge carriers due to electric field is called as
the drifting & it gives current called drift current.
 Diffusion
• Directional movement of charge carriers due to
Concentration gradient.
• The concentration of charge carriers varies with distance
in semiconductor called Concentration gradient.
• The motion of charge carriers produce current known as
Diffusion current.
• Diffusion current is directly proportional to concentration
gradient at point
Let dn is concentration gradient in case of electrons
dx

dp is concentration gradient in case of Holes
dx Hence total current flowing in semiconductor is
 Diffusion current(Electron)  dn  Dn dn J  Jn  J p
dx dx
J  J n Drift  Diffusion  J p Drift  Diffusion
dn  dn   dp 
J n  eDn J  ne e E  eDe    pe h E  eDh 
Diffusion current density for electron is dx  dx   dx 
dp
J p  eD p  dn   dp 
Diffusion current density for holes is dx J  e n e E  De    p h E  Dh 
 dx   dx 
P-N junction
• A single piece of semiconductor is doped with donor
impurity at one end & acceptor impurity at other
end.
• It’s the sharp boundary between P type & N type of
semiconductor.
As soon as junction is formed
• The holes from P region diffused in into N region &
recombine with free electrons.
• The electrons from N region diffused into P region &
recombine with holes.
• During diffusion ,electrons diffused from N to P
region leaves behind uncompensated donor
ions(positive ions) in N region.
• Holes diffused from P to N region leaves behind
uncompensated acceptor ions(negative ions) in P
region.
• Near the junction a narrow region is formed due to free
charge carriers containing only uncompensated immobile
ions called Depletion region.
• Width of depletion region depend on doping level of
impurity. It is of the order of 10-6m or 1micron.
• In depletion region the are positive immobile ions in N
region & negative immobile ions in P region.
• Due to the charge separation, Voltage VB is developed
across the junction under equilibrium condition known as
Potential barrier.
Capacitance of PN junction
• In PN junction two parallel rows of charge impurity ions
acts as plates of capacitor while depletion region act as a
dielectric between them. The Capacitance formed in the
junction known as junction capacitance.
Working of P-N junction Diode

P-N junction Diode

• it consist of P-N junction formed either by Si or Ge.
• Having two terminals one is connected to P-region &
other connected to N- region of diode.
• Ckt symbol is as shown in fig b.
• The arrow head represent the direction of flow of
current in forward bias.
• Real appearance is shown in fig c.
 Forward Bias P-N Junction Diode

• Positive terminal of B.T is connected to the P-region

& negative terminal of B.T is connected to N-region
of Diode.
• The holes from P- region repelled by positive
terminal of B.T towards the junction.
• The electrons from N- region repelled by negative
terminal of B.T towards the junction.
• Due to this some of the electrons & holes enters in
the depletion region & recombine with each other.
• This reduced the barrier potential & large current
flow through the junction due to majority charge
carriers.
• In F.B junction has low resistance.
• P-N junction is ON in F.B.
 Reverse Bias P-N Junction Diode

• Positive terminal of B.T is connected to the N-

region & negative terminal of B.T is connected to
P-region of Diode.
• The holes from P- region are attracted by negative
terminal of B.T away from the junction.
• The electrons from N- region are attracted by
positive terminal of B.T away from the junction.
• Due to this potential barrier as well as width of
depletion region increased.
• Very small current flowing through the diode due
to the minority charge carriers & known as Reverse
saturation current.
• This current is due to thermally generated electrons
& holes.
• In R.B junction has high resistance.
 V-I characteristics of P-N junction Diode

• The graph which shows the

variation of current through
the diode when voltage is
applied across P-N junction
diode in F.B & R.B called as
V-I characteristics.
Forward Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode
• Characteristics of diode in forward bias
• Initially no current(I) flowing through the diode
up to certain value of voltage(V).
• Above the certain value of voltage(V), current(I)
increases rapidly.
• This is because the external voltage is initially
oppose by barrier potential up to certain point.

• At certain voltage the barrier potential becomes

zero & depletion region breaks.
• Heavy current starts flowing through the diode.
• The forward voltage at which the diode starts
conducting is called Knee voltage or Cut in
voltage or threshold voltage.
• The cut in voltage for Ge is 0.3 V & Si is 0.7 V.
Reverse Characteristics of P-N junction Diode

• Characteristics of diode in reverse bias.

• Diode current(Ir) is very small even reverse
voltage (Vr) is high.
• When reverse voltage increase to sufficient large
value , reverse current increase rapidly.

• The reverse voltage at which reverse current

increase rapidly known as Break down voltage.
• Reverse current remains constant below break
down known as Reverse Saturation current.
• Above the break down voltage diode will not
recover to its original form & damage
completely.
Applications of P-N junction Diode
• Rectifier (Converting AC to DC).
• Signal diode in communication ckt.
• Switch in Logic ckt.
• Varacator Diode in radio , TV receivers.
• Photo diode used in computer hard
wears.
• As solar cell in Space application.
 Zener Diode

• It is a reverse bias heavily doped P-N

junction diode.
• Operated in Break down region.
• Current is limited by external
resistance only.
• Also called Voltage regulator,
Breakdown or Advance diode.
 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
• When the reverse voltage of zener diode increases, initially
due to high reverse resistance very small current flow due to
minority carriers.
• Further increase in the reverse voltage current increases
rapidly.
• The reverse voltage at reverse current increases rapidly
called Zener break down voltage or Zener voltage.
• In Zener diode , breakdown voltage is very small.
• Increase in the reverse voltage above the Zener voltage,
control breakdown protect the diode from damage.
• After break down voltage, current increases rapidly while
voltage remains constant.
• Location of Zener region can be controlled by doping.
• Increase in doping decrease the Zener potential.
• There are two types of Breakdown
Zener Breakdown & Avalanche Breakdown
 Zener break down.
• Zener Breakdown occurs in heavily doped junction diode
• breaking of covalent bond by strong electric field.
• When reverse voltage of junction increase, strong electric
filed set in across narrow depletion region.
• This electric field is strong enough to breaks the covalent
bond.
• Generation of electron-hole pairs & accelerating towards
the junction.
• Thus large current flow through the diode.
• An internal electric field is developed is of the order of 106
V/m for 1 volt of reverse potential.
• This break down observed up to 6 V.
• Explanation was first given by Zener, hence called Zener
mechanism.
 Avalanche Breakdown
• Avalanche Breakdown occurs in lightly doped
junction diode
• Electric field is not strong enough.
• When reverse voltage of junction increase, the
amount of energy imparted to minority charge
carriers.
• These minority charge carriers collide with host
atom , breaks the covalent bond & generate
additional electron-hole pairs.
• These carriers also get energy due to applied
voltage & collides another host atoms which
gives further charge carriers.
• thus avalanche of carriers takes place & reverse
current increase sharply in very short time.
• This mechanism known as Avalanche breakdown.
Applications of Zener Diode
• Voltage regulator.
• Reference diode in
transistor ckt.
• Peck clipper in
wave shaping ckt
• For meter
protection.
 Light Emitting Diode

• LED is optoelectronics device

• Converts electrical energy into light
energy.
 Working of LED
• P-N junction of LED is forward bias.
• The majority of charge carriers moving towards the junction.
• Recombination takes place.
• during recombination, electrons in C.B of N side falls in V.B of P side which is
on lower level.
• i.e electrons are jumped from higher energy level to lower energy level.
• Hence difference of energy radiated in the form of heat & light.
• In LED greater percentage of energy is given out in the form of light due to the
material used for making LED.
• The energy emitted is given by

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 .
𝐸 = ⇒𝜆= µm
𝜆 𝐸
• the voltage at which LED just glows & current starts increasing rapidly is known as
Striking potential.
V-I characteristic of LED
The semiconducting material used for LED
Applications of LED
• Infrared LED used in Burglar alarm.
• In optical switch application.
• Power ON/OFF condition.
• In 7- segment, 16- segment & dot matrix display.
• In the field of optical communication.
• In image sensing circuit.
N
Fermi Function & Fermi Energy
U
Related Formulae
M
E
R 𝑬 𝑬𝒇
𝒌𝑻

I 𝟐
𝟑𝟏

C 𝒇 𝒇

A 𝒈
𝟏𝟗
L
S
N
U • Evaluate the Fermi function as kT above Fermi energy.
M Solution-
𝑓(𝐸) =
1

E 1+𝑒
For energy above Fermi energy
R
We have E  E 
I 
f
 1
 kT 
C  f (E) 
1
A 1  e1
1
 f (E ) 
L 1  2 . 718

S  f ( E )  0.2689
N
U
M • Calculate the Fermi velocity of charge carrier in a metal having Fermi
temp.2500⁰k.
E Solution-we have

R
I
C
A
L
S
N
U • What is the probability of an electron being thermally promoted
to the conduction band in diamond at 27⁰C,if band gap is 5.6 eV
M wide?
Solution-
E
Given
R E g  5 .6 eV  5 .6  1 .6  10 19 J
I T  27 C  27  273  300  K
C k  1 .38  10 23 J / K
F (Eg )  ?
A 𝑬𝒈
𝟐𝒌𝑻
L 𝒈
𝟓.𝟔×𝟏.𝟔×𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗
𝟐×𝟏.𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟑 ×𝟑𝟎𝟎
S 𝒈

𝟒𝟕
𝒈
N
U • The Fermi level for potassium is 2.1 eV. Calculate velocity of
the electron at the Fermi level.
M Solution-
E Given, E  2 .1eV  2 .1  1 .6  10 19 J
f

R vf  ?
I 𝒇
𝟐
𝒇

C 𝟐 𝒇
𝒇
A
𝟏𝟗
L 𝒇 𝟑𝟏

S
𝟓
𝒇
N Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductor
U • Calculate the mobility of electron in copper, if the free electrons
M per unit volume is 8.496×1022 cm-3 and resistivity of copper is
1.7×10-6 ohm-cm .
E Solution-
R Given
n  8.496  10 22 cm 3  8.496 10 28 m 3
I   1.7 10 6 ohm  cm  1.7  10 8 ohm  m
e  ?
C 1 1
Now,    e 
A  ne
1
  nee  e 
L 8.496 10 28 1.6 10 19 1.7 10 8
1

S nee   e  4 . 327  10 3
m 2
/ Vs
N
• Mobilities of holes & electrons in a sample of intrinsic germanium at
U room temperature are 1700cm2/V.s and 3600 cm2/Vs resp.If the
electron & hole densities are each equal to 2.5×1013 per cm3, calculate
M its conductivity.
E Solution-
Given that,
R
I
C
A
L 𝟏𝟗 𝟏𝟗 𝟒 𝟒

S
   2 .12 ohm 1m 1
N
• LED is made from GaAs emits yellow light of wavelength
U 5850A⁰.calculate energy band gap of the material.
M Solution-
Given that,
E
R
I
Eg  ? E g  hv
C
A
L Eg 
6.63 10 34  3 108
S 5850 10 10