Components of blood

The different components that make up blood. Plasma, white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets.
Introduction

If you prick your finger or scrape your knee, you'll see some droplets of blood form. Just by eye, these droplets

may seem to be made of uniform red liquid, similar to food coloring or paint. However, if you were to look

under a microscope, you would see that your blood is actually a mixture of liquid and cells. And if you could

zoom in even further, you would see that there are also many macromolecules (such as proteins) and ions (such

as sodium) floating in the liquid. All of these components are important to the roles blood plays in the body.

What is blood?

Blood, by definition, is a fluid that moves through the vessels of a circulatory system. In humans, it includes

plasma (the liquid portion), blood cells (which come in both red and white varieties), and cell fragments called

platelets.

 Plasma is the main component of blood and consists mostly of water, with proteins, ions, nutrients, and wastes

mixed in.

 Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide.

 Platelets are responsible for blood clotting.

 White blood cells are part of the immune system and function in immune response.

Cells and platelets make up about percent of human blood, while plasma makes up the other percent. The

diagram below shows red blood cells, white blood cells of different types (large, purple cells), and platelets.

Plasma

Plasma, the liquid component of blood, can be isolated by spinning a tube of whole blood at high speeds in a

centrifuge. The denser cells and platelets move to the bottom of the tube, forming red and white layers, while

the plasma remains at the top, forming a yellow layer.

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A drawing of a test tube of blood. The diagram shows a drawing of a test tube with 2 reddish colored layers,

with a thin clear layer separating them. The bottom layer of the test tube is labeled red blood cells and there is a

drawing of 3 red blood cells. The thin clear layer is labeled white blood cells and platelets and there are

drawings of platelets and different types of white blood cells. The top layer of the test tube is labeled plasma and

there are six arrows pointing away from the plasma label and are labeled water, ions, protein, nutrients, waste,

gases.

The plasma is about water, with the remaining made up of ions, proteins, nutrients, wastes, and dissolved

gases. The ions, proteins, and other molecules found in plasma are important for maintaining blood pH and

osmotic balance, with albumin (the main protein in human plasma) playing a particularly important role.

Some of the molecules found in the plasma have more specialized functions. For example, hormones act as

long-distance signals, antibodies recognize and neutralize pathogens, and clotting factors promote blood clot

formation at the site of wounds. (Plasma that’s been stripped of its clotting factors is called serum.) Lipids, such

as cholesterol, are also carried in plasma, but must travel with escort proteins because they don’t dissolve in

water.

Red blood cells

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Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are specialized cells that circulate through the body and deliver oxygen to

tissues. In humans, red blood cells are small and biconcave (thinnest in the center, just μ in size), and do not

contain mitochondria or a nucleus when mature.

These characteristics allow red blood cells to effectively perform their task of oxygen transport. Small size and

biconcave shape increase the surface area-to-volume ratio, improving gas exchange, while lack of a nucleus

makes additional space for hemoglobin, a key protein used in oxygen transport. Lack of mitochondria keeps red

blood cells from using any of the oxygen they’re carrying, maximizing the amount delivered to tissues of the

body.

An image of red blood cells with cross section. There are 2 images. The first image is titled red blood cells.

There is a drawing of a tube labeled capillary (small blood vessel) and inside the tube there are disc shaped

structures labeled red blood cell, erythrocyte. The second image is titled cross section of RBC. There is an image

of a red blood cell cut in half and inside there are numerous small circles labeled hemoglobin.

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In the lungs, red blood cells take up oxygen, and as they circulate through the rest the body, they release the

oxygen to the surrounding tissues. Red blood cells also play an important role in transport of carbon dioxide, a

waste product, from the tissues back to the lungs. Some of the carbon dioxide binds directly to hemoglobin, and

red blood cells also carry an enzyme that converts carbon dioxide into bicarbonate. The bicarbonate dissolves in

plasma and is transported to the lungs, where it's converted back into carbon dioxide and released.

Red blood cells have an average life span of days. Old or damaged red blood cells are broken down in the liver

and spleen, and new ones are produced in the bone marrow. Red blood cell production is controlled by the

hormone erythropoietin, which is released by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels. This negative

feedback loop ensures that the number of red blood cells in the body remains relatively constant over time.

Platelets and clotting

Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They are produced when large

cells called megakaryocytes break into pieces, each one making platelets as it comes apart. Platelets are

roughly disc-shaped and small, about μ in diameter.

When the lining of a blood vessel is damaged (for instance, if you cut your finger deeply enough for it to bleed),

platelets are attracted to the wound site, where they form a sticky plug. The platelets release signals, which not

only attract other platelets and make them become sticky, but also activate a signaling cascade that ultimately

converts fibrinogen, a water-soluble protein present in blood plasma, into fibrin (a non-water soluble protein).

The fibrin forms threads that reinforce the platelet plug, making a clot that prevents further loss of blood.

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 There are 2 images. The image on the left is a sketch of a large cell labeled Megakaryocyte. Surrounding the

large cell are many smaller fragments labeled platelets. The image on the right is a sketch of a cross-section of a

blood vessel. Inside the blood vessel are many red blood cells. There is a tear in the wall of the blood vessel, and

there are platelets and lines that look like string located at the tear, and it is labeled fibrin clot.

_Image modified from Components of the blood: Figure 4, by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 4.0)._

White blood cells

White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are much less common than red blood cells and make up less than of

the cells in blood. Their role is also very different from that of red blood cells: they are primarily involved in

immune responses, recognizing and neutralizing invaders such as bacteria and viruses.

White blood cells are larger than red blood cells, and unlike red blood cells, they have a normal nucleus and

mitochondria. White blood cells come in five major types, and these are divided into two different groups,

named for their appearance under a microscope.

 One group, the granulocytes, includes neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, all of which have granules in their

cytoplasm when stained and viewed on a microscope.

 The other group, the agranulocytes, includes monocytes and lymphocytes, which do not have granules in the

cytoplasm.

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A diagram of 5 different white blood cells, shown in 2 different columns. There are sketches of 3 different cells

in the first column labeled neutrophil, eosinophil, and basophil. Underneath the cells in column 1 is the label

granulocytes. There are sketches of 2 different cells in the second column, labeled monocyte and lymphocyte.

Underneath the cells in column 2 is the label agranulocytes.

_Image modified from "Components of the blood: Figure 3," by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 4.0)._

Each type of white blood cell plays a specific role in defense. For example, some white blood cells are involved

in engulfing and breaking down pathogens, while others recognize specific microorganisms and launch immune

responses against them. Different types of white blood cells have different lifetimes, ranging from hours to

years, and new cells are produced primarily in the bone marrow (although some are made or mature in the

thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen).

Stem cells and blood cell production

Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelet-producing cells are all descended from a common precursor:

a hematopoietic stem cell.

A hallmark of stem cells is that they divide asymmetrically. That is, one daughter cell remains a stem cell of the

same type, while the other daughter cell acquires a new identity. For hematopoietic stem cells, which are found

in the bone marrow, one daughter cell remains a hematopoietic stem cell, while the other goes on to become a

different type of stem cell: either a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell.

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A diagram showing how hematopoietic stem cells are formed. At the top of the diagram is a cell labeled

hematopoietic stem cell. There are 2 arrows pointing down from the cell. One arrow points to a cell that is

labeled one daughter cell remains a hematopoietic stem cell. There is an arrow from this cell that points back to

the cell at the top of the diagram. The second arrow from the hematopoietic stem cell points to another cell that

is labeled the other cell becomes a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell.

The myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells also divide asymmetrically, with their non-stem cell daughters

generating the mature cell types of the blood. Myeloid stem cells give rise to red blood cells, platelets, and some

types of white blood cells, while lymphoid stem cells give rise to the types of white blood cells classified as

lymphocytes.

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A flow chart showing the origin of different types of blood cells. At the top of the chart is a hematopoietic stem

cell. From that cell, there is a line that branches to the left and right on the diagram. On the right side of the flow

chart, there is an arrow pointing from the hematopoietic stem cell to a picture of a cell labeled lymphoid stem

cell. From that cell, there is an arrow pointing to a picture of a cell labeled lymphoblast. The lymphoblast has 2

arrows, one pointing to a picture of a cell labeled natural killer cell, large granular lymphocyte. The other arrow

from the lymphoblast points to a picture of a cell labeled small lymphocyte. There are 2 arrows from the small

lymphocyte. One arrow points to a picture of a cell labeled T lymphocyte and the other arrow points to a picture

of a cell labeled B lymphocyte. On the left side of the diagram there is an arrow pointing to a picture of a cell

labeled myeloid stem cell. The myeloid stem points to pictures of 4 different cells. The first arrow from the

myeloid stem cell points to a picture of a cell labeled megakaryoblast. This cell points to a picture of a cell

labeled megakaryocyte, and the megakaryocyte points to a picture of fragments labeled platelets. The second

arrow from the myeloid stem cell points to a picture of a cell labeled proerythroblast. The proerythroblast points

to a picture of a cell labeled reticulocyte, and the reticulocyte points to a picture of a red blood cell labeled

erythrocyte. The third arrow from the myeloid stem cell points to a picture of a cell labeled myeloblast. The

myeloblast points to pictures of 3 different cells. One cell is labeled basophil, one is labeled neutrophil, and the

third cell is labeled eosinophil. The fourth arrow from the myeloid stem cell points to a picture of a cell labeled

monoblast. The monoblast points to a picture of a cell labeled monocyte.

Hematopoietic, myeloid, and lymphoid stem cells divide throughout a person's lifetime, generating new blood

cells to replace old and worn-out ones.

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